Machining and Machine Tools

ME 210

Module I: Introduction
Supplementary Lecture Notes
 Important Declaration

The supplementary lecture note is the synopsis of the lectures taken as a part of the
course and information collected from different sources including text books,
research papers, experience of the course coordinator and other acceptable
resources. The students are advised to be actively present in the classroom for
additional discussions on the various topics that are not included in this lecture note.

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ME 210 Machining and Machine Tools L T P C
Fourth Semester 3 0 0 3
(Mechanical Engineering Branch)
Pre-requisite – ME 1111, ME 1203, ME 1202, ME 1208

Module 1: Introduction: Introduction to machine tools, motions of machine tools,

generation of surfaces, types of machine tools, basic elements of machine tools.

Module 2: Mechanics of Machining (Metal Cutting): Geometry of single point cutting

tools, Conversion of tool angles from one system to another, Mechanism of chip
formation, Orthogonal and oblique cutting, Use of chip breaker in machining,
Machining forces and Merchant’s Circle Diagram (MCD), Taylor’s Tool Life
Equations

Module 3: Lathe: Principle, classification, specifications, operations performed on a

lathe. Calculation for machining time, parameters and performance. Capstan and
Turret Lathes: introduction, comparison among capstan, turret and engine lathe,
turret indexing mechanism, feeding mechanism, cutting tools and tool holders, turret
tooling layout.

Module 4: Shaper: Principle, classification, specifications, shaper mechanisms –

crank and slotted lever quick return mechanism, feed mechanism, operations
performed on shaper – machining horizontal, vertical, angular surfaces, cutting slots,
grooves, key ways, machining irregular surfaces, splines and gears. Cutting speed,
feed, depth of cut and calculation for machining time for shaping operations.

Module 5: Planer: Principle, classification, specifications, comparison between

shaper and planer.

Module 6: Milling machine: Principle, classification, specifications, peripheral milling,

up and down milling, face milling, end milling, different operations performed on
milling machines, dividing heads, methods of indexing – direct, simple, compound
and differential indexing, milling of spur gear, milling cutters.

Module 7: Drilling machine: Principle, classification, specifications, operations

performed on drilling machines, twist drill nomenclature.

Module 8: Grinding machines: Principle, classification, specifications, different

grinding processes, grinding wheel – components (wheel material), grit, grade and
structure, standard marking system of grinding wheels. Glazing and loading in
wheels, dressing, truing, balancing, and mounting of grinding wheels.

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Texts/Reference:

1. P N Rao: Manufacturing Technology Vol 2- Metal Cutting and Machine Tools:

Tata Mc Graw Hill

2. Schey: Introduction to Manufacturing Process: McGraw-Hill

3. S K Hajra Choudhury: Workshop Technology Vol II Machine Tools: Media

Promoters & Publishers Pvt. Ltd.4. G Boothroyd & W A Knight: Fundamentals of
Machining and Machine Tools: CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group

5. H Gerling: All About Machine Tools: New Age Int. (P) Ltd.

6. R K Jain: Production Technology: Khanna Publishers

7. A. Ghosh & A. K. Mallik: Manufacturing Science: Affiliated East-West Press

Pvt. Ltd.

8. B S Raghuwanshi: A Course in Workshop Technology Vol II (Machine Tools):

Dhanpat Rai & Co.

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1. Introduction

Manufacturing process is defined as the process or the combinations of

various processes used to convert raw material to a final product of specific
characteristics meeting the desired design specifications. Production or
manufacturing can be simply defined as value addition processes by which raw
materials of low utility and value due to its inadequate material properties and poor
or irregular size, shape and finish are converted into high utility and valued products
with definite dimensions, forms and finish imparting some functional ability.
Manufacturing process is often referred as the science and technology of
manufacturing products effectively, efficiently, economically and environment
friendly. To achieve this, various processes are developed and among these
processes, material removal based ones are most widely used. Classification of
material removal processes are shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Classification of material removal processes

2. Machine tools

A machine tool is a non-portable power operated and reasonably valued

device or system of devices in which energy is expended to produce jobs of desired
size, shape and surface finish by removing excess material from the preformed
blanks in the form of chips with the help of cutting tools moved past the work
surface(s).

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 Machine Tools basically produce geometrical surfaces like flat, cylindrical or any
contour on the preformed blanks by machining work with the help of cutting tools.
The physical functions of a machine tool in machining are:

 firmly holding the blank and the tool

 transmit motions to the tool and the blank
 provide power to the tool-work pair for the machining action.
 control of the machining parameters, i.e., speed, feed and depth of cut.

