Prepared By: Jerusalem Y.

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 Process Concepts
 Threads concept
 Inter-process communication
 Process scheduling
 Deadlock

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 Early systems allowed only One program at a time was
executed and a single program has a complete control of the
system and had access to all the system's resources.
 But Modern OS’s allow multiple programs to be loaded in to
memory and to be executed concurrently.
 This requires firm control and compartmentalization over
execution of programs and these needs resulted in the notion
of a process.
 A process is the unit of work in a modern time-sharing system.
i.e. it is Program in execution

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 OS consists of a collection of processes
1. OS processes executes system code.
2. User processes executes user code.
 Conceptually, each process has its own virtual CPU but in
reality the real CPU is switched among processes. This is
called Multiprogramming.
 A process is more than the program code, which is sometimes
known as the text section.
 Process (task or job) includes the current activity as
represented by Program counter (PC) and the contents of the
processor’s register.

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 The components of a process are
• The program to be executed (Text Section)
• The data on which the program will execute (Data
Section which contains global variables)
• The resources required by the program– such as memory
and file (s)
• The status of execution :
 Program Counter (PC) which contains temporary
data such as function parameters, return addresses,
and local variables
 A process may also include a heap, which is a memory that is
dynamically allocated during process run time.

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 A program by itself is not a process
 A program is a passive entity, such as a file containing a list
of instructions stored on disk (often called an executable file)
 Whereas a process is an active entity, with a program counter
specifying the next instruction to execute and a set of
associated resources.
 A program becomes a process when an executable file is
loaded into memory.
 Two common techniques for loading executable files are
double-clicking an icon representing the executable file and
entering the name of the executable file on the command
line ( Example prog1.exe)

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 Multiple processes may be associated with the same program.
 However, they have separate execution sequences.
 For instance, several users may be running different copies of
the mail program, or the same user may invoke many copies of
the Web browser program.
 Each of these is a separate process and although the text
sections are equivalent, the data, heap, and stack sections vary.

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 Although each process is an independent entity, with its own
program counter registers, stack, open files, alarms, and other
internal state, processes often need to interact, communicate,
and synchronize with other processes.
 One process may generate some output that another process
uses as input.
 As a process executes it changes state. The state of a process is
defined in part by the current activity of that process.
 Each process can be in any of the following states:

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1. New:- A process has just been created
2. Running:- The process is executing and it is using the CPU
3. Waiting:- The process is waiting for an event (I/O completion,
a signal).
4. Ready:- The process is temporarily stopped to let another
process run and is waiting to be assigned to a processor.
5. Terminated:- The process has finished execution.

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Diagram of Process State

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 Null  New :- a new process is created to execute the
program
• New batch job, log on
• Created by OS to provide the service
 New  ready:- OS will move a process from prepared to
ready state when it is prepared to take additional process.
 Ready  Running:- when it is a time to select a new process
to run, the OS selects one of the process in the ready state.
 Running  terminated:- The currently running process is
terminated by the OS if the process indicates that it has
completed, or if it aborts.

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 Running  Ready: -The process has reached the maximum
allowable time or interrupt.
 Running  Waiting: -A process is put in the waiting state, if
it requests something for which it must wait. Example: System
call request.
 Waiting  Ready:- A process in the waiting state is moved
to the ready state, when the event for which it has been
waiting occurs.
 Ready  Terminated:- If a parent terminates, child process
should be terminated
 Waiting  Terminated:- If a parent terminates, child process
should be terminated

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 When an operating system is booted, often several processes
(either foreground or/and back ground processes) are created.
 Foreground processes, are processes that interact with
(human) users and perform work for them.
 Background processes, which are not associated with
particular users, but instead have some specific function.
 Processes that stay in the background to handle some activity
such as web pages, printing, and so on are called daemons.
 In addition to the processes created at boot time, new
processes can be created afterward as well.
 A new process is created by having an existing process (a
running user process, a system process invoked from the
keyboard or mouse, or a batch manager process) execute a
process creation system call.

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 The system call tells the operating system to create a new
process and indicates, directly or indirectly, which program to
run in it.
• Assigns unique id, Memory Space and PCB (Process
Control Block) is initialized
• The creating process is called parent process.
• Parent process creates children processes, which, in turn
create other processes, forming a tree of processes.
• Most operating systems (including UNIX and the
Windows family of OS) identify processes according to a
unique process identifier(pid), which is typically an
integer number

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 In UNIX page daemon, swapper, and init are children of
root process and users are children of init process.
 A daemon is a long-running background process that answers
requests for services.
 Swapper process has the PID 0.
 Every process except process 0 (the swapper) is created when
another process executes the fork() system call.
 init(short for initialization) is the first process started during
booting of the computer system.
 Init is a daemon process that continues running until the
system is shut down.

