EVS- Sem II- Unit 1 – Reading Material

1.1 Environmental pollution: types, causes, effects and controls; Air, water,
soil and noise pollution
1.2 Nuclear hazards and human health risks
1.3 Solid Waste Management: Control measures of urban and industrial
waste

1.1 Environmental Pollution:

Air Pollution:
Meaning:
Air pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air in
quantities that are harmful to human health and the environment. Air may get polluted by
natural causes OR by human activities.
It is the contamination of air by harmful gases, dust, and smoke which affects plants, animals,
and humans drastically.
Air pollution refers to the release of pollutants into the air—pollutants that are detrimental to
human health and the planet as a whole. According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
each year, indoor and outdoor air pollution is responsible for nearly seven million deaths
around the globe. Ninety-nine percent of human beings currently breathe air that exceeds the
WHO’s guideline limits for pollutants, with those living in low- and middle-income countries
suffering the most.
Measurement criteria of air pollution
Quality of air can be measured by using “Air quality index (AQI)”. It is similar to a
thermometer that has a measurement index from “0 to 500 degrees”. AQI can indicate the
amount of pollutants in the air. It indicates clean and polluted air and highlights the amount of
pollution in the air. 0-50 is the good value for the air according to the AQI matrix.
Air Pollutants :

Air Pollutants

Primary Air Secondary

Pollutant Air Pollutane

Primary Air Pollutants : Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources are
produced both by natural events (for example, dust storms and volcanic eruptions) and human
activities (emission from vehicles, industries, etc.). These are called primary pollutants.
Naturally occurring pollutants tend to remain in the atmosphere for a short time and do not
lead to permanent change in the atmosphere. These are harmful to health & environment.
Examples: carbon oxides (CO and CO2),

nitrogen oxides,
sulfur oxides- sulphur dioxide
volatile organic compounds (mostly hydrocarbons) and
suspended particulate matter.
Secondary Air Pollutants : Pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere when certain
chemical reactions take place among the primary pollutants are called secondary pollutants.
Examples :
sulfuric acid,
nitric acid,
carbonic acid, etc.
Secondary pollutants lead to more complex environmental issues like acid rain, smog etc

Causes of Air Pollution:

Air pollution can be caused by natural and human-made sources, including agriculture,
transportation, factories, and wildfires.
Natural causes: volcanoes, which release ash, dust, sulphur and other gases
Wildfires: Can release pollutants and greenhouse gases into the air.
Human Activities / Man made sources:
 • The Burning of Fossil Fuels
Most of the air pollution takes place due to the incomplete burning of fossil fuels. These
include coal, oil, and gasoline to produce energy for electricity or transportation. This also
emits other toxic pollutants like nitrogen oxides into the air.
• Industrial Emission
Industrial activities emit several pollutants in the air that affect the air quality
• Indoor Air Pollution : Use of toxic products also called Volatile Organic Compounds
(VOCs), inadequate ventilation, uneven temperature, and humidity level can cause
indoor air pollution.
• Microbial Decaying Process : When microorganisms break down organic matter, they
produce various byproducts including methane, carbon dioxide, and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) which can be released into the atmosphere, contributing to air
pollution. The type and abundance of microbes present in a decaying environment
significantly influence the types and quantities of gases released. Conditions like
temperature, humidity, and oxygen availability can affect the rate and composition of
gases produced during microbial decomposition. Methane, a potent greenhouse gas, is
a major concern arising from microbial decomposition, particularly in large-scale
agricultural operations and landfills.
• Transportation : Cars on the roads are increasing day by day. Vehicle pollution is the
major contributor to air pollution, especially in urban areas as compared to rural areas.
Large numbers of cars and other vehicles on the roads contribute to traffic congestion
on the roads, affecting the air quality of that particular area to a great extent.
• Open Burning of Garbage Waste: Open air garbage burning releases toxins such as
black carbon, soot, and carcinogens. It actively contributes to the greenhouse effect,
and in turn to climate change. Black carbon and soot gets deposited on the ice peaks,
which results in their meltdown. Open burning releases harmful chemicals and
particulate matter that affect human health and the environment. The type of
pollutants being emitted depends on what is being burnt. Smoke from burning
vegetation and organic materials contains toxic gases such as carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, other greenhouse gases, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and
particulate matter that is small enough to enter the lungs and affect the respiratory
system.
Smoke from the burning of trash, which is illegal, is especially toxic due to synthetic
chemicals in coated papers, plastics, and other materials that people commonly throw
away. This smoke may contain the above pollutants as well as dioxins, arsenic,
mercury, chromium, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), lead, and other hazardous air
pollutants that have been found to be carcinogenic.
The wind transports these pollutants; they settle in our lakes, streams, and soil; and they seep
into our ground water. The pollutants pass from one species to the next through the food
chain and harm humans, wildlife, and the ecosystem. When open burning occurs during
stagnant weather conditions, smoke lingers at ground level and creates a greater risk of direct
exposure to harmful pollutants.
• Construction and Demolition
One major source of construction-related pollution comes from the dust produced during
construction and demolition activities — including excavation, loading and unloading,
preparing raw materials, and road construction. This dust contains particulate matter and
volatile organic compounds that can be spread around the construction area and surrounding
neighborhood via wind.
Demolition activities can also expose both construction workers and nearby residents to
mold, asbestos, lead, bird waste, and other respiratory irritants. Construction also
produces greenhouse gas emissions when diesel and fossil fuels are burned to run machinery.
The production of finished concrete generates a significant amount of carbon dioxide
emissions.
• Agricultural Activities
Agricultural activities have a serious impact on the decreasing air quality. Pesticides and
fertilizers are the main sources that contaminate the surrounding air. Nowadays, pesticides
and fertilizers are mixed with new invasive species which are not found in nature, for quick
growth of the crops and vegetation. Once they are sprayed over, the smell and the effect of
the pesticides are left in the air. Some mix with water and some seeps into the ground which
not only destroys the crops but also causes numerous health-related issues.

Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution significantly affects human health, the environment, and the global climate.
Health Effects
• Respiratory Disorders: Conditions like bronchitis, and chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are caused by polluted air.
Our respiratory system has a number of mechanisms that help in protecting us from
air pollution. The hair in our nose filters out large particles. The sticky mucus in the
lining of the upper respiratory tract captures smaller particles and dissolves some
gaseous pollutants. When the upper respiratory system is irritated by pollutants
sneezing and coughing expel contaminated air and mucus. Prolonged smoking or
exposure to air pollutants can overload or break-down these natural defenses causing
or contributing to diseases such as lung cancer,asthma, chronic bronchitis and
emphysema. Elderly people, infants, pregnant women and people with heart disease,
asthma or other res-piratory diseases are especially vulnerable to air pollution.
Cigarette smoking exposes people to carbon monoxide. As carbon monoxide remains
attached to hemoglobin in blood for a long time, it accumulates and reduces the
oxygen carrying capacity of blood. This impairs perception and thinking, slows
reflexes and causes headaches, drowsiness, dizziness and nausea. Carbon monoxide in
heavy traffic causes headaches, drowsiness and blurred vision.
Sulfur dioxide irritates respiratory tissues.Chronic exposure causes a condition similar
to bronchitis.
 Nitrogen oxides especially NO2 hampers lungs which may lead to asthma or chronic
bronchitis and also increase susceptibility to respiratory infections such as influenza
or common colds.
Suspended particles pose potential danger of bronchitis and asthma. Exposure to these
particles over a long period of time damages lung tissue and contributes to the
development of chronic respiratory disease and cancer.
• Genetic disorders & reproductive problems: Many volatile organic
compounds such as (benzene and formaldehyde) and toxic particulates
(such as lead, cadmium) can cause mutations,reproductive problems or
cancer.
• Cardiovascular Diseases: Air pollution increases the risk of heart
attacks, strokes, and hypertension.
• Premature Death: High levels of air pollution contribute to increased
mortality rates, particularly among vulnerable populations like children
and the elderly.

Effects on plants : Gaseous pollutants after entering leaf pores damage the leaves of crop
plants. Prolonged exposure of the leaves to air pollutants can break down the waxy coating
that helps prevent excessive water loss and leads to damage from diseases, pests, drought and
frost. Such exposure interferes with photosynthesis and plant growth, reduces nutrient uptake
and causes leaves to turn yellow, brown or drop off altogether.
Effects on Animals
Air pollutants can settle into water bodies, harming aquatic life by altering water chemistry
and oxygen levels. Additionally, polluted air forces animals to migrate from their natural
habitats, leading to habitat loss and the potential extinction of sensitive species.
Effects on Material & Structures
Air pollution can significantly damage materials and structures, primarily through chemical
reactions with pollutants like sulfur and nitrogen oxides, leading to corrosion, discoloration,
surface degradation, and even structural weakening, particularly impacting materials like
stone, metal, and concrete, especially when exposed to moisture and acidic deposition from
rain (acid rain).
Environmental Effects:
Air pollution adversely affects various environmental components, leading to ecological
imbalances and climate change.
• Global Warming
Greenhouse gas emissions, including carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄), trap heat in
Earth's atmosphere, resulting in increased global temperatures. This process, referred to as
global warming, contributes to melting polar ice, rising sea levels, and severe weather
conditions.
 • Acid Rain
Acid rain forms when sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) react with water
vapour in the atmosphere to produce sulphuric and nitric acids. This acidic precipitation
damages forests acidifies ,water bodies, and corrodes buildings and infrastructure.
• Ozone Layer Depletion
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances break down ozone (O₃)
molecules in the stratosphere. The thinning of the ozone layer increases the penetration of
harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays, leading to higher incidences of skin cancer and cataracts, and
adversely affecting marine life.