2.1 Generation of surfaces with machine tools

Machine Tools produce desired geometrical surfaces on solid bodies (preformed

blanks) and for that they are basically comprised of the following.

 Devices for firmly holding the tool and work

 Drives for providing power and motions to the tool and work
 Kinematic system to transmit motion and power from the sources to the tool-
work
 Automation and control systems
 Structural body to support and accommodate those systems with sufficient
strength and rigidity

For material removal by machining, the work and the tool need relative
movements and those motions and required power are derived from the power
source(s) and transmitted through the kinematic system(s) comprised of a number
and type of mechanisms. The surfaces generated during the material removal
processes are related to the concept of Generatrix (G) and Directrix (D).
Depending upon the combination of the movement of the point of reference in a
particular frame of reference generation of flat or cylindrical surfaces can be
obtained.

2.1.1 Generation of flat surface

The principle of generation of flat surface is shown in Fig. 1.2 for reference. In
the figure, a flat plain straight line called Generatrix (G) is traversed in perpendicular
direction called Directrix (D) resulting in a flat surface. Variation in the traversing of

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the G on the perpendicular direction D can alter the surface and accordingly a
different surfaces can be obtained.

Fig. 1.2 Generation of flat surfaces by Generatrix and Directrix

2.1.2 Generation of cylindrical and allied surfaces

The principles of production of various cylindrical surfaces (of revolution) are

shown in Fig. 1.3, where,

 A long straight cylindrical surface is obtained by a circle (G) being traversed in

the direction (D) parallel to the axis as shown in Fig. 1.3(a)
 A cylindrical surface of short length is obtained by traversing a straight line (G)
along a circular path (D) as indicated in Fig. 1.3(b)
 Form cylindrical surfaces by rotating a curved line (G) in a circular path (D) as
indicated in Fig. 1.3(c and d).

Fig. 1.3 Generation of cylindrical surfaces (of revolution) with different combination
of Generatrix and Directrix
3. Motion of machine tools

The lines representing the Generatrix and Directrix are usually produced by
the locus of a point moving in two different directions and are actually obtained by
the motions of the tool-tip (point) relative to the work surface. Hence, for machining

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flat or curved surfaces the machine tools need relative tool work motions, which are
categorized in following two groups:

 Formative motions: These are the primary motions experienced in machine

tools used for removal of material from the workpiece efficiently and
effectively. These motions are namely
o Cutting motion (CM): The motion of the tool responsible for removal of
material due to shearing of the material in the respective working planes.
o Feed motion (FM): The motion that is responsible for positioning of the tool
with respect to the cutting plane and position of the cutting tool.
 Auxiliary motions: These are secondary motions in machine tools and
depend on the types of the machine and various related conditions. These
motions are mentioned as follows
o Indexing motion: The motion of the machine tool required for particular
indexing of the tool then it is referred as indexing motion.
o Additional feed motion: In some machine tool apart from the primary feed,
additional feed has to be provided for some operations and the motion
experienced by the machine tool during the additional feed movement is
referred as additional feed motion.
o Relieving motion: These motions are intended to relieve the contact
surfaces of the cutting with the workpiece surfaces for easy handling and
safety purposes.

The Generatrix and Directrix, tool and the work and their motions generally
remain interconnected and in different way for different machining work. Such
interconnections are typically shown in Fig. 1.4 for straight turning and in Fig. 1.5 for
shaping. The connections in case of straight longitudinal turning shown in Fig. 1.4(a)
are:

Generatrix (G) – Cutting motion (CM) – Work (W)

Directrix (D) – Feed motion (FM) – Tool (T)

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 Fig. 1.4 Principle of turning (cylindrical surface)
In case of making flat surface in a shaping machine as shown in Fig. 1.5 the
connections are:

G – CM – T
D – FM – W
which indicates that in shaping flat surfaces the Generatrix is provided by the cutting
motion imparted to the cutting tool and the Directrix is provided by the feed motion of
the work.

Fig. 1.5 Principle of producing flat surface using shaper machine

The Genratrix and Directrix can be obtained in four ways:

• Tracing (Tr) – where the continuous line is attained as a trace of path of a moving
point as shown in Fig. 1.4 and Fig. 1.5.

• Forming (F) – where the Generatrix is simply the profile of the cutting edge as
indicated in Fig. 1.3 (c and d)

• Tangent Tracing (TTr) – where the Directrix is taken as the tangent to the series of
paths traced by the cutting edges as indicated in Fig. 1.6.