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 A process needs certain resources to accomplish its task.
• CPU time, memory, files, I/O devices.
 There are four principal events that cause processes to be
created:
1. System initialization.
2. Execution of a process creation system call by a running
process.
3. A user request to create a new process.
4. Initiation of a batch job.

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 When a process creates a new process,
1. Resource sharing possibilities
 Parent and children share all resources.
 Children share subset of parent’s resources.
 Parent and child share no resources.
2. Execution possibilities:- When a process creates a new
process, two possibilities exist in terms of execution:

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  The parent continues to execute concurrently with its
children.
 The parent waits until some or all of its children have
terminated.
 There are also two possibilities in terms of the address space

of the new process:

• The child process is a duplicate of the parent process (it

has the same program and data as the parent).

• The child process has a new program loaded into it

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Process Trees of UNIX and Solaris Systems

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 After a process has been created, it starts running and does
whatever its job is.
 Processes terminate usually due to one of the f.f conditions:
i. Normal exit (voluntary):- Process executes last statement and

asks the operating system to delete it (exit).

• Output data from child to parent.

• Process’ resources are de-allocated by operating system.

ii.Error exit (voluntary)

iii.Fatal error (involuntary): is an error that causes a program

to abort and may return the user to the operating system.

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 iv. Killed by another process (involuntary): Parent may

terminate the execution of children processes (abort).

 Parent is exiting.
• Operating system does not allow child to continue if
its parent terminates.
• Cascading termination.
 Most processes terminate because they have done their
work.

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 A parent may terminate the execution of one of its children for
a variety of reasons, such as these:
• The child has exceeded its usage of some of the resources

that it has been allocated.

• The task assigned to the child is no longer required.

• The parent is exiting, and the operating system does not

allow a child to continue if its parent terminates.

 The phenomena where all the children processes terminate
when their parent process terminates is called cascading
termination, is normally initiated by the OS.

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 Each process is represented in
the operating system by a
Process Control Block (PCB),
also called a task control block.
 A PCB is the data structure that
the OS uses to represent a
process.
 The OS groups all information
that needs about particular
process in the PCB.

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1. Process state:- can be new, ready, running, waiting,
terminated.
2. Pointer:- points to another process control block. Pointer is
used for maintaining the scheduling list.
3. Program counter:- indicates the address of the next
instruction to be executed.
4. CPU registers:- They include accumulators, index registers,
stack pointers, and general-purpose registers, plus any
condition-code information.
• The registers vary in number and type, depending on
the computer architecture.

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5. Memory-management information:- includes the value of
base and limit register, the page tables, or the segment tables,
depending on the memory system used by the operating
system
• This information is useful for reallocating the memory when
the process terminates.
6. CPU scheduling information:- includes the CPU scheduling
information such as a process priority, pointers to scheduling
queues, and any other scheduling parameters for each and
every process.

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7. Accounting information:- includes the amount of CPU and
real time used, time limits, job or process numbers, account
numbers etc.
8. I/O status information:- includes the list of I/O devices
allocated to the process, a list of open files, and so on.
9. Event information:- for a process in the blocked (wait) state
this field contains information concerning the event for which
the process is waiting.

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CPU Switch From Process to Process

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 A thread is a path of execution within a process.
• If there are many processes sharing many resources, then the
mechanism becomes bulky and difficult to handle.
• Threads are created to make this kind of resource sharing
simple & efficient
 Each process has the following two characteristics:
1. Unit of resource ownership:- When a new process is created
, an address space containing program text and data , as well
as other resources(files, child processes, pending alarms,
signal handlers, accounting information) is allocated.
• The unit of resource ownership is usually referred to as a Task
or a Process.

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2. Unit of dispatching:- is a thread of execution, usually
shortened to just thread
 The thread has a program counter, that keeps track of which
instruction to execute next.
 It has registers, which hold its current working variables.

 It has a stack, which contains the execution history, with one

frame for each procedure called but not yet returned from.
 The unit of dispatching is usually referred to a Thread or a
Light-Weight Process (LWP).

