Social Justice Counseling The Next Steps Beyond

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chung, Rita Chi-Ying.

Social justice counseling: the next steps beyond multiculturalism/Rita Chi-Ying Chung, Frederic P.
Bemak
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-4129-9952-6 (pbk.)

1. Cross-cultural counseling. 2. Psychiatry, Transcultural.

3. Social justice. I. Bemak, Fred. II. Title.

BF636.7.C76C48 2012
616.89′14—dc23 2011031258

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

11 12 13 14 15 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments

PART I: INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELING AND SOCIAL

JUSTICE
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 2. Theories of Multicultural Counseling and Its Relationship
to Social Justice
Chapter 3. Social Justice as the Fifth Force: Theories and Concepts
PART II: MULTI-PHASE MODEL OF PSYCHOTHERAPY,
COUNSELING, HUMAN RIGHTS, AND SOCIAL JUSTICE
Chapter 4. Development, Rationale, and Prerequisites of the Multi-
Phase Model (MPM) of Psychotherapy, Counseling, Human Rights,
and Social Justice
Chapter 5. Multi-Phase Model (MPM) of Psychotherapy, Counseling,
Human Rights, and Social Justice
PART III: SOCIAL JUSTICE JOURNEYS AND PERSONAL
APPLICATIONS
Chapter 6. Journey of an Asian Woman Human Rights and Social
Justice Road Warrior: Rita Chi-Ying Chung
Chapter 7. The Roots of Social Justice: The Personal Journey of a
Human Rights Advocate: Fred Bemak
Chapter 8. Social Justice Reflections of Graduate Students
PART IV: CRITICAL SOCIAL JUSTICE TOOLS

Chapter 9. The Critical Intersection of Social Change and Social

Justice
Chapter 10. Leadership and Social Justice
Chapter 11. Advocacy and Social Justice
Chapter 12. The Myths and Realities of Empowerment
Chapter 13. Interdisciplinary Collaboration as a Means of Achieving
Social Justice
PART V: SOCIAL JUSTICE APPLICATIONS
Chapter 14. Social Action Research: A Critical Tool for Social Justice
Work
Chapter 15. A Model Higher Education Training Program: Counseling,
Multiculturalism, and Social Justice/Human Rights
PART VI: SOCIAL JUSTICE IN A GLOBAL WORLD
Chapter 16. Social Justice in a Multicultural and Global World:
Advancing the Social Justice Agenda
Chapter 17. Conclusion
Index

About the Authors

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T
his book would not have come about without the support and
dedication of many people. We would like to thank Diana Ortiz and
Mandi Gordon, who have been invaluable in assisting us with the
preparation of this book. We would also like to thank Reston Bell, Liz
Davis, Jan Weng, Kate Golkow, Rodolfo Marenco, Candace Fleming, Brad
Pabian, Hollie Jones, and Diana Ortiz for their powerful narratives, which
help the book come alive with true life stories about social justice. We
would also like to thank our colleagues at SAGE—Kassie Graves, who
through her constant support and encouragement helped to bring this book
to completion; and Cate Huisman, who one can only dream about having as
a copy editor.
In addition we would both like to deeply thank all of the many students
who have taken up our challenge and dared to take the risk and find the
courage to confront themselves and others regarding multicultural social
justice issues. You are the pathway for the next generation of multicultural
social justice counselors, and we write this book in your honor.
I (Rita Chi-Ying Chung) would like to thank my coauthor, colleague,
and partner Fred Bemak for his continuous support and dedication to social
justice work, who has led by example in walking his talk. And in turn, I
(Fred Bemak), would extend my deepest appreciation and gratitude to my
coauthor, colleague, and partner, Rita Chi-Ying Chung, for being the
absolute embodiment of living a life filled with social justice values and
being an incredible model for multicultural social justice work.
PART I

INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELING
AND SOCIAL JUSTICE
1

INTRODUCTION

We must become the change we want to see in the world.

(Mahatma Gandhi)