Air Pollution Control Measures :

➢ Reducing reliance on personal vehicles
➢ Minimising energy consumption
➢ Use of Clean Energy Resources
➢ Minimising Industrial Emissions
➢ Equipment Maintenance
➢ Tree Plantation
➢ Shift to circular economy
Water Pollution
Meaning :
Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, with a negative
impact on their uses.
It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers,
reservoirs and groundwater. Water pollution results when contaminants mix with these water
bodies.
Sources of water pollution:

Sources of
water pollution

Non-point
Point sources of
source of water
pollution
pollution

Point sources of pollution: When a source of pollution can be readily identified because it has
a definite source and place where it enters the water it is said to come from a point source.
Eg. Municipal and Industrial Discharge Pipes.
Non-point source of water pollution-When a source of pollution cannot be readily identified,
such as agricultural runoff, acid rain, etc, they are said to be non-point sources of pollution.
Type of water that may get impacted by water pollution:
Groundwater pollution
Surface water pollution
Ocean water pollution

Types of water pollutants:/Causes of water pollution /Water Pollutants

• Disease-causing agents (pathogens) which include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic
worms which enter water from domestic sewage and untreated human and animal wastes.
• Oxygen depleting wastes. These are organic wastes that can be decomposed by aerobic (oxy
gen requiring) bacteria. Large populations of bacteria use up the oxygen present in water to
degrade these wastes. This degrades water quality. The amount of oxygen required to break
down a certain amount of organic matter is called the biological oxygen demand (BOD).
 The amount of BOD in the water is an indicator of the level of pollution. If too much
organic matter is added to the water all the available oxygen is used up. This causes fish and
other forms of oxygen dependent aquatic life to die. Thus anaerobic bacteria (those that do
not require oxygen) begin to break down the wastes. Their anaerobic respiration produces
chemicals that have a foul odour and an unpleasant taste that is harmful to human health.
• Inorganic plant nutrients. These are water soluble nitrates and phosphates that result in
eutrophication. Eutrophication is a process in which nutrients accumulate in a body of
water, resulting in an increased growth of organisms that may deplete the oxygen in the
water.Eutrophication may occur naturally or as a result of human actions. Manmade, or
cultural, eutrophication occurs when sewage, industrial wastewater, fertilizer runoff, and
other nutrient sources are released into the environment. Such nutrient pollution usually
causes algal blooms and bacterial growth, resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen in
water and causing substantial environmental degradation. The chemicals in fertilizers and
pesticides pollute soil and water. While excess ertilizers cause eutrophication, pesticides
cause bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
• Organic chemicals like oil, gasoline,plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergent which
are harmful to acquatic life & human health.
• Sediment of suspended matter:These reduce the photosynthetic activity of acquatic plants &
algae and disturb the ecological balance of acquatic life.
• Mining activities: Chemicals used in mining can leach into rivers and streams.
• Oil spills: Oil spills from ships and tankers can create a thick sludge that pollutes the water.
• Radioactive waste: Waste from nuclear plants and medical facilities can contaminate water
sources.

Effects of water pollution

• Waterborne diseases: Contaminated water can transmit diseases like cholera and typhoid.
Even in wealthy nations, accidental or illegal releases from sewage treatment facilities, as
well as runoff from farms and urban areas, contribute harmful pathogens to waterways.
• Ecosystem imbalance: Polluted water can harm soil quality and disrupt food chains. In order
to thrive, healthy ecosystems rely on a complex web of animals, plants, bacteria, and
fungi—all of which interact, directly or indirectly, with each other. Harm to any of these
organisms can create a chain effect, imperiling entire aquatic environments.
• Threat to Aquatic life : Chemicals and heavy metals from industrial and municipal
wastewater contaminate waterways as well. These contaminants are toxic to aquatic life—
most often reducing an organism’s life span and ability to reproduce—and make their way
up the food chain as predator eats prey.
When water pollution causes an algal bloom in a lake or marine environment, the
proliferation of newly introduced nutrients stimulates plant and algae growth, which in turn
reduces oxygen levels in the water. This lack/scsrcity of oxygen, known as eutrophication,
suffocates plants and animals and can create “dead zones,” where waters are essentially
devoid of life. In certain cases, these harmful algal blooms can also produce neurotoxins
that affect wildlife, from whales to sea turtles.
Ocean acidification is making it tougher for shellfish and coral to survive. Though they
absorb about a quarter of the carbon pollution created each year by burning fossil fuels,
oceans are becoming more acidic. This process makes it harder for shellfish and other species
to build shells and may impact the nervous systems of sharks, clownfish, and other marine
life.
Economic impact: Industries like agriculture, fisheries, and tourism can suffer financial
losses.
Health problems: Water pollution can cause respiratory ailments, skin problems, and other
health issues.

