• In order to minimize outages due to equipment failures,

modern condition based maintenance techniques needs

to be implemented in maintenance of electrical assets to
predict deterioration of various components or failure
prone locations.

• Thermography is one of the latest condition based

techniques to detect hot spots.
• Most of the electrical failures are due to component
failure or loose connections. Thermal imaging infrared
camera easily identifies electrical and mechanical
problems like hot spots, heat development on loose
connections, hidden faults etc. before they result in
failures or fire cases
• Predictive maintenance of power systems/ electrical assets
is essential to maintain the reliability and reduce outages.
Nearly everything that uses or transmits power gets hot
before it fails. Infrared thermography is one of the most
effective proven predictive maintenance technologies to
quickly, accurately and safely locate problems prior to
failure. Finding and fixing a poor electrical connection
before a component fails can save the much greater costs
associated with downtime, traffic losses, power failures,
fires and other failures.
• A Thermographic camera (also called an infrared camera or
thermal imaging camera) is a device that forms an image
using infrared radiation, similar to a common camera that
forms an image using visible light. Instead of the 400–700
nanometer range of the visible light camera, infrared cameras
operate in wavelengths as long as 14,000 nm (14 μm). Their use
is called thermography.

• It is a non-contact device which detects infrared radiations and

converts it into electronic signals which is then processed to
produce a thermal image on a video monitor and perform
temperature calculations. It measures infrared (IR) energy and
convert the data to images corresponding to the temperature.
Thermal Imaging System
• Resolution of these cameras are considerably lower than
that of digital optical cameras (photo cameras we are
using now a days are having resolution in Mega pixles),
mostly only 160 x 120 or 320 x 240 pixels, although
more expensive cameras can achieve a higher resolution.

• When an image is captured using the thermal imager, all

of the background data is also saved along with the
picture allowing in-depth analysis using software.
 Infrared energy (A) coming from an object is focused by the
optics (B) onto an infrared detector (C). The detector sends the
information to sensor electronics (D) for image processing. The
electronics translate the data coming from the detector into an image
(E) that can be viewed in the viewfinder or on a standard video
monitor or LCD screen.
• Infrared thermography is the technique of transforming an infrared
image into a radiometric one, which allows temperature values to be
read from the image. So every pixel in the radiometric image is in
fact a temperature measurement. In order to do this, complex
algorithms are incorporated into the thermal imaging camera.

• Heat sensed by an infrared camera is very precisely quantified, or

measured, it allows monitoring, identifying and evaluating the
relative severity of heat-related problems.

• Thermal imaging cameras are the perfect tool for predicting

failures because they make the invisible visible.
When carrying out Thermographic inspections,
faults are often identified by comparing heat
patterns in similar components operating
under similar loads.
 It helps to find out electrical hot spots and faulty
equipment in incipient conditions.

 It is an ideal means for maintenance people looking for

safety and reliability when conducting routine surveys of
electrical systems, switchgear and electrical components.

 It is non contacting and can be done in live condition

without affecting the operation, production or traffic.

 It is applicable to most types of electrical, mechanical

equipment and power lines.
 It is easy to quickly identify areas of concern/ specific location
in large areas and problems can be attended in time before
failure.

 It works even in total darkness because ambient light level

does not matter.

 Advanced thermal imaging cameras also have the wi-fi and

internet connectivity features. By this the live thermal images
can also be viewed at a remote location.

 It has the storage memory and images are saved with details.
The same can be downloaded with USB port and detail
analysis can be done with the help of software. Accordingly
predictive maintenance can be done.
 IR THERMO-METERS

V/S

THERMAL IMAGING
CAMERAS
 Infrared (IR) thermometers are useful
only for measurement of single spot
temperature but for scanning large
areas or components, they are not
56° suitable.

Infrared thermometer measures the

temperature at one single spot only
IR thermometer reading
while thermal imaging camera uses
thousands of infrared thermo-meters at
the same time.
 Thermal imaging cameras can
measure temperatures on the entire
image. If a thermal imaging camera
has an image resolution of 320 x 240
pixels, this means that it is equal to
using 76,800 infrared thermometers
at the same time. IR thermal camera
image
 Infrared thermometer only gives a temperature reading while the
thermal imaging camera gives the thermal image of a large area
with comparative temperature colour/ readings which can be
used to identify the hotspots.
 Infrared energy is just one part of the electromagnetic spectrum,
which includes radiation from gamma rays, x-rays, ultra violet, a thin
region of visible light, infrared, terahertz waves, microwaves and
radio waves. These are all related and differentiated in the length of
their wave (wavelength).

Electromagnetic spectrum
• A special camera can detect this radiation in a way similar
to the way an ordinary camera detects visible light.