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• Generation (G): Here the G or D is obtained as an envelope being tangent to the
instantaneous positions of a line or surface which is rolling on another surface. Gear
teeth generation by hobbing or gear shaping is the example as can be seen in Fig.
1.7.

Figure 1.6 typically shows the tool-work motions and the corresponding
Generatrix (G) and Directrix (D) while producing flat surface by a plain or slab milling
cutter in a conventional horizontal arbour type milling machine. The G and D are
connected here with the tool work motions as

G–x–T–F
D – FM – W – T.Tr
CM – T
Here, G and D are independent of the cutting motion and the G is the line of contact
between the milling cutter and the flat work surface. The present cutter being of roller
shape, G has been a straight line and the surface produced has also been flat.

Fig. 1.6 Directrix formed by tangent tracing in plain milling

Fig. 1.7 Generatrix (or Directrix) in gear teeth cutting by generation

For making holes in drilling machines both the cutting motion and the feed
motion are imparted to the cutting tool i.e., the drill bit whereas the workpiece
remains stationary. This is shown in Fig.1.8. The G and D are linked with the tool-
work in the way:

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 G – CM – T – Tr
D – FM – W – Tr

Fig. 1.8 Tool – work motions and G and D in drilling

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4. Machine tool drives

For the desired tool work motions with power, machine tools are mostly driven
by electric motors and use some mechanisms like belt pulley, gears etc. In some
machine tools, the tool work motions are provided by hydraulic drive also.

Machine tools drives may be various types as follows:

 Stepped drive
 Stepless drive

Stepped drives are very common in conventional machine tools where a discrete
number of speeds and feeds are available and preferably in G.P. (Geometric
Progression) series. Whereas the modern CNC machine tools are provided with
stepless drives enabling optimum selection and flexibly automatic control of the
speeds and feeds. Stepped drive is attained by using gear boxes or cone pulley (old
method) along with the power source. Stepless drive is accomplished usually by

 Variable speed AC or DC motors

 Stepper or servomotors
 Hydraulic power pack

5. Configuration of basic machine tools and its uses

5.1 Centre lathes

5.1.1 Configuration

In the Figure 1.9 a general configuration of center lathe is shown schematically. Its
major parts are:

 Head stock: it holds the blank and through that power and rotation are
transmitted to the job at different speeds
 Tailstock: supports longer blanks and often accommodates tools like drills,
reamers etc for hole making.
 Carriage: accommodates the tool holder which in turn holds the moving tools
 Bed: headstock is fixed and tailstock is clamped on it. Tailstock has a
provision to slide and facilitate operations at different locations. Carriage
travels on the bed.
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  Columns: on which the bed is fixed
 Work-tool holding devices

5.1.2 Use of center lathe

 Turning (external and internal)

 Facing
 Centering
 Drilling
 Recessing and parting
 Thread (external and internal) cutting
 Knurling

Fig. 1.9 Schematic view of a center lathe

Fig. 1.10 Some common center lathe operations

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5.2 Shaper

Figure 1.11 shows the general configuration of shaping machine. Its major
parts are:

 Ram: it holds and imparts cutting motion to the tool through reciprocation
 Bed: it holds and imparts feed motions to the job (blank)
 Housing with base: the basic structure and also accommodate the drive
mechanisms
 Power drive with speed and feed change mechanisms. Shaping machines are
generally used for producing flat surfaces, grooving, splitting etc. Because of
poor productivity and process capability these machine tools are not widely
used now-a-days for production.

Fig. 1.11 Schematic view of a shaping machine

5.3 Planer

The general configuration is schematically shown in Fig. 1.12. This machine

tool also does the same operations like shaping machine but the major differences
are:

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  In planing the job reciprocates for cutting motion and the tool moves slowly for
the feed motions unlike in shaping machine.
 Planing machines are usually very large in size and used for large jobs and
heavy duty work.

Fig. 1.12 Schematic view of a planning machine

5.4 Drilling machine

Figure 1.13 shows general configuration of drilling machine, column drill in

particular. The salient parts are

 Column with base: it is the basic structure to hold the other parts o Drilling
head: this box type structure accommodates the power drive and the speed
and feed gear boxes.
 Spindle: holds the drill and transmits rotation and axial translation to the tool
for providing cutting motion and feed motion – both to the drill.