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 A thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization that consists of:
• Thread id
• Execution State
• Program counter
• Register set
• Stack
 Threads belonging to the same process share:
• its code
• its data section
• other OS resources such as open files and signals

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 A thread of execution is the smallest unit of processing that
can be scheduled by an OS.
 The implementation of threads and processes differs from one
OS to another, but in most cases, a thread is contained inside
a process.
 Multiple threads can exist within the same process and share
resources such as memory, while different processes do not
share these resources.
 Like process states, threads also have states:
• New, Ready, Running, Waiting and Terminated
 Like processes, the OS will switch between threads (even
though they belong to a single process) for CPU usage.
 Like process creation, thread creation is supported by APIs

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 Creating threads is inexpensive (cheaper) compared to
processes
• They do not need new address space, global data,
program code or operating system resources
• Context switching is faster as the only things to
save/restore are program counters, registers and stacks

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Similarities
1.Both share CPU and only one thread/process is active
(running) at a time.
2.Like processes, threads within a process execute sequentially.
3.Like processes, thread can create children.
4.Like process, if one thread is blocked, another thread can run.
Difference
1. Unlike processes, threads are not independent of one another.
2. Unlike processes, all threads can access every address in the
task.
3. Unlike processes, threads are designed to assist one other.

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 In a word processor,
• A background thread may check spelling and grammar, while
a foreground thread processes user input (keystrokes), while
yet a third thread loads images from the hard drive, and a
fourth does periodic automatic backups of the file being edited
 In a spreadsheet program,
• One thread could display menus and read user input, while
another thread executes user commands and updates the
spreadsheet

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 Multithreading refers to the ability on an operating system to
support multiple threads of execution within a single process.
 A traditional (heavy weight) process has a single thread of
control
 There’s one program counter and a set of instructions carried
out at a time
 If a process has multiple thread of control, it can perform
more than one task at a time
 Each threads have their own program counter, stacks and
registers
 But they share common code, data and some operating
system data structures like files

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 Multitasking is the ability of an OS to execute more than one
program simultaneously.
• Though we say so but in reality no two programs on a single
processor machine can be executed at the same time.
 The CPU switches from one program to the next so quickly
that appears as if all of the programs are executing at the same
time.
 Multithreading is the ability of an OS to execute the different
parts of the program, called threads, simultaneously.
 The program has to be designed well so that the different
threads do not interfere with each other.

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 Individual programs are all isolated from each other in terms
of their memory and data, but individual threads are not as
they all share the same memory and data variables.
• Hence, implementing multitasking is relatively easier in an
operating system than implementing multithreading.
 Traditionally there is a single thread of execution per process.
Example:
• MSDOS supports a single user process and single thread.
• Older UNIX supports multiple user processes but only
support one thread per process.

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 Multithreading
• Java run time environment is an example of one process
with multiple threads.
• Examples of OS supporting multiple processes, with each
process supporting multiple threads: Windows 2000,
Solaris, Linux and Mac.

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Combinations of Threads and Processes

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 Inter-process communication is simple and easy when used
occasionally
 A process can be of two type:
• Independent process.
• Co-operating process.
 An independent process is not affected by the execution of
other processes while a co-operating process can be affected
by other executing processes.
 Though one can think that those processes, which are running
independently, will execute very efficiently but in practical,
there are many situations when co-operative nature can be
utilised for increasing computational speed, convenience and
modularity.

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 Inter process communication (IPC) is a mechanism which
allows processes to communicate each other and synchronize
their actions.
 The communication between these processes can be seen as a
method of co-operation between them.
 Processes can communicate with each other using these two
ways:
1. Shared memory
2. Message passing

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 Communication between processes using shared memory
requires processes to share some variable and it completely
depends on how programmer will implement it.
 One way of communication using shared memory can be
imagined like this:
 Suppose process1 and process2 are executing simultaneously
and they share some resources or use some information from
other process, process1 generate information about certain
computations or resources being used and keeps it as a record
in shared memory.

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 When process2 need to use the shared information, it will
check in the record stored in shared memory and take note of
the information generated by process1 and act accordingly.
 Processes can use shared memory for extracting information
as a record from other process as well as for delivering any
specific information to other process.

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Process and Thread Management 5/7/2019 44
 In this method, processes communicate with each other
without using any kind of shared memory.
 If two processes p1 and p2 want to communicate with each
other, they proceed as follow:
 Establish a communication link (if a link already exists, no
need to establish it again.)
 Start exchanging messages using basic primitives.
 We need at least two primitives:
1. Send(message, destination) or send(message)
2. Receive (message, host) or receive(message)

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Process and Thread Management 5/7/2019 46
 The process scheduling is the activity of the process manager
that handles the removal of the running process from the CPU
and the selection of another process on the basis of a particular
strategy.
 Process scheduling is an essential part of a multiprogramming
operating systems.
 Such operating systems allow more than one process to be
loaded into the executable memory at a time and the loaded
process shares the CPU using time multiplexing.