Control measures for preventing water pollution

• Setting up effluent treatment plants and treating waste
• Proper dispose of chemical cleaners, oils, and nonbiodegradable items to keep them
from going down the drain
• Use of environmentally friendly products: By using soluble products that do not go on
to become pollutants, we can reduce the amount of water pollution caused by a
household.
• Plastic waste reduction
• Minimize the use of pesticides & herbicides
• Proper disposal of medical waste
Noise Pollution:
Meaning: Noise pollution refers to the excessive noise that disrupts the natural environment
and negatively affects human well-being. It is characterized by the presence of unwanted
sounds, such as traffic noise, industrial machinery, construction activities, loud music, and
other sources that exceed permissible levels and create a nuisance.
What is Noise?
Any sound that creates discomfort to the recipient is termed Noise.
Noise as a potent menace is measured in terms of decibels (dB).
WHO (World Health Organization) has prescribed an optimum noise level during the day and
at night.
Noise is an unwanted or unpleasant sound that bothers people. The presence of a large
amount of unwanted noise can upset the balance of the environment and lead to noise
pollution.
Two types of noise pollution:
Environmental noise pollution and
Man-made noise.
Environmental Noise: The kind of noise produced from the wide-range of environmental
happenings refers to environmental noise. It can include thunderstorms.
Man-made Noise: The sound created due to man-made activities refers to man-made noise
and serves as the major reasons for noise pollution. It can include noise from vehicular
traffic, construction work, household noise, and many more.

Causes of Noise Pollution:

Industrialization: Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of producing
noise. Apart from that, various equipments like compressors, generators, exhaust fans,
grinding mills also participate in producing noise
Transportation: Large number of vehicles on roads, aero planes, trains produce heavy noise.
The high noise leads to a situation wherein a normal person loses the ability to hear properly.
Construction Activities: Construction activities like mining, construction of bridges, dams,
buildings, stations, roads, flyovers take place in almost every part of the world. These
construction activities have to be continued to meet the demand of ever-increasing
Population. It also creates noise pollution. Construction equipment like Mixers, scrapers,
bulldozers, road rollers, drilling machines, trolleys, and others create noise.
Firecrackers
Household Chores: We people are surrounded by gadgets and use them extensively in our
daily life. Gadgets like TV, mobile, mixer grinder, pressure cooker, vacuum cleaners, washing
machine and dryer, cooler, air conditioners are also contributors to the amount of noise that is
produced and but many times it affects the quality of life of our neighbourhood.
Agricultural machines: Tractors, trolleys, harvesters, tube-wells, and others.

Effects of Noise Pollution

➢ Hearing Impairment:
➢ Sleeping disorder
➢ Other Health problems: People exposed to noise levels reaching 110 dB may
experience mental trauma, physical fatigue, deafness, hypertension and insomnia.
Noise can also cause emotional or psychological effects such as irritability, anxiety
and stress. Lack of concentration and mental fatigue are major health effects of noise.
➢ Cardiovascular Problems: The high-intensity sound can cause an increase in
heartbeat rate and blood pressure as well. It is because extensive sound interrupts the
normal blood flow and results in the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
➢ Effect on wildlife Noise generated by traffic, ships, vehicles, and aircraft can affect
the ability to survive of wildlife species and can reach undisturbed habitats.
➢ Productivity Loss: Extremely loud environments may affect mental health of
workers which may further lower the productivity which in turn increases cost of
production.
➢ Impact on structures: Noise pollution, particularly from intense or prolonged
vibrations caused by loud sounds, can lead to structural damage in buildings,
including cracks in walls, weakened foundations, loosened tiles, and even broken
windows, especially when the noise source is close to the structure and generates
significant vibrations; this is most evident in situations like heavy construction work
or sonic booms from aircraft.
Measures to control Noise Pollution:
There are four fundamental ways in which noise can be controlled: Reduce noise at the
source, block the path of noise, increase the path length and protect the recipient.
➢ TVs, radio and other electronic gadgets should not be played at a high volume.
➢ Restricting the use of loudspeakers and amplifiers. For example, several states have
protocols for maximum sound limits during the nighttime.
➢ The use of firecrackers, which are noisy and cause air pollution, should be restricted.
➢ Acoustic Zoning: There should be silence zones near the residential areas, educational
institutions and above all, near hospitals. Zoning of noisy industrial areas, bus
terminals and railway stations, aerodromes etc. away from the residential areas i.e.
increasing the distance between source and receiver.
➢ Sound Insulation at Construction Stages
➢ Legislative Measures: Strict legislative measures need to be enforced to curb the
threat of noise pollution. Noise standards (Table) should be strictly followed.
Soil Pollution:
What is soil?
Soil is a thin covering over the land consisting of a mixture of minerals, organic material,
living organisms, air and water that together support the growth of plant life. Several factors
contribute to the formation of soil.
Soil Pollution is the presence of toxic chemicals (pollutants or contaminants) in soil in high
enough concentrations to pose a risk to human health and the ecosystem.
The contaminating substances that cause soil pollution are called Soil Pollutants.
Soil contamination, soil pollution, or land pollution as a part of land degradation is caused by
the presence of xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil
environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals or improper
disposal of waste. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons,
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (such as naphthalene and benzo(a)pyrene), solvents,
pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals.

