Cognitivist School of Thought

UNIT 4 CONSTRUCTIVIST SCHOOL OF

THOUGHT
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Learning Outcomes
4.3 What is Constructivism
4.4 Constructivism and Instructional Design
4.4.1 Discovery Learning
4.4.2 Zone of Proximal Development
4.4.3 Scaffolding
4.4.4 Cognitive Apprenticeship
4.4.5 Coaching
4.4.6 Contextual Learning
4.5 Application of Constructivism in Instructional Design
4.5.1 Anchored Instruction
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Check Your Progress: Hints to Answers

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The different schools of learning that have evolved through times show us how an array
of ideas and establishment of developmental schools resulted in schools of thoughts
such as behaviourism and cognitivism.
Behaviouristic school of thought associates learning with response strengthening where
the learner is repeatedly cued to give simple responses followed by immediate feedback,
and receives rewards and punishment accordingly. It focuses on observable changes
in behaviour, and new behavioural pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.
Cognitivism is based on the thought process behind the behaviour. Changes in behaviour
are observed, and used as indicators to what is happening inside the learner’s mind,
while constructivism tells that we all construct our own perspective of the world through
individual experiences and schema. Constructivism focuses on preparing the learner to
solve problems in ambiguous situations.
This unit discusses the meaning of constructivism, its essential features, the main principles
of constructivism that play a role in creating a learning environment where learners
construct knowledge on their own, and problem-based learning that lead to constructing
knowledge and other cognitive processes and their assessment in different sections.
The unit also incorporates several activities and exercises for you to do during the
course of your interaction with the study material.

4.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• explain the meaning of constructivism and its essential features;
• analyze the social and psychological constructivists’ views and their applicability
to design instruction;
• design learning contexts in which students learn through discovery method; 59
Foundations of Learning • explain the meanings of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), cognitive
apprenticeship and contextual learning and their relationship with each other in
the construction of knowledge;
• describe the use of scaffolding in forming cognitive structures; and
• write the implications of this theory for designing instruction.

4.3 WHAT IS CONSTRUCTIVISM?

All knowledge is constructed and consists of what individuals create and express. It is
also claimed that all knowledge is tentative, subjective and personal, since individuals
make their own meaning from their beliefs and experiences.
What is knowledge? What is knowing? How do we come to know what we know?
These were important questions that became the concern for the epistemologists or
philosophers who studied knowledge. In the history of epistemology, the trend has
been to move from a static, passive view of knowledge towards a more adaptive and
active view. It is a theory of learning that has roots in both philosophy and psychology.
It has a long history and major theorists such as John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Maria
Montessori, Jerome Bruner and Lev Vygotsky have contributed to the field.
Constructivism suggests that individuals create their own understanding based on the
interaction of what they already know and believe, and the phenomena or ideas with
which they come into contact. It is a theory of how the learner constructs knowledge
from experience, which is unique to each individual. Constructivism is a system of
explanations of how learners, as individuals, adapt and refine knowledge. Here, learners
actively restructure knowledge in highly individualized ways, based on intellectual
configurations on existing knowledge and formal instructional experiences.
Among the constructivists, there are those who focus on the individual acting as sole
agent in the process of constructing and reconstructing meaning. Others focus on the
socio-cultural context of the individual, which influences the construction of knowledge.
There are different schools of constructivism, some of which are discussed below.
• Trivial Constructivism: This view of learning emphasises that learning occurs
when a learner actively constructs a knowledge representation. Here, the learner
constructs his/her own understanding of the world by reflecting on his/her
experiences. In the learning process, the learner selects, organises and integrates
information to construct knowledge. Here, the learner is an active player in the
process of constructing knowledge. Therefore, instructions are to be provided to
the learner with appropriate experiences with a view that enables them to construct
knowledge.
• Social Constructivism: In this view, the idea is that learning occurs in a socio-
constructional context of the learner through social interaction.
Students have also to include the social and cultural settings, which they learn and
which also have impact on students as they change their ideas. From this perspective,
sometimes referred to as ‘situated cognition’, the cultural and the social background of
students, use of language, and how meaning is derived from various contexts play a
role in the students’ construction of ideas. In other words, constructivist learning has a
social and cultural aspect. Social context and language are therefore ‘fundamental to
any learning’. Social constructivism recognizes these aspects of learning and knowledge
construction.