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 The OS maintains all PCBs in Process Scheduling Queues.
 The OS maintains a separate queue for each of the process
states and PCBs of all processes in the same execution state are
placed in the same queue.
 When the state of a process is changed, its PCB is unlinked
from its current queue and moved to its new state queue.
 The Operating System maintains the following important
process scheduling queues
1. Job queue − This queue keeps all the processes in the system.
2. Ready queue − This queue keeps a set of all processes
residing in main memory, ready and waiting to execute.
3. Device queues − The processes which are blocked due to
unavailability of an I/O device constitute this queue.

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 The OS can use different policies to manage each queue
(FIFO, Round Robin, Priority, etc.).
 The OS scheduler determines how to move processes between
the ready and run queues which can only have one entry per
processor core on the system; in the above diagram, it has
been merged with the CPU.
Two-State Process Model
 Two-state process model refers to running and non-running
states which are described below

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1. Running
 When a new process is created, it enters into the system as in
the running state.
2. Not Running
 Processes that are not running are kept in queue, waiting for
their turn to execute.
 Each entry in the queue is a pointer to a particular process.
 Queue is implemented by using linked list.
Use of dispatcher is as follows.
 When a process is interrupted, that process is transferred in the
waiting queue. If the process has completed or aborted, the
process is discarded. In either case, the dispatcher then selects
a process from the queue to execute.

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 A Process Scheduler schedules different processes to be
assigned to the CPU based on particular scheduling
algorithms.
 Some of the popular process scheduling algorithms are
1. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling
2. Shortest-Job-Next (SJN) Scheduling
3. Priority Scheduling
4. Round Robin(RR) Scheduling

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 These algorithms are either non-pre-emptive or pre-emptive.
 Non-pre-emptive algorithms are designed so that once a
process enters the running state, it cannot be pre-empted until
it completes its allotted time, whereas the pre-emptive
scheduling is based on priority where a scheduler may pre-
empt a low priority running process anytime when a high
priority process enters into a ready state.

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 In the "First come first serve" scheduling algorithm, as the
name suggests, the process which arrives first, gets executed
first, or we can say that the process which requests the CPU
first, gets the CPU allocated first.
 First Come First Serve, is just like FIFO(First in First out)
Queue data structure, where the data element which is added
to the queue first, is the one who leaves the queue first.
 This is used in Batch Systems.
 It's easy to understand and implement programmatically,
using a queue data structure, where a new process enters
through the tail of the queue, and the scheduler selects process
from the head of the queue.
 A perfect real life example of FCFS scheduling is buying
tickets at ticket counter.

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 For every scheduling algorithm, Average waiting time is a
crucial parameter to judge it's performance.
 AWT or Average waiting time is the average of the waiting
times of the processes in the queue, waiting for the scheduler
to pick them for execution.
 Lower the Average Waiting Time, better the scheduling
algorithm.
 Example: Consider the processes P1, P2, P3, P4 given in the
below table, arrives for execution in the same order,
with Arrival Time 0, and given Burst Time, let's find the
average waiting time using the FCFS scheduling algorithm.

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 The average waiting time will be 18.75 ms.
 For the above given processes, first P1 will be provided with
the CPU resources,
 Hence, waiting time for P1 will be 0
 P1 requires 21 ms for completion, hence waiting time
for P2 will be 21 ms
 Similarly, waiting time for process P3 will be execution time
of P1 + execution time for P2, which will be (21 + 3) ms = 24
ms
 For process P4 it will be the sum of execution times
of P1, P2 and P3.

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 Shortest Job First scheduling works on the process with the
shortest burst time or duration first.
 This is the best approach to minimize waiting time.
 This is used in Batch Systems.
 It is of two types:
◦ Non Pre-emptive
◦ Pre-emptive
 To successfully implement it, the burst time/duration time of
the processes should be known to the processor in advance,
which is practically not feasible all the time.
 This scheduling algorithm is optimal if all the jobs/processes
are available at the same time. (either Arrival time is 0 for all,
or Arrival time is same for all)

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 Consider the below processes available in the ready queue for
execution, with arrival time as 0 for all and given burst
times.

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 As you can see in the GANTT chart above, the
process P4 will be picked up first as it has the shortest burst
time, then P2, followed by P3 and at last P1.
 We scheduled the same set of processes using the First come
first serve algorithm , and got average waiting time to be 18.75
ms, whereas with SJF, the average waiting time comes out 4.5
ms.