T
he writing of Social Justice Counseling: The Next Steps Beyond
Multiculturalism in Application, Theory, and Practice has taken place
during the last ten years. It has been a journey that parallels the
multicultural social justice movement within the mental health field,
fraught with strong reactions to the content of the book. These have been
both highly laudatory and—in the earlier years of writing—strongly critical
about the place of social justice within the context of counseling,
psychology, and social work. Over the ten years since this book became an
idea, the mental health field has broadened to more easily include issues of
social justice as integral to the work of psychologists, counselors, and social
workers, and the criticism about social justice as a fundamental aspect of
counseling has diminished, albeit not disappeared. Based on our work, our
experiences, and our commitment to justice, equality, and equity for all
people, and the critical issue of redistributing power and privilege as a
means toward social justice, we have stayed the course with this book and
are delighted to share with you our thoughts and experiences related to
multicultural social justice counseling.
This book has a foundation in the amazing work of many colleagues
who have paved the way in the field for multicultural counseling and
psychology (e.g., Joseph Aponte, Patricia Arredondo, Manuel Casas,
William Cross, Michael D’Andrea, Judy Daniels, Juris Draguns, Janet
Helms, Farah Ibrahim, Allen Ivey, Teresa LaFromboise, Anthony Marsella,
Thomas Parham, Paul Pedersen, Joseph Ponterotto, Don Pope-Davis, Issac
Prilleltensky, Maria Root, Derald Wing Sue, Stanley Sue, Joseph Trimble,
Clemont Vontress, and many others). The chapters in this book build on the
incredible work and efforts of the pioneers in the multicultural field and
present ways to embed social justice as the next step in the counseling,
psychology, and social work fields. This book is a first step in
systematically looking at how to integrate social justice into the mental
health field without it being absorbed and diluted in the multicultural work
that has taken root and now constitutes a cornerstone of contemporary
counseling with an emphasis on cultural diversity and plurality.
Social inequities that are rooted in oppression, intolerance, privilege,
power, and inequities are not new. For a long time, discrimination,
oppression, and intolerance have methodically excluded people based on
race, ethnicity, culture, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, gender,
age, religion, physical disability, mental disability, and so forth, and this has
created obstacles to access, opportunity, and participation. Counselors,
psychologists, and social workers are constantly working with clients,
families, communities, and schools that experience profound issues of
oppression, discrimination, social inequities, unfair treatment, and
disproportionate privilege, as well as unequal social, political, and
economic access. Yet, consistent with the origins of Western psychology,
we frequently focus on the individual and her or his pathology or strengths,
rather than the broader social, economic, political, and ecological context.
The unintended result of our mental health tradition has created a
situation in which we often neglect larger critical issues that impact mental
health, and we make conscious decisions to deemphasize those aspects of
our clients’ lives. Incorporating social justice into our work does exactly the
opposite—it helps us in examining and helping our clients to address vital
life circumstances and issues that affect them and become salient
components in counseling and psychotherapy. Social, economic, ecological,
historical, and political issues and concerns, and social action as well,
subsequently become key ingredients in the psychotherapeutic relationship.
The attention to cultural diversity has moved the field of mental health
toward greater responsiveness in the 21st century. In the United States,
where Latinos and Asians are the fastest-growing groups nationally, 12% of
the population is foreign born, and projections indicate that by 2042, people
of color will outnumber Whites, with the nation projected to be 54%
minority in 2050 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). While in some circles there is
greater acceptance of cultural diversity, there is at the same time a growing
polarity in attitudes and values regarding the acceptance of ethnic and racial
diversity, tolerance for differences in religious beliefs, and acceptance of
differences in sexual orientation. These differences, coupled with the world
shrinking through globalization, media and technology, and the vast
migration of people all around the world, counselors, psychologists, and
social workers by necessity must become knowledgeable and sensitive to
issues of diversity.
In turn, mental health professionals must acquire distinctive skills to
accompany their growing awareness in order to effectively work with
culturally diverse populations. This requires a growing acceptance of,
respect for, and appreciation of the dignity and uniqueness of race and
ethnicity, physical and mental disabilities, gender, religion, sexual
orientation, age, and socioeconomic status. Even with emergent approval of
cultural diversity, there has not been systematic attention as to how to link
culturally responsive mental health work with social justice counseling.
This book provides an examination of how to move to the next steps that go
beyond the combination of social justice and multicultural counseling,
presenting ideas about social justice application, theory, practice, and
research. In addition, this book is different from other books on social
justice in providing a foundation of the theories, skills, and techniques that
are critical to understand being a competent multicultural social justice
mental health provider, examining issues that we believe must be
understood by social justice mental health professionals as key components
of their work. These issues are typically separated and addressed as separate
components of social justice work, and therefore separate books are written
specifically focusing on a component. But this book uniquely brings
together the next steps beyond multiculturalism for the first time, to include
a comprehensive look at them. Issues that are included in this book include
the integration of multiculturalism and social justice, models of
intervention, relevant socioeconomic and political issues, change theory,
advocacy, leadership, empowerment, interdisciplinary collaboration, social
action research, training, and global issues.
Three common questions that are asked in multicultural social justice
work are as follows:
1) What is social justice?
2) What are the differences between multicultural counseling and social
justice counseling?
3) How does a multicultural social justice counselor, psychologist, or social
worker actually provide counseling?

