ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Laila for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

Iron nails and steel paper clips can be magnetised by

1. Electricity and Magnetism hanging them from a magnet.
Each nail or clip magnetises the next in a chain, with
unlike poles attracting each other.
1.1. Simple Phenomena of Magnetism Removing an iron chain by pulling the top nail causes it
to collapse because iron shows temporary magnetism.
<b>Magnetic Materials</b> Steel chains do not collapse when removed because they
Ferromagnetic materials like iron can be made into have permanent magnetism.
magnets. Soft materials (e.g. iron) are easily magnetised but lose
Magnetic materials are naturally attracted to magnets magnetism quickly.
even when not magnetized.. Hard materials (e.g. steel) are harder to magnetise but
remain magnetised longer.
<b>Magnetic Poles</b>

Magnetic poles attract magnetic materials and are found

near the ends of magnets.
Poles always come in pairs: north and south.
Every magnet has a North Pole ($N$) and a South Pole
($S$).
The North Pole of a magnet points towards the Earth's
geographic North Pole.

<b>Law of Magnetic Poles</b>

Similar poles ($N-N$ or $S-S$) repel each other.

Opposite poles ($N-S$) attract each other.
The attraction or repulsion decreases as poles move <b>Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials</b>
farther apart.
Magnetic materials (iron, steel, nickel, cobalt) are
attracted to magnets and can be magnetised.
Non-magnetic materials (e.g., aluminium, wood) are not
attracted to magnets and cannot be magnetised.

<b>Magnetic Fields</b>

<b>Induced Magnetism</b>

Magnetic materials can become magnetized when near a

magnet.

<b>Magnetisation of Iron and Steel</b>

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A magnetic field is the region around a magnet where Current Increase: Higher current in the coil results in
magnetic forces act. stronger magnetism.
Field strength is higher where magnetic field lines are More Turns: Increasing the number of turns in coils
closer together and lower where they are further apart. around the core increases magnet strength.
Magnetic fields are shown using lines of force, showing Closer Poles: Moving the magnetic poles closer together
the direction from North to South poles. increases electromagnet strength.
The density of these lines indicates field strength: closer
lines represent stronger magnetic fields.

<b>Electromagnets</b>
1.2. Electrical quantities
They are formed from a coil of wire through which an Electric Charge
electrical current passes.
Like/same charges (+ and + or – and – ) repel, while
Magnetism is temporary and can be switched on and off,
unlike charges (+ and –) attract.
unlike permanent magnets.
They contain a core of soft iron that only becomes Force Between Charges
magnetised when current flows through the coil.
The force between electric charges decreases as their
<b>Factors Affecting Electromagnet Strength</b> separation increases.
Positive charges repel other positive charges and attract
negative charges.
Negative charges repel other negative charges and
attract positive charges.

Charges, Atoms, and Electrons

Atoms consist of a central nucleus with protons (positive)

and electrons (negative) orbiting around it.
Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges,
making atoms electrically neutral overall.

Production of Charges

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The Ampere and the Coulomb (units of current and
Charges are produced by friction, which transfers charge)
electrons between materials.
Electrons move between materials during rubbing; Electric Current is defined as charge passing a point per
protons remain in the nuclei and do not move. unit time, symbolized as
($I = \frac{Q}{t}$).
Units of charge Unit of current is the ampere ($A)$, with one milliampere
($mA$) equal to one-thousandth of an ampere and is
Charge is measured in coulombs ($C$) and defined in
terms of the ampere ($A$) measured by an ammeter.
The charge on an electron is ($e = -1.6 \times 10^{-19}$) Unit of charge is the coulomb ($C$), defined as the
$C$. charge passing a point when a steady current of 1
ampere flows for 1 second ($1C = 1As$).
Electrons, Insulators, and Conductors
Charge Calculation
Insulators: Electrons are firmly bound to atoms; rubbing $Q = I \times t$
can charge them statically. where $Q$ is charge, $I$ is current, and $t$ is time in
Conductors: Electrons can move freely; they require seconds.
insulation to hold a charge. Conventional Current

| Type | Description | Examples | |----|----|----| | Conventional current flows from positive to negative
Insulators | Electrons are firmly bound to atoms; rubbing terminals of a battery, opposite to electron flow.
can charge them statically. | Plastics (polythene, cellulose Circuit diagrams show conventional current direction
acetate), Perspex, nylon | | Conductors | Electrons can with arrows, while electrons move in the opposite
move freely; require insulation to hold a charge. | Metals, direction.
carbon |
Direct and Alternating Current
Electric Fields
| Direct Current (d.c.) | Alternating Current (a.c.) | |----|----|
When charges are near each other, they experience a | Electrons flow continuously in one direction. | Electrons
force known as the electric force. regularly change their direction of flow. | | Provided by
Electric field is a region where a charge feels a force due batteries | Produced by generators. |
to nearby charges. Frequency of Alternating Current
Uniform electric field exists between oppositely charged
parallel metal plates, shown by evenly spaced lines
perpendicular to the plates.
The direction of the electric field is indicated by arrows,
representing the force acting on a small positive test
charge (pointing away from positive charges and towards
negative charges).