Causes of Soil Pollution:

Industrial processes including mining and manufacturing historically have been leading
causes of soil pollution. Industrial areas typically have much higher levels of trace elements
and organic contaminants. This is due to intentional and unintentional releases from industrial
processes directly into the environment, including to the soil, adjacent water bodies, and the
atmosphere.
Industrial activities are a major contributor to soil pollution as the production and disposal of
chemical substances, including heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial waste, can
contaminate the soil. Industrial processes such as mining, manufacturing, and waste disposal
often result in the release of toxic substances into the environment, which can seep into the
soil and cause major pollution.
Chemicals used in industries, such as solvents, dyes, and heavy metals, can persist in the soil
for a long time and have harmful effects on soil quality. Improper storage and disposal of
industrial waste can lead to soil contamination, as toxic substances leach into the soil and
groundwater. Industrial accidents, such as oil spills or chemical leaks, can also have severe
consequences for soil health
Mining, quarrying and oil extraction activities
Mining operations along with wastes and emissions during the processing of the extracted
materials such as tailings, waste rock deposits and smelting operations are major sources of
soil pollution.
Mining activities, such as the extraction of minerals and metals from the earth, can cause significant
soil pollution. Mining operations often involve the removal of topsoil and vegetation, leading to soil
erosion and degradation. The exposed soil is vulnerable to contamination from mining waste,
including heavy metals and toxic chemicals.
The extraction and processing of minerals can release harmful substances into the soil and
surrounding environment. Acid mine drainage, a phenomenon where acidic water is generated from
mining activities, can contaminate soil and water sources, making them unsuitable for plant growth
and other organisms.
Agricultural practices & pesticide use:
Agricultural practices, particularly the use of pesticides and fertilizers, contribute significantly to soil
pollution. Pesticides are chemicals designed to kill or control pests, including insects, weeds, and
fungi. While pesticides are essential for crop protection and increased agricultural productivity, their
excessive and improper use can contaminate the soil.
Improper waste disposal & landfills:
Improper waste disposal, including the dumping of solid waste and hazardous materials in landfills, is
a significant cause of soil pollution. Landfills are designated areas for waste disposal, but if they are
not properly managed, harmful substances can leach into the soil and contaminate it.
When organic waste decomposes in landfills via anaerobic decomposition, it produces leachate (a
liquid that can contain toxic substances), methane (CH4), and carbon dioxide (CO2). If not adequately
contained, leachate can seep into the soil and pollute groundwater sources and landfills can release
methane gas – a potent greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change.
Accidental Oil Spills
Accidental oil spills, such as those that occur during transportation or due to industrial accidents, can
have severe impacts on soil quality. When oil is spilled, it can coat the soil surface and block pores,
reducing soil aeration and water infiltration.
The presence of oil in the soil can also alter its pH, making it less suitable for crop growth. Oil spills
can also lead to the contamination of nearby water sources, further exacerbating the environmental
impact. The cleanup and remediation of oil-contaminated soil can be a challenging and lengthy
process.
Acid Rain
Acid rain occurs when pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, mix with rainwater and
fall to the ground. Acid rain can dissolve essential nutrients in the soil, making them less available to
plants, and change the soil’s pH, making it more acidic, affecting plant growth.

The Effects of Soil Pollution:

