Chapter 5

Link Layer

Computer
Networking: A Top
Down Approach
6th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley
March 2012

Link Layer 5-1

Chapter 5: Link layer
our goals:
 understand principles behind link layer
services:
 error detection, correction
 sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access
 link layer addressing
 local area networks: Ethernet, VLANs
 instantiation, implementation of various link
layer technologies

Link Layer 5-2

Link layer, LANs: outline
5.1 introduction, services 5.5 link virtualization:
5.2 error detection, MPLS
correction 5.6 data center
5.3 multiple access networking
protocols 5.7 a day in the life of a
5.4 LANs web request
 addressing, ARP
 Ethernet
 switches
 VLANS

Link Layer 5-3

Link layer: introduction
terminology:
 hosts and routers: nodes
 communication channels that global ISP

connect adjacent nodes along

communication path: links
 wired links
 wireless links
 LANs
 layer-2 packet: frame,
encapsulates datagram

data-link layer has responsibility of

transferring datagram from one node
to physically adjacent node over a link
Link Layer 5-4
Link layer: context
 datagram transferred by transportation analogy:
different link protocols over  trip from Princeton to Lausanne
different links:  limo: Princeton to JFK
 e.g., Ethernet on first link,  plane: JFK to Geneva
frame relay on  train: Geneva to Lausanne
intermediate links, 802.11  tourist = datagram
on last link  transport segment =
 each link protocol provides communication link
different services  transportation mode = link
 e.g., may or may not layer protocol
provide rdt over link  travel agent = routing
algorithm

Link Layer 5-5

Link layer services
 framing, link access:
 encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer
 channel access if shared medium
 “MAC” addresses used in frame headers to identify
source, dest
• different from IP address!
 reliable delivery between adjacent nodes
 we learned how to do this already (chapter 3)!
 seldom used on low bit-error link (fiber, some twisted
pair)
 wireless links: high error rates
• Q: why both link-level and end-end reliability?

Link Layer 5-6

Link layer services (more)
 flow control:
 pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes
 error detection:
 errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
 receiver detects presence of errors:
• signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
 error correction:
 receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without resorting to
retransmission
 half-duplex and full-duplex
 with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can transmit, but not
at same time

Link Layer 5-7

Where is the link layer implemented?
 in each and every host
 link layer implemented in
“adaptor” (aka network
interface card NIC) or on a
chip application
 Ethernet card, 802.11 transport
network cpu memory
card; Ethernet chipset link

 implements link, physical host

layer controller
bus
(e.g., PCI)
attaches into host’s system
link
 physical
buses
physical
transmission

 combination of hardware,
software, firmware network adapter
card

Link Layer 5-8

Adaptors communicating

datagram datagram

controller controller

sending host receiving host

datagram

frame

 sending side:  receiving side

 encapsulates datagram in  looks for errors, rdt,
frame flow control, etc
 adds error checking bits,  extracts datagram, passes
rdt, flow control, etc. to upper layer at
receiving side
Link Layer 5-9
Link layer, LANs: outline
5.1 introduction, services 5.5 link virtualization:
5.2 error detection, MPLS
correction 5.6 data center
5.3 multiple access networking
protocols 5.7 a day in the life of a
5.4 LANs web request
 addressing, ARP
 Ethernet
 switches
 VLANS

Link Layer 5-10

Error detection
EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)
D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields

• Error detection not 100% reliable!

• protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
• larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

otherwise

Link Layer 5-11

Parity checking
single bit parity: two-dimensional bit parity:
 detect single bit  detect and correct single bit errors
errors

0 0

Link Layer 5-12

Internet checksum (review)
goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted packet
(note: used at transport layer only)

sender: receiver:
 treat segment contents  compute checksum of
as sequence of 16-bit received segment
integers  check if computed
 checksum: addition (1’s checksum equals checksum
complement sum) of field value:
segment contents  NO - error detected
 sender puts checksum  YES - no error detected.
value into UDP But maybe errors
checksum field nonetheless?

Link Layer 5-13

Cyclic redundancy check
 more powerful error-detection coding
 view data bits, D, as a binary number
 choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G
 goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that
 <D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo 2)
 receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero remainder:
error detected!
 can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
 widely used in practice (Ethernet, 802.11 WiFi, ATM)

Link Layer 5-14

Link layer, LANs: outline
5.1 introduction, services 5.5 link virtualization:
5.2 error detection, MPLS
correction 5.6 data center
5.3 multiple access networking
protocols 5.7 a day in the life of a
5.4 LANs web request
 addressing, ARP
 Ethernet
 switches
 VLANS

Link Layer 5-15

MAC addresses and ARP
 32-bit IP address:
 network-layer address for interface
 used for layer 3 (network layer) forwarding
 MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address:
 function: used ‘locally” to get frame from one interface to
another physically-connected interface (same network, in IP-
addressing sense)
 48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in NIC
ROM, also sometimes software settable
 e.g.: 1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
hexadecimal (base 16) notation
(each “number” represents 4 bits)

Link Layer 5-16

 LAN addresses and ARP
each adapter on LAN has unique LAN address

1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD

LAN
(wired or adapter
wireless)
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0

0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98

Link Layer 5-17

LAN addresses (more)
 MAC address allocation administered by IEEE
 manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space
(to assure uniqueness)
 analogy:
 MAC address: like Social Security Number
 IP address: like postal address
 MAC flat address ➜ portability
 can move LAN card from one LAN to another
 IP hierarchical address not portable
 address depends on IP subnet to which node is
attached

Link Layer 5-18

 ARP: address resolution protocol
Question: how to determine
interface’s MAC address,
knowing its IP address? ARP table: each IP node (host,
router) on LAN has table
137.196.7.78
 IP/MAC address
mappings for some LAN
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
nodes:
137.196.7.23
137.196.7.14 < IP address; MAC address; TTL>
 TTL (Time To Live):
LAN time after which address
71-65-F7-2B-08-53 mapping will be
forgotten (typically 20
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0

min)
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
137.196.7.88

Link Layer 5-19