🔹 Odd Harmonics

 Definition: Harmonics with frequencies that are odd multiples of

the fundamental frequency (e.g., 3rd, 5th, 7th).
 Occurrence: Commonly produced by non-linear loads such as
rectifiers, variable frequency drives, and fluorescent lighting.
 Effects:
o Increased I²R losses in conductors and transformers.
o Overheating of equipment.
o Interference with communication lines.
o Malfunction of sensitive electronic equipment.
 Triplen Harmonics: A subset of odd harmonics that are multiples
of three (e.g., 3rd, 9th, 15th). In three-phase systems, these can
accumulate in the neutral conductor, leading to overheating.
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🔹 Even Harmonics
 Definition: Harmonics with frequencies that are even multiples of
the fundamental frequency (e.g., 2nd, 4th, 6th).
 Occurrence: Less common in balanced systems; typically arise due
to waveform asymmetry or equipment malfunction.
 Effects:
o Distortion of voltage and current waveforms.
o Potential misoperation of protective devices.
o Increased losses and heating in electrical equipment.
 Standards: IEEE 519 recommends that even harmonics be limited
to 25% of the allowable limits for odd harmonics.
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Understanding and mitigating harmonics is crucial for maintaining power

quality and ensuring the reliable operation of electrical systems.
If you need this information in a PDF format or require further details on
harmonic mitigation techniques, feel free to ask!

Phase Rotation and Phase Angle Relationship

🔹 Phase Rotation
 Definition:
Phase rotation refers to the sequence in which the voltages
or currents in a three-phase system reach their maximum
values.
 Standard Rotations:
o ABC (or RYB): The most common sequence. Phase A
leads Phase B, which leads Phase C.
o ACB (or RBY): Reverse rotation. Phase A leads Phase C,
which leads Phase B.
  Importance:
o Correct rotation is essential for motors and rotating
machinery.
o Incorrect rotation can cause reverse rotation of
motors, leading to mechanical damage.
🔹 Phase Angle Relationship
 Definition:
The phase angle is the angular difference between two
waveforms, typically voltage and current, or between
different phases.
 For a 3-Phase System:
o The voltages (and currents) of each phase are 120°
apart in a balanced system.
o Example:
 Phase A: Reference (0°)
 Phase B: -120° (lagging Phase A)
 Phase C: +120° (or -240°)
 Power Factor Relation:
o The phase angle between voltage and current
determines the power factor.
 0° → Unity power factor
 90° → Purely reactive load (zero real power)
🔸 Summary

Concept Description

Phase Order of peak voltages (e.g., A

Rotation → B → C)

Angular difference between

Phase Angle
waveforms

Angle per
120° apart in a 3-phase system
phase

⚡ Causes of Voltage and Current Harmonics

🔹 What Are Harmonics?
 Harmonics are voltage or current waveforms that distort the
ideal sinusoidal waveform.
 They occur at integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency (e.g., 150 Hz, 250 Hz if fundamental is 50 Hz).

🔸 Causes of Current Harmonics

Current harmonics are primarily caused by non-linear loads,
which draw current in a non-sinusoidal way even when supplied
with a sinusoidal voltage.
Common sources include:
1. Power Electronic Devices
o Rectifiers
o Inverters
o Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)
2. Switch Mode Power Supplies (SMPS)
o Computers
o Chargers
3. Fluorescent Lamps and LED Lighting
o Due to electronic ballasts and drivers
4. Arc Furnaces and Welding Machines
o Cause irregular, rapidly changing current draw
5. UPS Systems
o Especially line-interactive and double-conversion types

🔸 Causes of Voltage Harmonics

Voltage harmonics are usually a result of current harmonics
flowing through impedance in the power system (e.g., cables,
transformers).
Main causes include:
1. Distorted Current from Non-linear Loads
o Leads to distorted voltage due to voltage drop across
system impedance
2. Resonance in the Network
o Can amplify certain harmonic frequencies
3. Poor System Design
o Undersized conductors, transformers, or improper
grounding
4. Unbalanced Loads
o Can cause zero-sequence harmonics (e.g., triplen
harmonics)

🔸 Summary Table

Harmonic
Main Cause Examples
Type

Rectifiers, VFDs, SMPS,

Current Non-linear loads
LEDs

Voltage Current harmonics + system Harmonic-rich current

Harmonic
Main Cause Examples
Type

impedance sources

Harmonics are voltage or current components in an electrical

system that occur at integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency (typically 50 or 60 Hz). They are a form of electrical
distortion and can significantly affect the performance and
lifespan of equipment. Here's how harmonics affect rotating
machines, transformers, and cables:

1. Harmonics in Rotating Machines (Motors & Generators)

Sources:
 Non-linear loads causing distorted current waveforms
 Variable frequency drives (VFDs) that generate non-
sinusoidal outputs
Effects:
 Increased losses (core, copper, and stray losses)
 Overheating due to skin effect and eddy current losses
 Torque pulsations, leading to mechanical vibrations and
noise
 Reduced efficiency and lifespan
 Possible malfunction of protective relays and control
equipment
Mitigation:
 Use of harmonic filters or chokes
 Selection of motors with higher harmonic tolerance
 Use of multi-pulse VFDs (e.g., 12-pulse or 18-pulse)