Drilling machines are available in varying size and configuration such as pillar
drill, column drill, radial drill, micro-drill etc. but in working principle all are more or
less the same. Few common applications of drilling machines are as follows.

 Mainly for drilling (originating or enlarging cylindrical holes)

 Occasionally for boring, counter boring, counter sinking etc.
 Also for cutting internal threads in parts like nuts using suitable attachment.

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 Fig. 1.13 Schematic view of drilling machine
5.5 Milling machine

The general configuration of knee type conventional milling machine with

horizontal arbour is shown in Fig. 1.14. Its major parts are

 Milling arbour: to hold and rotate the cutter

 Ram: to support the arbour
 Machine table: on which job and job holding devices are mounted to provide
the feed motions to the job.
 Power drive with Speed and gear boxes: to provide power and motions to the
tool-work
 Bed: which moves vertically upward and downward and accommodates the
various drive mechanisms
 Column with base: main structural body to support other parts.

Milling machines are also quite versatile and can do several operations like
making flat surfaces, grooving, slitting and parting, helical grooving, gear and form
cutting.

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 Fig. 1.14 Schematic view of a milling machine

Fig. 1.15 Some common applications of milling machine

6. Specification of Machine Tools

A machine tool may have a large number of various features and

characteristics. But only some specific salient features are used for specifying a
machine tool. All the manufacturers, traders and users must know how machine
tools are specified.

The methods of specification of some basic machine tools are as follows:

Centre lathe

 Maximum diameter and length of the jobs that can be accommodated

 Power of the main drive (motor)
 Range of spindle speeds
 Range of feeds
 Space occupied by the machine

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Shaping machine

 Length, breadth and depth of the bed

 Maximum axial travel of the bed and vertical travel of the bed / tool
 Maximum length of the stroke (of the ram / tool)
 Range of number of strokes per minute
 Range of table feed
 Power of the main drive
 Space occupied by the machine

Drilling machine (column type)

 Maximum drill size (diameter) that can be used

 Size and taper of the hole in the spindle
 Range of spindle speeds
 Range of feeds
 Power of the main drive
 Range of the axial travel of the spindle / bed
 Floor space occupied by the machine

Milling machine (knee type and with arbour)

 Type, ordinary or swivelling bed type

 Size of the work table
 Range of travels of the table in X-Y-Z directions
 Arbour size (diameter)
 Power of the main drive
 Range of spindle speed
 Range of table feeds in X-Y-Z directions
 Floor space occupied

7. Classification of machine tools

Number of types of machine tools gradually increased till mid 20th century and
after that started decreasing based on Group Technology. However, machine tools
are broadly classified as follows:

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According to direction of major axis:

 horizontal center lathe, horizontal boring machine etc.

 vertical – vertical lathe, vertical axis milling machine etc.
 inclined – special ( e.g. for transfer machines).

According to purpose of use:

 general purpose – e.g. center lathes, milling machines, drilling machines etc.
 single purpose – e.g. facing lathe, roll turning lathe etc.
 special purpose – for mass production.

According to degree of automation:

 non-automatic – e.g. center lathes, drilling machines etc.

 semi-automatic – capstan lathe, turret lathe, hobbinh machine etc.
 automatic – e.g., single spindle automatic lathe, swiss type automatic lathe,
CNC milling machine etc.

According to size:

 heavy duty – e.g., heavy duty lathes (e.g. ≥ 55 kW), boring mills, planning
machine, horizontal boring machine etc.
 medium duty – e.g., lathes – 3.7 ~ 11 kW, column drilling machines, milling
machines etc.
 small duty – e.g., table top lathes, drilling machines, milling machines.
 micro duty – e.g., micro-drilling machine etc.

According to number of spindles:

 single spindle – center lathes, capstan lathes, milling machines etc.

 multi-spindle – multispindle (2 to 8) lathes, gang drilling machines etc.

According to blank type:

 bar type (lathes)

 chucking type (lathes)
 housing type

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According to type of automation:

 fixed automation – e.g., single spindle and multispindle lathes

 flexible automation – e.g., CNC milling machine

According to configuration:

 stand alone type – most of the conventional machine tools.

 machining system (more versatile) – e.g., transfer machine, machining center,
FMS etc.

Review Questions

1. Define Directrix (D) and Generatrix (G) with respect to planning machine for flat
surface generation.

2. Define the tool work motion in terms of associated parameters and G and D for
milling operations.

3. In which machine tools both the cutting motion & the feed motion are imparted to
the tool?

4. How is feed expressed in turning, shaping, drilling and milling?

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