60
Vygotsky is one of the exponents of social constructivism. Social constructivism views Constructivist School of
Thought
each learner as a unique individual with unique needs and backgrounds. The learner is
also seen as complex and multidimensional. Social constructivism acknowledges the
uniqueness and complexity of the learner. It utilises encouragement and rewards as an
integral part of learning.
From the social constructivist viewpoint, it is important to take into account the
background and culture of the learner throughout the learning process, as this
background also helps to shape the knowledge and truth that the learner creates,
discovers and attains in the learning process.
Based on the above discussion, we may say that constructivism acknowledges that:
• knowledge is not fully known and fixed,
• there is a real world that we experience, but many ways to structure the world,
• knowledge is somewhat personal. The learner plays an active role in the personal
creation of knowledge through experiences, and
• learning is a social process in which the learner constructs meaning that is influenced
by the interaction of prior knowledge and new learning events.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
1) Explain the concept of Constructivism in your own words.
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2) Describe different types of Constructivism.

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4.4 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND INSTRUCTIONAL

DESIGN
As you have seen in the preceding sections, constructivism emphasizes knowledge
construction rather than the reproduction of knowledge in the form of rote memory.
Knowledge construction takes place in individual contexts and through negotiating and
collaborating with the group members. The learner’s previous knowledge, beliefs and
attitudes are considered in the knowledge construction process. The process of
constructing knowledge involves observing relationship between the concepts and
viewing things in a holistic or integrated manner. Constructing knowledge is through
discovery. Therefore, learning is inquiry-based and discovery-based. The role of an
instructional designer is to set up problems or projects, and provide mechanisms to
monitor, to explain and, guide the direction of inquiry to the learner. 61
Foundations of Learning The essential features of constructivism that find prominence in the instructional design
are discussed in the following sub-sections.
4.4.1 Discovery Learning
Learning through discovery is an important component involved in constructing
knowledge. Jerome Bruner is often credited with originating the concept of discovery
learning in the 1960s, but his ideas are very similar to those of earlier psychologists like
John Dewey. In the opinion of Bruner, the “Practice in discovering for oneself teaches
one to acquire information in a way that makes that information more readily viable in
problem solving” (Bruner, 1961, p.26). This philosophy later became the discovery
learning movement of the 1960s. This philosophical movement suggests that we should
‘learn by doing’, which is the important core of constructivism.
Construction of meanings or concepts or principles, etc., take place through discovery
where the learners are placed in problem-solving situations. The learner draws on his/
her own experience and prior knowledge and interacts with his/her environment by
exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or
performing experiments. The learners construct new ideas by selecting and transforming
ideas, propounding tentative views, and by taking ownership of the learning process
and outcomes. For this reason, instruction must be concerned with presenting
experiences and contexts that make learners willing and able to learn through discovery
of meaning. According to Bruner, information or knowledge is most effectively gained
by personal discovery and that the goal of education should be intellectual development.
The curricular materials designed for learners should foster the development of problem
solving skills through inquiry and discovery.
One of the main reasons for constructing knowledge through discovery is that “you
cannot teach people everything they need to know. The best way you can do this is to
position them where they can find what they need to know, when they need to know
it”. Thus, constructing knowledge through discovery can be equated to the proverb
‘teaching how to catch fish rather than giving him/her fish’, because it reduces the
dependency of the student on information.
4.4.2 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Vygotsky emphasized that learners begin learning from their surroundings, from people
around, and from their social world. He believed that our social world is the source of
all concepts, ideas, facts, skills and attitudes. All personal psychological processes
begin as social processes shared among people. Let us look into some of the ideas of
Vygotsky that play a vital role in learning.
According to Vygotsky, there are three ways of learning:
1) Imitative learning where one person tries to imitate the other.
2) Instructed learning where learners internalise the instructions of the teacher and
use these to control their learning.
3) Collaborative learning where a group of peers strives to understand each other
and through their interactions, learning occurs.
Let us see how Vygotsky’s ideas contribute to the process of learning. Vygotsky thought
that through instruction, learners would develop the skills associated with living
successfully in the culture. In particular, he was interested in collaborative activity between