• Health Risks To Humans: When soil is contaminated with toxic substances, these pollutants
can enter the food chain and accumulate in plants, animals, and ultimately, humans.
Consuming food grown in polluted soil can lead to the ingestion of harmful substances,
including heavy metals and pesticides.
The emission of toxic and foul gases from landfills pollutes the environment and causes serious
effects on the health of some people.
Soil pollution can even lead to widespread famines if the plants cannot grow in it.
 • Effects on Plant Growth
• Impact On Agricultural Productivity
• Biodiversity Loss: Soil is home to a diverse range of microorganisms, invertebrates,
and plant roots that contribute to ecosystem functioning. When the soil is
contaminated, these organisms can be harmed or even killed, disrupting the delicate
balance of the ecosystem.
The loss of biodiversity in the soil can have cascading effects on the entire ecosystem. For
example, soil-dwelling organisms play important roles in nutrient cycling, decomposition,
and soil structure formation. Their decline can lead to imbalances in nutrient availability,
reduced soil fertility, and increased susceptibility to erosion.
• Contamination Of Water Sources: Soil pollution can also lead to the contamination of
important water sources, including groundwater and . when pollutants from the soil
leach into water bodies, they can affect water quality and make it unfit for human
consumption or irrigation purposes, negatively affecting both human and ecosystem
health. Groundwater contamination is particularly concerning, as it is the primary source of
drinking water for many communities. Surface water pollution can also impact aquatic
ecosystems, leading to the decline of fish populations and other aquatic organisms.
• Effects on Soil Fertility:
o Pollution can increase the salinity of the soil, making it barren and unsuitable
for growing most types of plants. Any crops that manage to grow in such
conditions would be toxic enough to cause health problems if eaten.
o Sulfur dioxide which is emitted by burning fossil fuels, is an acidic
component that can contaminate the soil. It creates an acidic environment that
is detrimental to the microorganisms like worms that usually improve soil
health by decomposing organic matter and promoting water movement. Fungi
and bacteria that help bind the soil together are also negatively affected by
acidity, which can lead to soil erosion.
o Increased acidity in the soil can hinder its ability to hinder weather changes in
pH levels which may result in loss of crops.
o Soil Pollution affects soil fertility in following ways:
▪ Damaged Soil Structure
▪ Altered Chemical Composition
▪ Disrupted Biological Activity
▪ Reduced Nutrient Availability:
▪ Soil Erosion and Degradation
▪ Reduced Crop Yields and Food Quality
• Lowers air quality: Contaminated soil can release volatile compounds into the
atmosphere, contributing to air pollution. The more toxic compounds the soil
contains, the more it will affect air quality.
• Climate Change: Soil pollution can contribute to climate change through various
mechanisms. For example, the release of greenhouse gases from contaminated soil
can contribute to global warming. Contaminated soil can release methane, a potent
greenhouse gas, during the decomposition of organic matter.
Additionally, soil pollution can affect the carbon and nutrient cycling processes in the
soil, leading to imbalances in greenhouse gas emissions. Changes in soil microbial
communities and nutrient availability can influence the rates of carbon sequestration
and greenhouse gas fluxes.
Methods can be employed to measure and monitor soil pollution:
1. Laboratory analysis:
Soil samples are collected from different locations and analyzed for the presence of pollutants
such as heavy metals, pesticides, and organic contaminants. Following techniques are used
for sample testing-
• Atomic absorption spectroscopy,
• Gas chromatography,
• Mass spectrometry,
Thses techniques help to determine the concentration of pollutants in the soil. This method
provides accurate and detailed information about the extent and types of pollutants present in
the soil.
2. Field-based techniques: These techniques involve the use of portable instruments
that can detect and quantify pollutants in real-time. For e.g.
a. portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
b. field-based gas analyzers
3. Remote sensing: Remote sensing involves the use of satellite imagery or aerial
photography to assess changes in land use and vegetation health, which can be
indicators of soil pollution. For example, changes in vegetation colour or density may
indicate the presence of pollutants in the soil. Remote sensing can provide valuable
information about large areas, making it useful for regional or national-scale
monitoring programs.
Ways to prevent & control soil pollution:
• Sustainable Farming Practices
• Implementing Proper Waste Management And Recycling
• Employing Remediation and Restoration Techniques:
Remediation and restoration techniques can be employed to clean up contaminated
soil and restore its health and fertility. These techniques involve the removal or
treatment of pollutants to reduce their concentration in the soil.
Bioremediation is a commonly used technique that utilizes microorganisms to degrade
or transform pollutants into less harmful substances. Phytoremediation involves the
use of plants to absorb and remove contaminants from the soil.
Other techniques, such as soil vapor extraction, soil washing, and electrokinetic
remediation, can also be employed depending on the type and extent of
contamination.
• Reforestation and Afforestation
• Community Awareness
• Strengthening Policies and Regulations
• Circular Economy Approaches
1.2 Nuclear hazards and human health risks
What is Nuclear Hazards?
Nuclear hazards refer to the potential risks and dangers associated with the use, production,
and disposal of nuclear materials and technology. These hazards can arise from various
sources, including nuclear power plants, nuclear weapons, radioactive waste, and nuclear
accidents.
Nuclear hazards are threats posed by the invisible and odourless contamination of the
environment by the presence of radioactive materials such as radio-nuclides in air water or
soil. These radio-nuclides emit high energy particles (alpha and beta rays) and
electromagnetic radiations (gamma rays). Radio nuclides are elements, such as uranium 235,
uranium 283, thorium 232, potassium 40, radium 226, carbon 14 etc., with unstable atomic
nuclei and release ionizing radiations in the form of alpha, beta and gamma rays. The
spontaneous emission of particles and rays by an unstable nucleus is called Radioactivity and
contamination of environment with these radiations is called as Radioactive or Nuclear
pollution.
Causes of Nuclear Pollution
Nuclear Waste Disposal
Nuclear Accidents
Nuclear Weapons