The intent of this book is to answer these critical questions; the answers
are essential in taking the next steps to move beyond multicultural
counseling. Over the past few decades, we have established a body of
literature, including excellent research and theory, along with guidelines
about becoming an effective multicultural practitioner.
The book is divided into six sections. It begins with Part I, which
includes the current chapter, an introduction to counseling and social
justice. Chapter 2 reviews the theories of multicultural counseling and
presents how this body of literature relates to social justice work. Next,
Chapter 3 presents social justice as a fifth force and outlines definitions,
theories, historical perspectives, models, and characteristics of a social
justice counselor, psychologist, and social worker.
In Part II, there is a description of the Multi-Phase Model (MPM) of
psychotherapy, counseling, human rights and social justice, a social justice
counseling model that we have developed as a framework from over 50
years of combined experience. This part begins with Chapter 4, a discussion
on the development, rationale, and prerequisites for effectively utilizing the
MPM model. It is followed by Chapter 5, in which we describe the MPM.
Part III shares the deeply personal social justice journeys of each of the
two authors as well as a number of graduate students. The inclusion of our
respective personal narratives and the students’ narratives was to reach you,
the reader, on a more personal level, with hopes that you can identify your
own social justice journey. The stories describe several individuals’
journeys in becoming social justice mental health practitioners and share
the power of transformation through training and practice.
Following the personal narratives is Part IV, which describes the critical
intersection between social change and social justice. Chapter 9 examines
dimensions of change, including an exploration of process, power, and
resistance to change. The next two chapters describe what we consider
critical qualities of a competent multicultural social justice counselor.
Chapter 10 provides a close look at leadership, leadership styles, issues of
gender, and characteristics of a social justice leader. Chapter 11 examines
advocacy within the framework of social justice counseling. It includes an
overview of the history of advocacy, qualities of an effective advocate, and
challenges of being a counseling social justice advocate. Chapter 12
continues with an examination of one of the most important markers for
working from a multicultural social justice perspective, that is,
empowerment. Given that nowadays in counseling, psychology, and social
work, there are no critics of empowerment, and that everyone is supportive
of empowering clients, families, and communities, the chapter takes a
critical look at how mental health professionals sometimes inadvertently
disempower others under the guise of empowerment. To more closely
examine these issues, this chapter discusses what we call authentic
empowerment and describes its relationship to social justice counseling.
Finally in Part IV, Chapter 13 focuses on interdisciplinary collaboration. We
have found that remaining within one’s own sphere of counseling,
psychology, or social work is highly limiting in doing social justice
counseling. To address this, we have included this chapter on the
importance of working across disciplines, and we have included guiding
principles for interdisciplinary collaboration.
One of the criticisms of social justice counseling has been the scarcity
of evidence-based research to support incorporating social justice into
counseling. To address this, we have incorporated Part V, Social Justice
Applications, which includes chapters on social action research and
training. Chapter 14 examines the dimensions of social action research that
is geared toward social change, looks at descriptors of social action
research, and considers how social action research relates to counseling,
psychology, and social work. Chapter 15 discusses a social justice training
model to assist educators in developing graduate training models that
emphasize multiculturalism, social justice, and human rights. This chapter
provides ideas, suggestions, and recommendations on how to train the next
generation of multicultural social justice counselors, psychologists, and
social workers.
Part VI is the final section of the book. Chapter 15 examines the
importance and relevance of social justice in a global environment that
assists counselors, psychologists, and social workers to “think globally, and
act locally.” The chapter underscores the impact of globalization on social
justice and the interaction between national and global injustices and mental
health work. Finally, Chapter 17 concludes the book with a discussion of
the realities of social justice work and how to “feed one’s soul” when
working on injustices. It is crucial that helping professionals practice self-
care so that they are able to continue with courage and passion when
battling against social injustices.
We believe that this book is the first to present how to take the next
steps beyond the incredible multicultural strides we have taken in the
mental health field. We also feel that the inclusion of several topical areas
that are essential to social justice mental health work in one book
comprehensively synthesizes the knowledge and material necessary to
move to the next steps of application, theory, and practice that will move us
forward to a more equitable, just, and healthy society and world.
We wish you success in your social justice work, and as Mahatma
Gandhi said, “A small body of determined spirits fired by an unquenchable
faith in their mission can alter the course of history.”