learners and more matured members of the society, through which children will be able
to master activities and think in ways that have meaning in their culture. The concept,
62 called Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), explains how learning occurs.
 Constructivist School of
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Thought
The distance between the actual development level of a learner as determined by
independent problem solving, and the level of potential development as determined
through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable
peers (Vygotsky 1978).
Vygotsky recognised that there is a gap between what the person could do without
assistance and what they could do if some help was provided. He called this gap “the
Zone of Proximal Development”. When we provide a set of temporary supports so
that someone can complete a task, we are working in their Zone of Proximal
Development. This is typically thought of as each person’s range of potential for learning,
where that learning is culturally shaped by the social environment. A learner ultimately
appropriates and internalizes the knowledge transacted through assisted performance
so that it becomes their own. A distance teacher instructional designer has to design
learning within this zone.
According to psychologists Ronald Gallimore and Ronald Tharp (1990), there are
four stages of Zone of Proximal Development that a learner goes through:
First stage: In this stage, the learner’s performance is assisted by more capable
persons, such as parents, teachers, and peers.
Second stage: In this stage, there is less dependence on external assistance and the
performance begins to become internalised. The learners help themselves by using
self-directed speech.
Third stage: In this stage, the performance is developed, automated and fossilised. At
this time assistance from others and self-directed speech is not required. Task
performance is smooth and integrated, and internalised and automated.
Fourth stage: In this stage, deautomatization of performance takes place, which leads
the individual to re-enter the ZPD. For example, at times, even, well learnt responses
are forgotten, or become rusty. At these times, the individual re-enters the ZPD and
consciously talks through the matter internally or seeks external assistance. To this
extent there is a continual movement in and out of the ZPD. Gallimore and Tharp term
this a ‘recursion’.
4.4.3 Scaffolding
In the previous sections, you have seen that Vygotsky’s theory suggests that students
learn through contact with more capable members of a society. The more capable
member organises activities so that the students participate in real activities at their
own level of capability. The system of support is called a scaffold. The activity is
organised so that it is within the learner’s zone of proximal development. To place
learning in the ZPD, an appropriate level of difficulty needs to be established. This
level, assumed to be at the proximal level, must be challenging. The adult then needs to
provide for assisted performance. This is referred to as instruction. The adult provides
guided practice to the child with a clear sense of the goal or outcome of the learner’s
performance. As with scaffolding around a building, it is gradually removed, so that the
learner can perform the task independently.
4.4.4 Cognitive Apprenticeship
Cognitive apprenticeships are situated within the social constructivist paradigm. Students
work in teams on projects or problems with close scaffolding of the instructor. Cognitive
apprenticeships are representative of Vygotskian Zones of Proximal Development in
which the students’ tasks are slightly more difficult than they can manage independently,
requiring the aid of their peers and instructor to succeed. 63
Foundations of Learning Cognitive apprenticeship is an approach to the learning process where a master of a
skill teaches that skill to an apprentice. Constructivist approaches to human learning
have led to the development of a theory of cognitive apprenticeship, which holds that
the masters of a skill often fail to take into account the implicit processes involved in
carrying out complex skills when they are novices or beginners. To combat these
tendencies, “cognitive apprenticeships” are designed, among other things, to bring these
tacit processes into the open, where students can observe, enact, and practice them
with help or assistance from the teacher. By using processes, such as modelling and
coaching, cognitive apprenticeships also support the three stages of skill acquisition.
They are: the cognitive stage, the associative stage, and the autonomous stage.
In the cognitive stage, learners develop declarative understanding of the skill. In the
associative stage, mistakes and misinterpretations learnt in the cognitive stage are
detected and eliminated, while in the associative stage, associations between the critical
elements involved in the skill are strengthened. Finally, in the autonomous stage, the
learner’s skill becomes honed and perfected until it is executed at an expert level. For
example, in traditional apprenticeships the apprentice learns a trade such as tailoring
or carpentry by working under a master teacher. The cognitive apprenticeships allow
the master to model behaviours in a real world context with cognitive modeling. By
listening to the master explain exactly what she is doing and thinking as she models the
skill, the apprentice can identify relevant behaviours and develop a conceptual model
of the processes involved. The apprentice then attempts to imitate those behaviours
with the master observing and providing coaching.