• For use in temperature measurement the brightest

(warmest) parts of the image are customarily colored
white, intermediate temperatures reds and yellows,
and the dimmest (coolest) parts black. A scale shown
next to a false color image relates colors to temperatures.
Infrared thermal image with temperature indicator
 Infrared radiation lies between the
visible and microwave portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The
primary source of infrared radiation is
heat or thermal radiation. Any object
that has a temperature above absolute
zero (-273.15 degrees Celsius or 0
Kelvin) emits radiation in the infrared
region.
 We experience infrared radiation
every day. The heat that we feel
from sunlight, a fire or a radiator is
all infrared. Although our eyes
cannot see it, the nerves in our skin
can feel it as heat. The warmer the
object, the more infrared radiation it
emits.
Thermographic cameras can be broadly divided into
two types:

 cameras with uncooled infrared image detectors

 cameras with cooled infrared image detectors

• Uncooled thermal cameras use a sensor operating at
ambient temperature, or a sensor stabilized at a temperature
close to ambient using small temperature control elements.
All modern uncooled detectors use sensors that work by the
change of resistance, voltage or current when heated by
infrared radiation. These changes are then measured and
compared to the values at the operating temperature of the
sensor.

• Uncooled infrared cameras are smaller and less costly.

However, their resolution and image quality tend to be
lower than cooled detectors.
• Cooled detectors are typically contained in a vacuum-
sealed case or Dewar (vacuum flask) and cryogenically
cooled. The cooling is necessary for the operation of the
semiconductor materials used. The drawbacks of cooled
infrared cameras are that they are expensive both to
produce and to run. Cooling is both energy-intensive and
time-consuming.
• TI directorate of RDSO/ Lucknow has issued specification
no. TI/SPC/OHE/TIPS/1031, December, 2013 for
infrared imaging system for stationary installation. This
revised specification supersedes earlier specifications no.
TI/SPC/OHE/TIPS/0010 & TI/SPC/OHE/TIPS/1030
(06/2005), Rev-1. The salient features of this specification
are as follows:
• The infrared imaging system shall be single unit suitable
for hand held operation.

• It shall be a battery operated and rugged enough for use in

the field.

• It shall have inbuilt display facility to show the infrared

images on the spot.

• It shall be capable of working in open environment and

shall not use any cooling system either internally or
externally.
• The on board image analysis and storage facility must be
provided.

• The optics of the camera should include suitable

(Horizontal Field of view) HFOV & (Vertical field of
view) VFOV lens for measurements of the different
objects / installation in the network.
The infrared imaging system shall be suitable for
monitoring, measurement and storing hot spot
temperatures on the following applications:-

 Detect heat build-up on bus ducts/bus bar/isolators.

 Connections of overhead distribution lines/cable

termination in HT circuits, switch board & HT/LT
panels.

 Overhead transmission/power lines.

 Scanning of Sub-station yard for identification of any

critical problem areas.
 Transformer bushings.

 Detect problems with oil filled SF-6 breakers.

 Scanning of joints in 25KV overhead equipment,

jumpers etc.
• The system should be menu operated and should assist the
user for different measurements including focus,
histogram etc. The setup menu should provide the facility
for adjustment/ selection of emissivity, background
temperature, auto range, time, date, colour pallets etc.
It should also include internal memory for the storage of
the scanned images in the field and for its further
processing.
• The system shall have on board battery for hand held
operation. The accessories shall include 2 sets of spares
rechargeable batteries having back up of minimum 4
hours, AC power adaptor/battery charger, carrying
case, user manual and software installation CD and any
other appliances that may be required. Operational training
shall be imparted for two days for two railway engineers at
site by supplier.
 Unbalanced loads
 Loose or corroded connections increased resistance in the circuit
(typically one side of components heats up)
 Harmonics (3rd harmonic current in Neutral)
 Overloaded systems/excessive current
 Insulation failure
 Component failure
 Wiring mistakes
 Under specified components (like fuses) would heat up on both
side of the fuse.
 Power distribution lines  Fuse boxes

 Cables & connections  Relays/Switches

 Insulators  Capacitors

 Substations  Circuit breakers

 Controllers  Transformers

 Motors  Battery
Thermography may be suitably used for monitoring high
voltage equipment, low voltage equipment, cabinets, motors,
pumps, high temperature equipment etc.

Applications for thermal imaging cameras within the range of

electrical systems can be divided into two categories:

 high voltage installations and

 low voltage installations.

• Heat is an important factor in high voltage installations.
When electrical current passes through a resistive element,
it generates heat. An increased resistance results in an
increase in heat. Over the time the resistance of electrical
connections increases, due to loosening and corrosion for
example. The corresponding rise in temperature can cause
components to fail, and resulting in unplanned outages.

• If such point left unchecked, the heat can even rise to the
point where connections melt and break down; as a result,
fires may also break out.
Examples of failures in high-voltage installations that can be
detected with thermal imaging:

• Oxidation of high voltage switches

• Overheated connections

• Oxidised, or corroded connectors

• Incorrectly secured connections

• Insulator defects etc.

• These and other issues can be spotted at an early stage
with a thermal imaging camera. This will help to
accurately locate the problem, determine the severity of
the problem, and establish the time frame in which the
equipment should be repaired.
• Figure given below shows a hot-spot created by a bad
connection in a power distribution system.

