Data Mining:

Concepts and Techniques

— Chapter 2 —

Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber, and Jian Pei

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Simon Fraser University
©2011 Han, Kamber, and Pei. All rights reserved.
1
 Types of Data Sets
◼ Record
◼ Relational records
◼ Data matrix, e.g., numerical matrix,

timeout

season
coach

game
score
team

ball

lost
pla
crosstabs

wi
n
y
◼ Document data: text documents: term-
frequency vector
Document 1 3 0 5 0 2 6 0 2 0 2
◼ Transaction data
◼ Graph and network Document 2 0 7 0 2 1 0 0 3 0 0

◼ World Wide Web Document 3 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 0 3 0

◼ Social or information networks
◼ Molecular Structures
◼ Ordered TID Items
◼ Video data: sequence of images 1 Bread, Coke, Milk
◼ Temporal data: time-series
2 Beer, Bread
◼ Sequential Data: transaction sequences
3 Beer, Coke, Diaper, Milk
◼ Genetic sequence data
◼ Spatial, image and multimedia: 4 Beer, Bread, Diaper, Milk
◼ Spatial data: maps 5 Coke, Diaper, Milk
◼ Image data:
◼ Video data:
2
 Data Objects

◼ Data sets are made up of data objects.

◼ A data object represents an entity.
◼ Examples:
◼ sales database: customers, store items, sales
◼ medical database: patients, treatments
◼ university database: students, professors, courses
◼ Also called samples , examples, instances, data points,
objects, tuples.
◼ Data objects are described by attributes.
◼ Database rows -> data objects; columns ->attributes.
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 Attributes

◼ Attribute (or dimensions, features, variables):

a data field, representing a characteristic or feature
of a data object.
◼ E.g., customer _ID, name, address
◼ Types:
◼ Nominal

◼ Binary

◼ Numeric: quantitative

◼ Interval-scaled

◼ Ratio-scaled

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 Attribute Types
◼ Nominal: categories, states, or “names of things”
◼ Hair_color = {auburn, black, blond, brown, grey, red, white}
◼ marital status, occupation, ID numbers, zip codes
◼ Binary
◼ Nominal attribute with only 2 states (0 and 1)
◼ Symmetric binary: both outcomes equally important
◼ e.g., gender
◼ Asymmetric binary: outcomes not equally important.
◼ e.g., medical test (positive vs. negative)
◼ Convention: assign 1 to most important outcome (e.g., HIV
positive)
◼ Ordinal
◼ Values have a meaningful order (ranking) but magnitude between
successive values is not known.
◼ Size = {small, medium, large}, grades, army rankings

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 Numeric Attribute Types
◼ Quantity (integer or real-valued)
◼ Interval
◼ Measured on a scale of equal-sized units
◼ Values have order
◼ E.g., temperature in C˚or F˚, calendar dates
◼ No true zero-point
◼ Ratio
◼ We can speak of values as being an order of
magnitude larger than the unit of measurement
(10 K˚ is twice as high as 5 K˚).
◼ e.g., temperature in Kelvin, length, counts,
monetary quantities

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 Discrete vs. Continuous Attributes
◼ Discrete Attribute
◼ Has only a finite or countably infinite set of values

◼ E.g., zip codes, profession, or the set of words in a

collection of documents
◼ Sometimes, represented as integer variables

◼ Note: Binary attributes are a special case of discrete

attributes
◼ Continuous Attribute
◼ Has real numbers as attribute values

◼ E.g., temperature, height, or weight

◼ Practically, real values can only be measured and

represented using a finite number of digits
◼ Continuous attributes are typically represented as
floating-point variables
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 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data
◼ Motivation
◼ To better understand the data: central tendency,
variation and spread
◼ Data dispersion characteristics
◼ median, max, min, quantiles, outliers, variance, etc.
◼ Numerical dimensions correspond to sorted intervals
◼ Data dispersion: analyzed with multiple granularities
of precision
◼ Boxplot or quantile analysis on sorted intervals

8
 Measuring the Central Tendency
◼ Mean (algebraic measure) (sample vs. population): 1 n
x =  xi =  x
Note: n is sample size and N is population size. n i =1 N
◼ Weighted arithmetic mean:
◼ Median:
◼ Middle value if odd number of values, or average of
the middle two values otherwise
◼ Estimated by interpolation (for grouped data):

◼ Mode n / 2 − ( freq)l
median = L1 + ( ) width
◼ Value that occurs most frequently
freqin median
the data
◼ Unimodal, bimodal, trimodal

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Symmetric vs. Skewed Data
◼ Median, mean and mode of symmetric
symmetric, positively and
negatively skewed data

positively skewed negatively skewed

June 5, 2024 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 10

 Measuring the Dispersion of Data
◼ Quartiles, outliers and boxplots
◼ Quartiles: Q1 (25th percentile), Q3 (75th percentile)
◼ Inter-quartile range: IQR = Q3 – Q1
◼ Five number summary: min, Q1, median, Q3, max
◼ Boxplot: ends of the box are the quartiles; median is marked; add
whiskers, and plot outliers individually
◼ Outlier: usually, a value higher/lower than 1.5 x IQR
◼ Variance and standard deviation (sample: s, population: σ)
◼ Variance: (algebraic, scalable computation)
1 n 1 n 2 1 n
 [ xi − ( xi ) 2 ]
n n
1 1
s = ( xi − x ) =  =  −  =  xi −  2
2 2 2 2 2
( x )
n − 1 i =1 n − 1 i =1 n i =1 N i =1
i
N i =1