4.4.5 Coaching
Coaching provides assistance at the most critical level – the skill level just beyond what
the learner/apprentice could accomplish by herself. This may be referred to as the
Zone of Proximal Development, where fostering development within this zone leads to
the most rapid development. The coaching process includes additional modeling as
necessary, corrective feedback, and reminders, all intended to bring the apprentice’s
performance closer to that of the master’s. As the apprentice becomes more skilled
through the repetition of this process, the feedback and instruction provided by the
master “fades” until the apprentice is, ideally, performing the skill at a close approximation
of the master level. A part of the effectiveness of the cognitive apprenticeship model
comes from learning in context. Coaching and scaffolding is a key part of situated
learning materials.
It is argued that cognitive apprenticeships are less effective when skills and concepts
are taught independent of their real world context and situation. Situations might be
said to co-produce knowledge through activity. It is also argued that learning and
cognition are fundamentally “situated” In cognitive apprenticeships; the activity being
taught is modeled in real world situations.

4.4.6 Contextual Learning

In the preceding sections we saw that learners construct meanings by connecting the
experiences, which they are already exposed to in various contexts with the new learning.
The teacher/instructor/academic counselors plays a role of scaffolder while the learner
makes connections.
Contextualized learning is a proven concept that incorporates much of the most recent
research in cognitive science. The contextual approach recognizes that learning is a