REFERENCE
U.S. Census Bureau. (2008). An older and more diverse nation by midcentury. Retrieved from
http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/population/012496.html
2

THEORIES OF MULTICULTURAL
COUNSELING AND ITS
RELATIONSHIP TO SOCIAL JUSTICE
The nation will be more racially and ethnically diverse by midcentury,
according to projections released by the U.S. Census Bureau. Minorities,
now roughly one-third of the U.S. population, are expected to become the
majority in 2042, with the nation projected to be 54% minority in 2050. By
2023, minorities will comprise more than half of all children. (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2008)
The Latina/o population is projected to nearly triple, from 46.7 million to
132.8 million during the 2008–2050 period. Thus, nearly one in three U.S.
residents would be Latina/o. The African American population is projected
to increase from 41.1 million, or 14% of the population in 2008, to 65.7
million, or 15% in 2050. The Asian population is projected to climb from
15.5 million to 40.6 million—a rise from 5.1% to 9.2%. American Indians
and Alaska Natives are projected to rise from 4.9 million to 8.6 million (or
from 1.6 to 2%). The Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander
population is expected to more than double, from 1.1 million to 2.6 million.
The number of people who identify themselves as being of two or more
races is projected to more than triple, from 5.2 million to 16.2 million. (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2008)

WARM UP EXERCISE
1. When was the first time you noticed race or ethnicity?
 2. When were you in a setting that was multicultural? Did you reach
out to others from culturally diverse backgrounds that were different
than your own?
3. Can you recall major historical events that impacted cultural
diversity in the United States? How about events that had a global
impact on cultural diversity?
4. When you have had professional or personal contact with people
from cultures different from your own, did you use different
communication skills than you use with people from your own
culture? If not, why not? If you did, please describe the difference.
5. Do you believe that having exposure and relationships across
different cultures enriches one’s life? Why?

S
ocial justice is at the very core of multicultural counseling. To
understand social justice and human rights within the mental health
domain, multicultural counseling must be thoroughly examined.
Therefore this chapter will begin with an overview of the history,
theory, and practice of multicultural counseling; this will be followed by an
examination of the development of the multicultural counseling
competencies. Throughout the chapter, we will discuss the relationship
between multicultural counseling and social justice and human rights.
In recent decades, there has been an enormous increase in the literature
regarding multicultural counseling (e.g., Arredondo, Rosen, Rice, Perez, &
Tovar-Gamero, 2005; Arredondo & Toporek; 2004; Constantine, 2007;
Pedersen, 2000; Ponterotto, Casas, Suzuki, & Alexander, 2001; Pope-Davis
& Coleman, 1997; Roysircar, Sandhu, & Bibbin, 2003; Sue, Arredondo, &
McDavis, 1992; Sue et al., 1998). With the recognition of the dramatically
changing racial, ethnic, and cultural demographics of the United States
(Chung, Bemak, Ortiz, & Sandoval-Perez, 2008; U.S. Census Bureau,
2002), and the effects of information technology and globalization, we as
mental health professionals can no longer ignore the influence of culture on
our clientele. This is consistent with the great likelihood that we will see
clients from different racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds and that our
families, communities, schools, and regions will be affected by cultural
differences. As a result, there has been an increase in multicultural
counseling training in the past 25 years (Brown, Parham, & Yonker, 1996;
Kiselica, Maben, & Locke, 1999). In fact, multicultural training courses in
counseling programs were projected to be the fastest growing new courses
offered in the 1991 to 1995 period (Hollis & Wantz, 1990, 1994), leading us
to our current practices in the 21st century.
Given the importance and the profound impact of multicultural
counseling, it has become the “fourth force” in the counseling profession
(Pedersen, 1999). According to Pedersen (1999), multicultural counseling
being the fourth force does not imply that it is competing with other
counseling theories but rather is complementary to current counseling
theories. He contends that the multicultural counseling emphasis actually
underscores the importance of culture and therefore places culture in a
central position in relationship to the other three forces, which are the
psychodynamic, behavioral, and humanistic aspects of counseling.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
Multiculturalism is not a new or recent concept. For centuries, dating back
to ancient civilizations, there has been recognition of barriers, challenges,
and potential problems in communicating and interacting with people from
different cultural and diverse backgrounds (Jackson, 1995). One difference
from the past is that cultural diversity has expanded globally and can be
found to varying degrees throughout the world. Given the rapid expansion
of cultures across national and international borders, vast movements of
people who are voluntarily and involuntarily migrating, advancing
technology, and swiftly growing globalization, multiculturalism is not only
a prominent worldwide phenomenon, but also a complex and
multidimensional issue. Therefore, it becomes even more important for us
as counselors and psychotherapists to be aware of, understand, and
acknowledge the complexity of multiculturalism as it relates to ourselves
and our clients, and the potential influence it has on our work as counselors
and therapists.
The history of multicultural counseling spans several decades. In the
1950s, there were few journal articles on multicultural counseling. During
that time period, scholars of color faced barriers in getting published in