◼ Standard deviation s (or σ) is the square root of variance s2 (or σ2)

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 Boxplot Analysis

◼ Five-number summary of a distribution

◼ Minimum, Q1, Median, Q3, Maximum
◼ Boxplot
◼ Data is represented with a box
◼ The ends of the box are at the first and third
quartiles, i.e., the height of the box is IQR
◼ The median is marked by a line within the
box
◼ Whiskers: two lines outside the box extended
to Minimum and Maximum
◼ Outliers: points beyond a specified outlier
threshold, plotted individually

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 Properties of Normal Distribution Curve

◼ The normal (distribution) curve

◼ From μ–σ to μ+σ: contains about 68% of the

measurements (μ: mean, σ: standard deviation)

◼ From μ–2σ to μ+2σ: contains about 95% of it
◼ From μ–3σ to μ+3σ: contains about 99.7% of it

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 Histogram Analysis
◼ Histogram: Graph display of
tabulated frequencies, shown as 40
bars 35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
10000 30000 50000 70000 90000

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Histograms Often Tell More than Boxplots

◼ The two histograms

shown in the left may
have the same boxplot
representation
◼ The same values
for: min, Q1,
median, Q3, max
◼ But they have rather
different data
distributions

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 Scatter plot
◼ Provides a first look at bivariate data to see clusters of
points, outliers, etc
◼ Each pair of values is treated as a pair of coordinates and
plotted as points in the plane

16
Positively and Negatively Correlated Data

◼ The left half fragment is positively

correlated
◼ The right half is negative correlated

17
Uncorrelated Data

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 Data Visualization
◼ Why data visualization?
◼ Gain insight into an information space by mapping data onto graphical
primitives
◼ Provide qualitative overview of large data sets
◼ Search for patterns, trends, structure, irregularities, relationships among
data
◼ Help find interesting regions and suitable parameters for further
quantitative analysis
◼ Provide a visual proof of computer representations derived
◼ Categorization of visualization methods:
◼ Pixel-oriented visualization techniques
◼ Geometric projection visualization techniques
◼ Icon-based visualization techniques
◼ Hierarchical visualization techniques
◼ Visualizing complex data and relations
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 Similarity and Dissimilarity
◼ Similarity
◼ Numerical measure of how alike two data objects are

◼ Value is higher when objects are more alike

◼ Often falls in the range [0,1]

◼ Dissimilarity (e.g., distance)

◼ Numerical measure of how different two data objects

are
◼ Lower when objects are more alike

◼ Minimum dissimilarity is often 0

◼ Upper limit varies

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 Example:
Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix
Data Matrix
point attribute1 attribute2
x1 1 2
x2 3 5
x3 2 0
x4 4 5

Dissimilarity Matrix
(with Euclidean Distance)

x1 x2 x3 x4
x1 0
x2 3.61 0
x3 5.1 5.1 0
x4 4.24 1 5.39 0

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 Example: Minkowski Distance
Dissimilarity Matrices
point attribute 1 attribute 2 Manhattan (L1)
x1 1 2
L x1 x2 x3 x4
x2 3 5 x1 0
x3 2 0 x2 5 0
x4 4 5 x3 3 6 0
x4 6 1 7 0
Euclidean (L2)
L2 x1 x2 x3 x4
x1 0
x2 3.61 0
x3 2.24 5.1 0
x4 4.24 1 5.39 0

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 Summary
◼ Data attribute types: nominal, binary, ordinal, interval-scaled, ratio-
scaled
◼ Many types of data sets, e.g., numerical, text, graph, Web, image.
◼ Gain insight into the data by:
◼ Basic statistical data description: central tendency, dispersion,
graphical displays
◼ Data visualization: map data onto graphical primitives
◼ Measure data similarity
◼ Above steps are the beginning of data preprocessing.
◼ Many methods have been developed but still an active area of research.

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 References
◼ W. Cleveland, Visualizing Data, Hobart Press, 1993
◼ T. Dasu and T. Johnson. Exploratory Data Mining and Data Cleaning. John Wiley, 2003
◼ U. Fayyad, G. Grinstein, and A. Wierse. Information Visualization in Data Mining and
Knowledge Discovery, Morgan Kaufmann, 2001
◼ L. Kaufman and P. J. Rousseeuw. Finding Groups in Data: an Introduction to Cluster
Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
◼ H. V. Jagadish, et al., Special Issue on Data Reduction Techniques. Bulletin of the Tech.
Committee on Data Eng., 20(4), Dec. 1997
◼ D. A. Keim. Information visualization and visual data mining, IEEE trans. on
Visualization and Computer Graphics, 8(1), 2002
◼ D. Pyle. Data Preparation for Data Mining. Morgan Kaufmann, 1999
◼ S. Santini and R. Jain,” Similarity measures”, IEEE Trans. on Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligence, 21(9), 1999
◼ E. R. Tufte. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, 2nd ed., Graphics Press,
2001
◼ C. Yu , et al., Visual data mining of multimedia data for social and behavioral studies,
Information Visualization, 8(1), 2009
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