2. Harmonics in Transformers
Sources:
 Supplying power to non-linear loads (e.g., rectifiers,
inverters, arc furnaces)
 Magnetization of the core, especially under high flux density
Effects:
 Increased core and copper losses due to higher frequencies
 Overheating of the transformer windings and core
 Reduced efficiency and insulation life
  Derating may be required (K-factor rated transformers
handle more harmonics)
 Noise and vibration due to magnetic forces
Mitigation:
 Use K-rated or zig-zag transformers for harmonic-rich
environments
 Use of harmonic filters at the source
 Proper system design with attention to harmonic loading

3. Harmonics in Cables
Sources:
 Conducting harmonic-rich currents from non-linear loads
Effects:
 Increased I²R losses due to harmonic currents
 Skin effect and proximity effect intensify with higher
harmonic order, raising resistance
 Overheating and thermal degradation of insulation
 Voltage drop increase
 Electromagnetic interference (EMI) with nearby sensitive
equipment
Mitigation:
 Oversizing cables to handle harmonic-related heating
 Use of shielded cables to reduce EMI
 Proper grounding and cable separation

Overloading of the Neutral Conductor occurs primarily due to

harmonic currents, especially in systems with a high
concentration of non-linear single-phase loads, such as:
 Computers
 LED lighting
 Office equipment
 Variable frequency drives (VFDs)

🔍 Why It Happens
In a balanced three-phase system with only linear loads:
 The neutral current is ideally zero, because the three phase
currents cancel out.
However, non-linear loads (like switching power supplies) draw
non-sinusoidal currents rich in odd-order harmonics—particularly
the third harmonic and its multiples (called triplens: 3rd, 9th,
15th...).
  Triplens are in-phase across all three phases and add
arithmetically in the neutral instead of canceling out.
 This can result in neutral currents exceeding the phase
current, potentially overheating the conductor.

⚠️Consequences
 Excessive heating of the neutral wire
 Insulation degradation
 Fire hazard
 Neutral conductor failure, leading to unbalanced voltages
and possible damage to connected equipment

✅ Mitigation Strategies
1. Oversize the neutral conductor (especially in buildings with
high non-linear loads)
2. Use separate neutrals for different circuits rather than
sharing one neutral
3. Install harmonic filters or active power conditioners
4. Balance loads across phases where possible
5. Use K-rated transformers and cables designed to handle
harmonic-rich currents

1. Individual Harmonic Distortion (IHD)

Definition:
It is the distortion caused by a single harmonic compared to the
fundamental component.
IHDn=VnV1×100%\text{IHD}_n = \frac{V_n}{V_1} \times
100\%IHDn=V1Vn×100%
Where:
 VnV_nVn: RMS voltage of the n-th harmonic
 V1V_1V1: RMS voltage of the fundamental (usually 50 or 60
Hz)

2. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

Definition:
It is the cumulative distortion caused by all harmonic components
relative to the fundamental.
THD=V22+V32+V42+⋯+Vn2V1×100%\text{THD} = \frac{\
sqrt{V_2^2 + V_3^2 + V_4^2 + \dots + V_n^2}}{V_1} \times
100\%THD=V1V22+V32+V42+⋯+Vn2×100%
Where:
  V2,V3,…,VnV_2, V_3, \dots, V_nV2,V3,…,Vn: RMS voltages of
the 2nd, 3rd,... n-th harmonics

📘 Problem Example
A voltage waveform has the following harmonic components:

Harmonic Voltage
Order (V)

Fundamental
230 V
(1st)

3rd Harmonic 20 V

5th Harmonic 15 V

7th Harmonic 10 V

🔹 Step 1: Calculate Individual Harmonic Distortions (IHD)

IHD3=20230×100%=8.70%\text{IHD}_3 = \frac{20}{230} \times
100\% = 8.70\%IHD3=23020×100%=8.70%
IHD5=15230×100%=6.52%\text{IHD}_5 = \frac{15}{230} \times
100\% = 6.52\%IHD5=23015×100%=6.52%
IHD7=10230×100%=4.35%\text{IHD}_7 = \frac{10}{230} \times
100\% = 4.35\%IHD7=23010×100%=4.35%
🔹 Step 2: Calculate Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
THD=202+152+102230×100%=400+225+100230×100%=725230
×100%=26.93230×100%≈11.7%\text{THD} = \frac{\sqrt{20^2 +
15^2 + 10^2}}{230} \times 100\% = \frac{\sqrt{400 + 225 +
100}}{230} \times 100\% = \frac{\sqrt{725}}{230} \times 100\%
= \frac{26.93}{230} \times 100\% \approx
11.7\%THD=230202+152+102×100%=230400+225+100
×100%=230725×100%=23026.93×100%≈11.7%

✅ Final Answers:
 IHD (3rd): 8.70%
 IHD (5th): 6.52%
 IHD (7th): 4.35%
 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD): 11.7%