2-Structure of Biological Membranes &
Transport across Membranes
Structure of Biological Membranes
The plasma membrane is an envelope
surrounding the cell. It separates and protects
the cell from the external hostile
environment.
Besides being a protective barrier, plasma
membrane provides a connecting system
between the cell and its environment.
The subcellular organelles such as nucleus,
mitochondria, lysosomes are also surrounded
by membranes.
Chemical composition
• The membranes are composed of lipids, proteins
and carbohydrates. Among the lipids,
amphipathic lipids (containing hydrophobic and
hydrophilic groups) namely phospholipids,
glycolipids and cholesterol, are found in the
animal membranes.
• Many animal cell membranes have thick coating
of complex polysaccharides referred to as
glycocalyx.
• The oligosaccharides of glycocalyx interact with
collagen of intercellular matrix in the tissues.
• A lipid bilayer model originally proposed for
membrane structure in 1935 by Davson and
Danielle has been modified.
• Fluid mosaic model, proposed by Singer and
Nicolson, is a more recent and acceptable model
for membrane structure.
• The biological membrane usually have a
thickness of 5-8 nm.
• A membrane is essentially composed of a lipid
bilayer. The hydrophobic (nonpolar) regions of
the lipids face each other at the core of the
bilayer while the hydrophilic (polar) regions face
outward.
• Globular proteins are irregularly embedded in the lipid
bilayer. Membrane proteins are categorized into two
groups-
1.Extrinsic (peripheral) membrane proteins are loosely
held to the surface of the membrane and they can be
easily separated e.g. cytochrome c of mitochondria.
2.Intrinsic (integral) membrane proteins are tightly
bound to the lipid bilayer and they can be separated only
by the use of detergents or organic solvents e.g. hormone
receptors, cytochrome P450.
• The membrane is asymmetric due to the irregular
distribution of proteins. The lipid and protein subunits
of the membrane give an appearance of mosaic or a
ceramic tile.
The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
Transport across Membranes
• The biological membranes are relatively
impermeable. The membrane, therefore, forms a
barrier for the free passage of compounds across
it.
• Three distinct mechanisms have been identified
or the transport of solutes (metabolites) through
the membrane-
1. Passive diffusion
2. Facilitated diffusion
3. Active transport
1.Passive diffusion : This is a simple process which
depends on the concentration gradient of a particular
substance across the membrane passage of water and
gases through membrane occurs by passive diffusion.
This process does not require energy.
2. Facilitated diffusion : This is somewhat comparable
with diffusion since the solute moves along the
concentration gradient (from higher to lower
concentration)and no energy is needed. But the most
important distinguishing feature is that facilitated
diffusion occurs through the mediation of carrier or
transport proteins. Specific carrier proteins for the
transport of glucose, galactose, leucine, phenylalanine
etc. have been isolated and characterized.
A diagrammatic representation of 'ping-pong’ model for facilitated diffusion
3. Active transport : Active transport occurs
against a concentration gradient and this is
dependent on the supply of metabolic energy
(ATP).
Active transport is also a carrier mediated
process like facilitated diffusion. The most
important primary active transport systems are
ion-pumps (through the involvement of pump
ATPases or ion transporting ATPases).
Mechanism of transport across biological membrane
• Na+-K+ pump : The cells have a high intracellular
K+ concentration and a low Na+ concentration.
• This is essentially needed for the survival of the
cells. High cellular K+ is required for the optimal
glycolysis (pyruvate kinase is dependent on K+)
and for protein biosynthesis. Further, Na+ and K+
gradients across plasma membranes are needed
for the transmission of nerve impulse. The Na+-
K+ pump is responsible for the maintenance of
high K+ and low Na+ Concentrations in the cells.
A major portion of the cellular ATP (up to 70 %,
in nerve cells) is in fact utilized by Na+-K+ pump
to maintain the requisite cytosolic Na+ and K+
levels. Ouabain inhibits Na+-K+ ATPase.
Ouabain is a steroid derivative extracted from
the seeds of an African shrub. lt is a poison used
to tip the hunting arrows by the tribals in Africa.
Diagrammatic representation of Na+-K+ pump (Red colour block represents the
enzyme Na+-K+ ATPase
Transport Systems
The transport systems may be divided into 3 categories-
1.Uniport system : This involves the movement of a single molecule through the
membrane e.g. transport of glucose to the erythrocytes.
2.Symport system : The simultaneous transport of two different molecules in the same
direction e.g. transport of Na+ and glucose to the intestinal mucosal cells from the gut.
3.Antiport system: The simultaneous transport of two different molecules in the opposite
direction e.g exchange of Cl- and HCO3 in the erythrocytes. Uniport, symport and
antiport systems are considered as secondary active transport systems.
The symport and antiport systems referred to are good examples of cotransport system.
Proton pump in the stomach : This is an antiport transport
system of gastric parietal cells.
lt is brought out by the enzyme H+-K+ ATPase to maintain highly
acidic (pH=1) conditions in the lumen of the stomach.
Proton pump antiports two cytoplasmic protons (2H+) and two
extracellular potassium (2K+) ions for a molecule of ATP
hydrolysed. The chloride ions secreted by Cl- channels combine
with protons to form gastric HCI.
Osmosis is the phenomenon of movement of water from low
osmotic pressure (dilute solution) to high osmotic pressure
(concentrated solution) across biological membranes. The
movement of water in the body occurs through osmosis, and
this process does not require energy (ATP). Certain medical
and health complications are due to disturbances in osmosis.
e.g. edema, diarrhea, cholera, inflammation of tissues.
• The transport of macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides
and polynucleotides across the membranes is brought about by two
independent mechanisms namely endocytosis intake of
macromolecules by the cells and exocytosis release of
macromolecules from the cells to the outside.
Endocytosis : lt is estimated that approximately 2% of the exterior
surface of plasma membrane possesses characteristic coated pits. These
pits can be internalized to form coated vesicles which contain an unusual
protein called clathrin. The uptake of low density lipoprotein (LDL)
molecules by the cells is a good example of endocytosis. (Pinocytosis-
The ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding of small vesicles from
the cell membrane.)
Exocytosis: The release of macromolecules to the outside of the cells
mostly occurs via the participation of Golgi apparatus. The
macromolecules are transported to the plasma membrane in vesicles
and let out. The secretion of hormones (e.g. insulin, parathyroid
hormone) usually occurs by exocytosis.
Diagrammatic representation of endocytosis and exocytosis
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