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Frequency refers to the number of complete cycles per Electrons move more easily through some conductors
second. when $p.d.$ is applied.
It is measured in Hertz ($Hz$), where 1 $Hz$ equals one Resistance is the opposition of a conductor to current.
cycle per second. Good conductors have low resistance while poor
conductors have high resistance
Ohm (Ω) is the unit of resistance.
Formula: $R = \frac{V}{I}$

Variable Resistors

They can change current in a circuit (rheostat mode) or

act as a potential divider by dividing voltage across
components as desired.

1.3. Voltage, Resistance and Power

Electromotive Force $(e.m.f.)$

Chemical actions inside a battery produce electron Resistance depends on the length, cross-sectional area,
excess at the negative terminal and shortage at the
and material of the wire
positive terminal
Resistance increases with length but decreases with a
Battery maintains electron flow (electric current) in a
larger cross-sectional area
connected circuit as long as chemical actions last.
Formula: ($R \propto \frac{l}{A}$)
The battery does work when moving the charge around
the circuit. $I–V$ graphs and Ohm’s Law
Electromotive force ($e.m.f.$) is the electrical work done
by a source in moving unit charge around a complete
circuit.
Electromotive force is measured in volts $(V)$.
Potential Difference

Electric current transfers energy from a battery to circuit

components and surroundings.
Potential difference ($p.d.$) is the work done by unit
charge passing through a component
$P.d.$ is measured in volts.
Voltage is sometimes used instead of $p.d.$
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb 1 $V$ = 1 $\frac{J}{C}$ )
Formula: $V = \frac{W}{Q}$ or $W = Q \times V$

Resistance

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Metals and some alloys give $I–V$ graphs that are Non-ohmic conductor at high temperatures
straight lines through the origin, showing that $I$ is $I–V$ graph curve flattens as $V$ and $I$ increase,
directly proportional to $V$ or that $I \propto V$. showing increasing resistance with increasing current
Doubling $V$ doubles $I$. and increasing temperature.
Such conductors obey Ohm’s law: $V = IR$
Ohmic or linear conductors are the conductors where
resistance does not change with $V$.

Thermistor

An increase in temperature generally increases the

Semiconductor Diode resistance of metals.
Thermistors' resistance is different and decreases with
Diode has small resistance when connected one way and rising temperature.
very large resistance when $p.d.$ is reversed. It is a non-ohmic conductor
It conducts electricity in one direction only, and it is a
non-ohmic conductor.

Light-dependent Resistor (LDR)

Filament Lamp Resistance of some semiconductors decreases with

increased light intensity.
Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) use this property to
function.
$I–V$ graph for an LDR is similar to that of a thermistor
LDR is also a non-ohmic conductor.

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Power in Electric Circuits
In a series circuit, there is a single path for the current to
Power defined as work done or energy transferred per flow.
time taken: $P = \frac{W}{t}$ The current remains the same throughout:
$ P$ is power in watts ($W$), $W$ is work done in joules Current ($I$) is consistent at every point in the series
($J$), $t$ is time in seconds ($s$) circuit.
For a steady current $(I)$ in a device with a potential The reading on an ammeter will be identical no matter
difference ($V$) across it, the work done has a formula $ where it is placed in the circuit.
W = I \times t \times V $
Substituting work done with the power $P = IV$ Current in a Parallel Circuit
multiplied by time in seconds ($t$), the energy In a parallel circuit, components are connected side by
transferred is: $E = Pt = IVt$ side, providing alternative paths for current flow.
Example The total current is the sum of the currents through
each branch
Lamp with 240 $V$ supply and 0.25 $A$ current If the total current from the source is ($I_0$), and the
Power = $P = IV$ = 240 $V$ $\times$ 0.25 $A$ = 60 $W$ current through each branch is $I_1, I_2$ and $I_3$ then
60 $J$ of energy transferred to the lamp each second $I_0 = I_1 + I_2 + I_3$