Nuclear Hazards and Human Health Risks

Nuclear hazards pose significant risks to human health due to the release of ionizing
radiation, radioactive contamination, and the potential for accidents or incidents at nuclear
facilities. Some of the key human health risks associated with nuclear hazards include:
• Radiation Sickness: Acute exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation can cause
radiation sickness, also known as acute radiation syndrome (ARS). Symptoms may
include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, weakness, fever, and hair loss. Severe cases of
radiation sickness can be life-threatening and may require medical intervention.
• Increased Risk of Cancer: Chronic exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation over
time can increase the risk of developing cancer, including leukaemia, thyroid cancer,
breast cancer, lung cancer, and other types of cancer. The risk of cancer depends on
factors such as the type of radiation, dose received, duration of exposure, and
individual susceptibility.
• Genetic Mutations: Radiations can cause mutations, which are changes in genetic
makeup of cells and effects the future generations also. These effects are mainly due
to the damages to DNA molecules. Radiation exposure can cause genetic mutations in
reproductive cells, increasing the risk of hereditary disorders and birth defects in
future generations. Even low levels of radiation exposure may have long-term effects
on genetic integrity and reproductive health.
 • Effects on Immunity: Exposure at higher doses (400-500 rads), the bone marrow is
affected, blood cells are reduced, natural resistance and fighting capacity against
germs is reduced, blood fails to clot, and the irradiated person soon dies of infection
and bleeding
• Long-Term Health Effects: Exposure to radioactive materials released during nuclear
accidents or incidents may lead to long-term health effects, such as cardiovascular
disease, cataracts, thyroid disorders, and other chronic illnesses. These effects may
manifest years or even decades after exposure and can have lasting impacts on
affected populations.
• Psychological Distress: Nuclear hazards can also cause psychological distress,
anxiety, and uncertainty among affected populations. Fear of radiation exposure,
displacement from homes and communities, uncertainty about health risks, and stigma
associated with radiation-related illnesses can contribute to psychological trauma and
mental health issues.
• Displacement and Disruption: Nuclear accidents or incidents may necessitate
evacuations, relocation, and restrictions on activities in affected areas to minimize
radiation exposure. Displacement and disruption of communities can lead to social
and economic challenges, loss of livelihoods, and psychological trauma among
affected populations.
• Occupational Diseases: Few occupations that involve radioactive exposures are
uranium mineworkers, radium watch dial painters, technical staff at nuclear power
plants, etc. Exposure to radioactive and nuclear hazards has been clinically proven to
cause cancer, mutations and teratogenesis (Teratogenesis is a prenatal toxicity
characterized by structural or functional defects in the developing embryo or foetus).
Measures to Control Nuclear Pollution (Radiation Pollution)
Proper Nuclear Waste Management
Radiation Monitoring
Safe Handling of Nuclear Wastes
1.3 Solid Waste Management
What is solid waste?
Solid waste refers to any discarded or unwanted materials. It includes various items such as
paper, plastics, glass and food waste.
Classification of solid wastes: There are different ways of classifying solid waste. One way is
to classify it by where it is generated. Another way is based on whether the waste is
biodegradable or not. Depending on the inherent dangers associated with its physical and
chemical properties, solid waste can be classified as either hazardous or non-hazardous.
Types Of Solid Waste
Solid waste can come from a variety of sources and consist of multiple types of trash
generated from different human activities. These waste types can be categorized into several
groups based on their origin, composition and characteristics:
• Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): This type includes everyday items discarded by
households, such as paper, plastics, food scraps, textiles, packaging materials, yard
waste and household hazardous waste like batteries or cleaning products.
• Industrial Waste: Generated by industrial processes and manufacturing activities,
industrial waste comprises materials like scrap metal, chemicals, solvents, sludge and
other by-products from factories and production facilities.
• Commercial Waste: Originating from commercial establishments such as offices,
restaurants, shops and institutions, this waste type includes paper, packaging
materials, food waste and other discarded items.
• Construction and Demolition Debris (C&D): Generated from construction, renovation
and demolition activities, C&D waste includes concrete, wood, bricks, asphalt,
metals, drywall and other materials used in building structures.
• Hazardous Waste: Materials that pose a risk to human health or the environment due
to their toxic, flammable, corrosive or reactive nature are considered hazardous. This
category includes items like batteries, fluorescent bulbs, pesticides, certain chemicals
and medical waste.
• Electronic Waste (E-waste): Discarded electronic devices and equipment, such as
computers, televisions, smartphones and appliances, can contain hazardous materials
like lead, mercury and other components that require specialized handling and
disposal.
• Agricultural Waste: Generated from farming activities, agricultural waste includes
crop residues, animal manure, pesticides and other waste produced in agricultural
processes.
What is Solid Waste Management?
Waste management is a term that refers to all of the various actions taken and plans created to
manage waste, from composting or existing waste to minimizing the production of waste in
the first place.
Waste management encompasses a multidisciplinary approach that integrates engineering
principles, economics, urban and regional planning, management techniques, and social
sciences. Its objective is to minimize the overall wastage within the system under
consideration. A systematic waste management approach should address all types of
resources at every stage. Notably, material constitutes a significant portion of the total
production cost, making the management of wasted materials critically important (Arora,
2004).
Solid waste management is the systematic process of handling solid waste, encompassing
collection, transportation, processing, recycling, and disposal, with the goal of minimizing
environmental impact and promoting resource recovery.
Types of Waste
The rapid pace of economic development has led to an improved standard of living
worldwide. This, in turn, has resulted in increased material consumption and subsequently,
higher waste generation. Solid waste materials generated, particularly in urban areas, include:
Organic waste
Plastic waste
Metal waste materials
Glass waste materials
Paper waste materials
Electronic waste
Other materials like ash, sand, grit, etc.
The increasing volume and complexity of waste associated with the modern economy is
posing a serious risk to ecosystems and human health. Every year huge amount of solid waste
is collected worldwide and decay of the organic proportion of solid waste is contributing
about 5 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions. Waste from electrical and electronic
equipment containing new and complex hazardous substances is alarming & possess the
fastest-growing concern & challenge in both developed and developing countries.
Poor waste management - ranging from non-existing collection systems to ineffective
disposal causes air pollution, water and soil contamination. Open and unsanitary landfills
contribute to contamination of drinking water and can cause infection and transmit diseases.
The dispersal of debris pollutes ecosystems and dangerous substances from electronic waste
or industrial garbage puts a strain on the health of urban dwellers and the environment.
The solution, in the first place, is the minimisation of waste. Where waste cannot be avoided,
recovery of materials and energy from waste as well as remanufacturing and recycling waste
into usable products should be the second option. Recycling also leads to substantial resource
savings. For eg. Recycling of paper can save trees & water.
Objective of Waste Management
The primary aim of waste management is to reduce waste generation, ultimately striving for
an ideal system. Conversely, resource management seeks to maximize the efficient use of
available resources. Both waste and resource management share a common objective: the
optimal utilization of resources to enhance system efficiency and growth. However, their
approaches differ (Arora, 2004).
To accomplish this objective, it is crucial to:
Prevent the generation of waste.
Encourage the reuse of waste.
Support the biological recovery and material recycling of waste.
Promote the energy utilization of waste that isn’t suitable for recycling.
Ensure that the treatment and disposal of waste do not result in any harmful impacts.
Management literature has established that resource and waste management are
interdependent and complement each other in achieving these goals.