64
complex and multifaceted process that goes far beyond drill-oriented, stimulus-and- Constructivist School of
Thought
response methodologies.
In contexts, learning occurs only when students process new information or knowledge
in such a way that it makes sense to them in their own frames of reference (their own
inner worlds of memory, experience, and response). This approach to learning and
teaching assumes, that the mind naturally seeks meaning in context, that is, in relation to
the person’s current environment, and that it does so by searching for relationships that
make sense and appear useful.
Contextual learning focuses on the multiple aspects of any learning environment, whether
a classroom, a laboratory, a computer lab or a worksite. It encourages distance teachers
to choose and/or design learning environments that incorporate as many different forms
of experience as possible (social, cultural, physical, and psychological) in working
toward the desired learning outcomes. In such an environment, students discover
meaningful relationships between abstract ideas and practical applications in the context
of the real world. Concepts are internalized through the process of discovering,
reinforcing, and relating. For example, in a biology or chemistry class, students might
learn basic science concept of plants by observing different types of plants and their
structure, and relate them while studying about the modifications of roots, stems and
leaves.
Contextual learning helps students to relate the subject matter content to real world
situations and motivate them to make connections between knowledge and its
applications to their lives as family members, citizens, and workers and engage in the
hard work that learning requires.
Contextual Instruction and Learning (CIL) strategies
• Problem based learning: Contextual learning can be problem based where the
students begin with a simulated or real problem. Students use critical thinking
skills and a scientific approach to inquire to address the problem or issue. They
may also draw upon multiple content areas to solve these problems. Worthwhile
problems that are relevant to students’ families, school experiences, workplaces,
and communities hold greater personal meaning for students.
• Using multiple contexts: While constructing knowledge, the students might
use various resources and contexts, such as community, neighborhood, family,
school and so on. We have already seen that knowledge cannot be separated
from the physical and social context in which it develops. How and where a
person acquires and creates knowledge is, therefore, very important. The
contextual learning experiences are enriched when students learn skills in multiple
contexts.
• Drawing upon student diversity: Students come from diverse backgrounds
with differences in values, social mores, and perspectives. These differences can
be the impetus for learning and can add complexity to the CIL experience. Team
collaboration and group learning activities respect students’ diverse histories,
broaden perspectives, and build inter-personal skills.
• Self-regulated learning: Ultimately, students must become lifelong learners.
Lifelong learners are able to seek out, analyze, and use information with little to
no supervision. To do so, students must become more aware how they process
information, employ problem-solving strategies, and use background knowledge.
Contextual experiences should allow for trial and error; provide time and structure
for reflection; and provide adequate support to assist students to move from
dependent to independent learning. 65
Foundations of Learning • Interdependent learning groups: Students will be influenced by and will
contribute to the knowledge and beliefs of others. Learning groups, or learning
communities are established in workplaces and institutions with an effort to share
knowledge, focus on goals, and allow all to teach and learn from each other.
When learning communities are established in different institutions, educators act
as coaches, facilitators, and mentors.
• Authentic assessment: Contextual learning is intended to build knowledge and
skills in meaningful ways by engaging students in real life, or authentic contexts.
Assessment of learning should correspond with the methods and purposes of
instruction. Authentic assessments show among other things that learning has
occurred; are blended into the teaching/learning process; and provide students
with opportunities and direction for improvement. Authentic assessment is used
to monitor student progress and inform teaching practices.
Activities, such as team teaching, cooperative learning, integrated learning, work-
based learning, service learning, problem-based learning, and other support that
are contextual in nature are required in a distance learning context where the
constructivist approach to learning is intended.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
1) Explain the concept of discovery learning.
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2) What is Scaffolding in educational learning terms?
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4.5 APPLICATION OF CONSTRUCTIVISM IN