Thermal image of a power system

• Similarly when looking at similar current carrying

connectors, a poor connection shows a higher
temperature due to its increased resistance.
Digital picture of jumper/ splice connections in power line

Thermal image showing over heated loose connection

with temperature chart
 Low Voltage Installations
• Thermal imaging cameras can also be used for
inspections of low voltage installations as well such as
electrical cabinets/panels, control panels and other low
voltage equipment like panels of RMPU, battery charger,
RRU/ERRU of coaches etc.

• Besides loose connections, electrical systems suffer from

load imbalances, corrosion, and increases in resistance to
current. Thermal inspections can quickly locate hot spots,
determine the severity of the problem, and help to
establish the time frame in which the equipment should
be repaired.
Examples of failures in low voltage equipment that can be
detected with thermal imaging:
 High resistance connections
 Corroded connections
 Internal fuse damage
 Internal circuit breaker faults
 Poor connections and internal damage etc.
These and other issues can be spotted at an early stage and
this will help to prevent costly damages and failures/ fires
cases may be avoided.
Thermal image showing overheated fuse connection
Thermal image showing overloaded MCB
 Different materials and circumstances influence the
temperature readings from the thermal imaging camera.
Some of the most important factors influencing the
temperature readings are:
1. Thermal conductivity
2. Emissivity
3. Reflection
4. Weather conditions
1. Thermal conductivity

• Different materials have different thermal

properties. Insulation tends to warm up slowly,
while metals tend to warm up quickly, for
instance. This is called thermal conductivity.
Difference in thermal conductivity in two
different materials can lead to large temperature
differences in certain situations.
2. Emissivity

• To read correct temperatures, emissivity is one of the

important factor needs to be taken into account.
Emissivity is the efficiency with which an object
emits infrared radiation. This is highly dependent on
material properties.

• It is extremely important to set the right emissivity in

the camera or the temperature measurements will be
incorrect.

• In general for thermography of electrical

installations, it is kept as 0.95.
3. Reflection
• Some materials reflect thermal radiation much
like a mirror reflects visible light. One example is
non-oxidized metal, especially if it is polished.
Reflections can lead to misinterpretation of the
thermal image. The operator should therefore
choose the angle at which the thermal imaging
camera is pointed at the object carefully, to avoid
such reflections.
4. Weather conditions

• Ambient temperatures have a big influence on

temperature readings. High ambient temperatures
can mask hot spots by heating the entire object,
while low ambient temperatures might cool down
the hot spots to a temperature below a previously
determined threshold.

• Direct sunlight and shadows influence the thermal

pattern on a surface even after many hours to
sunlight exposed.
• Another weather factor is wind, airflows cool down the
surface material, lowering the temperature differences
between hot and cold areas.

• Another obvious factor is rain, it cools down the surface

material. Even after the rain has stopped the evaporation
of the water cools down the surface material.

• Obviously all these factors can lead to misleading

thermal patterns.
1. Define the task
 List all of the equipment suited for thermal
imaging inspections to monitor.

 Define the priority and periodicity as per previous

record of failures available. The equipment which
is most prone to failure and have direct impact on
the system shall be given priority.

 Set the schedules for the thermal inspections

based on the above information.
2. Perform a baseline inspection
 For reference material, take thermal images of all of
the equipment, aim to inspect. This should be done
during normal operation.

 Especially capture multiple thermal images of one

piece of equipment, if it has key components or
subsystems that are prone to failure.

 These images will serve as baseline reference material

and to be documented very well.

 Make sure to take into account all of the factors

mentioned earlier, to enable accurate temperature
measurements.
 The report of baseline inspection should include the
methods used, such as the emissivity and reflection
settings, alongwith the exact location, description of
each thermal image for each piece of equipment.

 This database of baseline images will help to determine

temperatures which are acceptable for each piece of
equipment.

All of the above information will help to determine

whether there is something wrong with the
equipment/system during later inspections.
3. Start Inspection

 Have a list with pieces of equipment that need to

be checked alongwith schedule for the
inspections.

 Carryout thermal inspection of equipment and

check with earlier record and note whether it
requires further investigation or not.

 It is necessary to take a close look at the thermal

images while inspecting and analyzing.
4. Analysis And Reporting

• When all of the equipment has been inspected it

is time to return to the office to do the analysis of
the images and to summarize the findings in a
report. Base on these reports predictive
maintenance can be planned accordingly.
 Human safety is extremely important when working with
electrical equipment.

 Whenever possible wear the appropriate personal

protective equipment (PPE), clothing, face shielding,
gloves etc.

 Working on or examining energized equipment must be

taken seriously.
 The thermographer should have adequate knowledge and
shall comply with all the safety precautions and
procedures laid down by authorities especially when
examination of live systems are involved.

 The thermography personnel shall not touch any

electrical equipment open/remove any covers etc.