Processes/Steps involved in Solid Waste Management:

Generation
Storage
Collection
Transportation
Disposal

Steps in solid waste management:

1. Waste Generation and Storage:
Generation:
Solid waste is produced from various sources, including residential, commercial, and
industrial activities.
Storage:
Waste is temporarily stored at the point of generation in designated containers or bins,
ensuring proper handling and preventing environmental contamination.
2. Collection:
Waste is collected from storage locations and transported to a central point for further
processing or disposal.
Efficient collection methods are essential, including using appropriate vehicles and routes.
3. Transportation:
Collected waste is transported to treatment facilities, transfer stations, or disposal sites.
Proper transportation methods, including specialized vehicles and routes, are necessary to
prevent spills and ensure safety.
4. Processing:
Sorting and Separation:
Waste can be sorted to separate recyclable materials, organic waste, and other waste streams.
Treatment:
Waste may undergo various treatment processes, such as composting, recycling, incineration,
or other technologies, to reduce its volume and harmfulness.
Recycling:
Recyclable materials are collected, processed, and transformed into new products, reducing
the need for virgin resources.
Composting:
Organic waste can be composted to produce a valuable soil amendment.
Incineration:
Waste can be burned in controlled conditions to reduce volume and potentially recover
energy.
5. Disposal:
Different Methods of waste disposal
• Landfill
• Incineration
• Pyrolysis: Pyrolysis is generally a process by which waste materials can be
degraded thermally in the absence (or restricted supply) of oxygen.
• Gasification: The substance to be treated is immediately transformed into
SynGas (synthetic gas), which is made up of carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
• Bioremediation: Utilizing living creatures, primarily microbes, to transform
environmental pollutants into less hazardous forms is known as
bioremediation. For instance, a pseudonymous microbe may break down
artificial pesticide.
The use of bioremediation techniques reduces exposure hazards for workers
because they are more affordable than conventional approaches and allow for
the on-site treatment of contaminants.
Policy Framework for Solid Waste Management in India:
➢ Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016:
➢ E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022:
➢ Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules,
2016:
➢ Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016:
➢ Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016:
➢ Construction & Demolition (C&D) Waste Management Rules, 2016:
➢ Battery Waste Management Rules, 2022:
➢ Ash utilisation notification, 2021:
➢ Chemical Safety: Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals
(MSIHC) Rules, 1989
➢ Circular Economy
➢ Elimination of SUPs (Single Use Plastic)
➢ Public Liability Insurance:
➢ Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) means the responsibility of a producer for
the environmentally sound management of the product until the end of its life.

The following rules have been notified incorporating the principles of EPR based on
the concept of reuse, recycle, refurbish and recovery:
• Battery Waste Management Rules, 2022 notified on 22nd August, 2022 to ensure
environmentally sound management of waste batteries;
• 'Guidelines on the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for Plastic Packaging'
under Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 notified on 16 February, 2022;
• ‘Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for Waste Tyre’ notified on 21st July, 2022
through amendment in Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary
Movement) Rules, 2016 to ensure environmentally sound management of waste tyres;
• E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 notified on 2nd November,2022 for EPR regime
for e-waste recycling
• Bio-medical Waste Management Rules, 2016
• Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules,
2016
• E-Waste (Management) Rules,2022
• EPR Portal for Plastic Packaging
• EPR Portal for Battery Waste
• EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility) on Waste Tyres