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
It is necessary to change our perspectives of a learner, learning process and learning
system, so that a conducive, democratic learning environment is created for the learners
where they can explore, analyze, share ideas, reflect, communicate and learn together
in groups. Each learner needs to be valued for his or her own experiences that he/she
brings to the learning environment. The role of a distance teacher/unit designer becomes
more critical in a constructivist learning situation when compared to that of a conventional
teacher. We will expand this concept in the following sections that concentrate on
creating a constructivist distance learning with various approaches and techniques.
Constructivism can be applied to the distance education instruction scenario wherein
the students while going through the study materials construct meanings on their own
by connecting the known knowledge to the unknown, explore through activities and
discover, solve problems through engaging in meaningful tasks, share knowledge with
66 peer groups e.g., through online discuss forums, apply or extend the meanings
constructed to the new situations, and assess themselves through reflective exercises Constructivist School of
Thought
etc.
In the context of the constructivist pedagogy, the views about a learner, learning process
and the teacher’s planning of a unit undergo a vast change. This section discusses one
of the learning cycles and the unit plan format that can be used by teachers/instructional
designers for visualizing and creating learning situations in the classrooms.
4.5.1 Anchored Instruction
The anchored instruction approach is an attempt to help a learner become more actively
engaged in learning in a situation or anchoring instruction in a unit. The learning
environments are designed to provoke the kinds of thoughtful engagement that helps
learners develop effective thinking skills and attitudes that contribute to effective problem
solving and critical thinking.
Therefore, learning activities should be designed around an anchor, which is often a
story, adventure, or situation that includes a problem or issue to be dealt with that,
which is of interest to the learners. Instructional materials should include rich resources
that learners can explore as they try to decide how to solve a problem.
Thus, we see that anchored instruction requires putting the learner in the context of a
problem. The students ‘play’ an authentic role while investigating the problem, identifying
gaps to their knowledge, researching the information needed to solve the problem and
developing solutions.
Characteristics of anchored instruction: Learning activities should be designed
around an ‘anchor’, which is based on a contextualized case study or problem situation.
The following may be taken into consideration:
• Distance learning materials should allow exploration by the learner to allow active
manipulation, questioning and involvement in the situation.
• Learners identify with problem and become actively involved in generating
solutions.
• The distance educator should use instructional materials and websites to provide
the context of a problem. This might include news clips, pictures or graphics.
Features, such as a virtual field trip, virtual tours, and simulations could act as
anchors.
• Learners can use the World Wide Web to search for information needed to solve
the problem, identify pictures, graphics, video clips and audio clips that help them
develop a solution to a problem.
From the above discussion we can say that anchored instruction is a learner- centered,
contextualized approach to learning. In this approach the learner begins with a problem
to be solved rather than content to be mastered. Anchored instruction is also a type of
problem based learning that uses a complex interesting situation as an anchor for
learning.
Problem-based learning (PBL) which includes anchored instruction is a total approach
to students learning. PBL is both a curriculum and a process. The curriculum consists
of carefully selected and designed-problems that demand from the learner an acquisition
of critical knowledge, problem solving proficiency, self-directed learning strategies,
and team participation skills. The process replicates the commonly used systemic
approach to resolving problems or meeting challenges that are encountered in life and
in a career. In problem-based learning, the roles of a teacher and student change. The 67
Foundations of Learning students assume increasing responsibility for their learning, giving them more motivation
and more feelings of accomplishment, setting the pattern for them to become successful
lifelong learners. The faculty in turn becomes resources, tutors, and evaluators, guiding
the students in their problems solving efforts. Thus, we can suggest that anchored
instruction is a student centered, contextualized approach to learning. In this approach
the learner begins with a problem to be solved rather than content to be mastered. The
concept of anchored instruction was stimulated by the merit knowledge problem, which
states that knowledge can be recallable only when the individual is questioned explicitly,
about the context in which it was learnt. The issue of learning transfer, situated cognition
and collaborative learning are primary concerns in anchored instruction. It emphasizes
the importance of creating an anchor that generates interest and enables subjects to
identify and define problem, and to pay attention to their own perception and
comprehension of these problems.
Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes that social interactions can facilitate learners’ progression
to more advanced ways of thinking and problem solving. Instructional designers should,
therefore, consider opportunities to incorporate into lesson designs, cooperative learning
or tutoring from peers or adults.

4.6 LET US SUM UP

Constructivism suggests that individuals create their own understandings based upon
the interaction of what they already know and believe and the phenomena or ideas
with which they come into contact. Constructivism is a descriptive theory of learning,
which has its roots in philosophy, cognitive psychology and sociology as well.
Constructivism is an approach to learning that permits students to form their own
concepts and models of those things they observe in the natural world. There are
different types of constructivism, such as trivial, social constructivism. This School of
thought recognizes that the students have a Zone of Proximal Development and
instructional materials should be designed using questions, discussions and scaffolding.

4.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: HINTS TO

ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Please look at section 4.3. Constructivism deals with the idea that individual creates
their own understanding based upon their own experiences and therefore learning
is highly individualised.
2) Please see section 4.3 and read about the trivial constructivism and social
constructivism.
Check Your Progress 2
3) Please see sub-section 4.4.1. In discovery learning, the learner draws upon his/
her own prior knowledge, experiences, interaction and construct new ideas. This
leads to knowledge gained by personal discovery.

4) Please see sub-section 4.4.3. Scaffolding is based on Vygotsy’s theory that learners
learn from contact with other learners and members of society and this provides
them a support system for their learning and helps them to learn better.

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