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 Priority is assigned for each process.
 Process with highest priority is executed first and so on.
 Processes with same priority are executed in FCFS manner.
 Priority can be decided based on memory requirements, time
requirements or any other resource requirement.

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 A fixed time is allotted to each process, called quantum, for
execution.
 Once a process is executed for given time period that process
is pre-empted and other process executes for given time
period.
 Context switching is used to save states of pre-empted
processes.

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Process and Thread Management 5/7/2019 64
 Schedulers are special system software which handle process
scheduling in various ways.
 Their main task is to select the jobs to be submitted into the
system and to decide which process to run.
 Schedulers are of three types
1. Long-Term Scheduler
2. Short-Term Scheduler
3. Medium-Term Scheduler

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 It is also called a job scheduler.
 A long-term scheduler determines which programs are
admitted to the system for processing.
 It selects processes from the queue and loads them into
memory for execution.
 Process loads into the memory for CPU scheduling.
 The primary objective of the job scheduler is to provide a
balanced mix of jobs, such as I/O bound and processor bound.
 It also controls the degree of multiprogramming.
 If the degree of multiprogramming is stable, then the average
rate of process creation must be equal to the average departure
rate of processes leaving the system.

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 On some systems, the long-term scheduler may not be
available or minimal.
 Time-sharing operating systems have no long term scheduler.
 When a process changes the state from new to ready, then
there is use of long-term scheduler.

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 It is also called as CPU scheduler.
 Its main objective is to increase system performance in
accordance with the chosen set of criteria.
 It is the change of ready state to running state of the process.
 CPU scheduler selects a process among the processes that are
ready to execute and allocates CPU to one of them.
 Short-term schedulers, also known as dispatchers, make the
decision of which process to execute next.
 Short-term schedulers are faster than long-term schedulers.

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 Medium-term scheduling is a part of swapping.
 It removes the processes from the memory.
 It reduces the degree of multiprogramming.
 The medium-term scheduler is in-charge of handling the
swapped out-processes.
 A running process may become suspended if it makes an I/O
request.
 A suspended processes cannot make any progress towards
completion.
 In this condition, to remove the process from memory and
make space for other processes, the suspended process is
moved to the secondary storage.

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 This process is called swapping, and the process is said to be
swapped out or rolled out.
 Swapping may be necessary to improve the process mix.

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Long-Term Scheduler Short-Term Scheduler Medium-Term
Scheduler
It is a job scheduler It is a CPU scheduler It is a process swapping
scheduler.
Speed is lesser than short Speed is fastest among Speed is in between both
term scheduler other two short and long term
scheduler.
It controls the degree of It provides lesser control It reduces the degree of
multiprogramming over degree of multiprogramming.
multiprogramming
It is almost absent or It is also minimal in time It is a part of Time
minimal in time sharing sharing system sharing systems.
system
It selects processes from It selects those processes It can re-introduce the
pool and loads them into which are ready to process into memory and
memory for execution execute execution can be
continued.
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 Deadlock is a situation where a set of processes are blocked
because each process is holding a resource and waiting for
another resource acquired by some other process.
 The cause of deadlocks: Each process needing what another
process has.
 This results from sharing resources such as memory, devices,
links.
 Under normal operation, a resource allocations proceed like
this:
1. Request a resource.
2. Use the resource.
3. Release the resource.

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 Traffic Jam

 Dining Philosophers

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 "It takes money to make money".
 You can't get a job without experience; you can't get
experience without a job.

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Necessary conditions
 ALL of these four must happen simultaneously for a deadlock
to occur:
1. Mutual exclusion
 One or more than one resource must be held by a process in a
exclusive mode.
2. Hold and Wait
 A process holds a resource while waiting for another resource.
3. No Preemption
 There is only voluntary release of a resource - nobody else can
make a process give up a resource.
4. Circular Wait
 Process A waits for Process B waits for Process C .... waits for
Process A.

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 Deadlock problems can be handled in one of the following
three ways:
1. Using a protocol that prevents or avoids deadlock by
ensuring that a system will never enter a deadlock state,
deadlock prevention and deadlock avoidance scheme are
used.
2. Allow the system to enter a deadlock state, detect it and then
recover. (Deadlock Recovery)
3. Ignore the problem and pretend that deadlocks never occur
in the system;
• Used by most operating systems, including UNIX and
Windows.
• It is then up to the application developer to write
programs that handle deadlocks.
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