Voltage in terms of power and current

Volt can be defined as a watt per ampere: $V = \frac{P}
{I}$
If all energy transferred to thermal energy in a resistor of
resistance $R$:
$P = V \times I$ = $IR$ $\times$ $I$ = $I^2R$
Doubling the current produces four times the thermal
energy per second $P = I^2R$
Larger unit for energy: kilowatt-hour ($kWh)$
1 $kWh$ = 1000 $\frac{J}{s}$ $\times$ 3600 $s$ =
3600000 $J$ = 3.6 $MJ$
The cost of electricity in houses is calculated by using Potential Difference $(p.d.)$ in Series and Parallel
$kWh$ where each $kWh$ has a fixed price and is Circuits
multiplied by the units you consume.
In a series circuit, the total potential difference across
1.4. Electric Circuits the components is the sum of the individual potential
differences: $V_0 = V_1 + V_2 + V_3$
Electrical component symbols In a parallel circuit, the potential difference across each
component is the same as the potential difference across
one branch: $V_{\text{across each branch}} = V_0 $

Cells, Batteries, and Electromotive Force ($e.m.f.$)

Cells in series increase the total $e.m.f.$ of the battery.

For example, if two 1.5 V cells are connected in series
then the $e.m.f.$= 1.5 $V$ + 1.5 $V$ = 3.0 $V$
Resistors in Series
Current in a Series Circuit

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In a series circuit, the total resistance $( R_0 )$ is the sum In a thermistor, resistance decreases with increasing
of the individual resistances: $R_0 = R_1 + R_2 + R_3$ temperature.
Given resistors $R_1, R_2,$ and $R_3$ the total voltage When it’s used in a potential divider circuit:
($V$) across them is: $V = I \times R$ As temperature rises, the thermistor's resistance
decreases.
Worked Example This lowers the combined resistance of the two
resistors, increasing the current if the supply voltage
For a 4.5 V battery across resistors of 3 $\Omega$, 4
$\Omega$ and 5 $\Omega$ in series: remains constant.
Combined resistance: $R_0 = R_1 + R_2 + R_3$= 3 The potential difference across the fixed resistor
$\Omega$ + 4 $\Omega$ + 5 $\Omega $= 12 $\Omega$ increases relative to that across the thermistor.
Current ($I $): $I$ = $\frac{V}{R}$ = $\frac{4.5 \text{V}}{12 A variable resistor can also act as a potential divider by
adjusting the position of the contact, changing the
\Omega}$ = 0.375 $A$
$p.d.$ across $4$ $\Omega$ resistor: $V_2$ = $I \times output potential difference.
R_2$= 0.375 $A$ $\times$ 4 $\Omega$ = $1.5 $ $V$

Resistors in Parallel

The combined resistance $( R_0 )$ of resistors in parallel

is given by: $\frac{1}{R_0}$ = $\frac{1}{R_1}$ + $\frac{1}
{R_2}$ + $\frac{1}{R_3}$…
Two resistors $R_1$ and $R_2$ have resistance of
$\frac{1}{R_0}$ = $\frac{1}{R_1}$ + $\frac{1}{R_2}$=
$R_0$ = $\frac{R_1 \times R_2}{R_1 + R_2}$

Properties of Parallel Circuits

1. The current from the source is greater than the
current in each branch. Potential Divider
2. The combined resistance of parallel resistors is less For two resistors $R_1$ and $R_2$ in series with a supply
than that of any individual resistor. voltage $( V )$:
The total current $( I )$ is given by: $I = \frac{V}{R_1 +
1.5. Applications of electric circuits R_2}$
Increase in Resistance of a Conductor Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR)
In metals, current is carried by free electrons. As the
temperature of the metal increases:
The atoms vibrate more, making it harder for electrons
to move.
This results in an increase in resistance.
From Ohm's Law $V = IR$ , if resistance ($R$) increases while
maintaining a constant current$( I )$, the potential
difference ($V$) across the conductor also increases.
Variable Potential Divider

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An LDR’s resistance decreases with increasing light A relay allows a small current to control a larger current
intensity. needed to operate an appliance.
In a circuit, as light intensity increases: In a switching circuit:
The LDR’s resistance decreases, allowing more If the switching circuit output is high, a small current
current to flow. flows through the relay, closing the mains switch.
This increase in current can light a lamp or cause This isolates the low voltage circuit from the high
other actions. voltage mains supply.

Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

An LED emits light when forward-biased (cathode

connected to the negative terminal):
Reverse bias (anode connected to the negative
terminal) does not emit light and can damage the
LED if the reverse voltage exceeds 5 $V$.
A suitable resistor $R$ (e.g. 300 Ω on a 5 $V$ supply)
is needed to limit the current.

Semiconductor Diode
A diode allows current to pass in only one direction:
Thermistor Forward-biased: current flows when the anode is
connected to the positive terminal and the cathode
A thermistor's resistance decreases significantly with to the negative terminal.
temperature increase. Reverse-biased: the diode does not conduct and has
In a series circuit with a thermistor: high resistance.
As temperature rises, its resistance drops, decreasing
the potential difference across it.
This causes an increase in voltage across a series
resistor, which can trigger a relay or alarm.

1.6. Electrical safety

Dangers of Electricity
Relays

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Damaged Insulation: Exposes wires, increasing shock Live and Neutral Wires: Both supply electricity and the
and fire risk. neutral is earthed.
Overheated Cables: Can lead to fire. Earth Wire: Provides safety by connecting metal cases to
Damp Conditions: Increase shock severity due to earth.
reduced resistance.
Excess Current: From overloaded plugs, extension leads,
and multiple sockets.
Electric Shock: Current flows from an electric circuit
through a person's body to earth.
Dry Skin: Resistance ~10,000 Ω and current around
24 mA (it is safe).
Wet Skin: Resistance ~1,000 Ω and current ~240 mA
(can be deadly).
Larger currents are more dangerous.
Longer exposure increases risk.

Reducing Risk Switches and Fuses

Turn off power before repairs. Switches and fuses are in the live wire to prevent shocks.
Use earth pin and cord grips. Fuse breaks the circuit if the current exceeds safe levels.
Keep appliances dry and away from water. Circuit Breakers
Avoid trailing cables and damage, especially with cutting
tools. Electromagnetism breaks the circuit when current
exceeds a preset level.
First Aid for Electric Shock Advantages: Faster operation and can be reset.
Switch off the power if the person is still in contact with Earthing
the equipment.
Call for medical assistance. Prevents shock by providing a path for fault currents.
Earth pin connects appliance metal cases to earth,
Causes of fires preventing them from becoming live.
Flammable materials near hot appliances or wiring. Double Insulation
Overheated wiring produces excessive current and can
lead to fire. Appliances with two layers of insulation don’t need an
Preventive Measures: earth wire.
Match fuse rating to appliance.
Do not overload sockets or use too many adapters. 1.7. Electromagnetic induction
Use thick wires for high-power appliances.

House Circuits Process of generating electricity from a changing

magnetic field.

Electromagnetic Induction Experiments

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Straight Wire and U-shaped Magnet Inserting magnet into coil (solenoid) induces current in
Wire held still between magnet pole leads to no induced one direction.
current. A solenoid is a coil of wire wound in a helical shape
Moving wire vertically (up or down) between poles that generates a magnetic field when an electric
induces current because of changing magnetic flux current passes through it.
(cutting magnetic field lines) Removing magnet from solenoid induces current in the
Upward movement: current flows in one direction. opposite direction.
Downward movement: current flows in the opposite No current is induced when magnet is stationary inside
direction. solenoid.
Deflection on meter is temporary and occurs only while Current direction reverses with the direction of magnet
wire is moving. movement.
This also works if the solenoid is moved instead of the
magnet.

Factors Affecting Induced $e.m.f.$

Faster movement of magnet or coil increases induced

Bar Magnet and Coil (solenoid) e.m.f.
More turns in the coil increase the induced e.m.f.
Stronger magnets increase the induced e.m.f.
$e.m.f.$ is directly proportional to the rate at which the
conductor cuts through magnetic field lines.

Direction of Induced $e.m.f.$ (Lenz’s Law)

Induced $e.m.f.$ always opposes the change causing it.
If a magnet approaches a coil, the induced current
generates a magnetic field that opposes the motion.
If a magnet is withdrawn, the coil’s induced current
generates a field that attracts the magnet.
Magnetic Fields

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Variation of Magnetic Field Strength
Straight Wire:
When current flows through a vertical wire, iron Magnetic field strength decreases with distance from the
filings around it form circles. wire.
Meaning that around a straight wire, there are Field lines spread out as distance increases.
circular magnetic field lines. Increasing current strengthens the magnetic field and
Field direction changes with current direction lines become closer together.
(upwards or downwards through the wire) Reversing current direction reverses the direction of the
Use right-hand grip rule: direction of thumb (upwards magnetic field.
or downwards) indicates magnetic field direction by
the remaining fingers (clockwise or anti-clockwise). 1.8. Applications of electromagnetic
effects
Relay
A relay is a switch that operates using an electromagnet.
It allows one circuit to control another
When current flows through the coil, it magnetizes the
soft iron core.
The magnetized core attracts the L-shaped iron
armature.
Solenoid The armature rocks on its pivot and closes contacts in
A long cylindrical coil produces a magnetic field another circuit.
similar to a bar magnet.
End A behaves like the north pole, and end B behaves
like the south pole.
Right-hand grip rule: grip solenoid in current
direction, thumb points to the north pole.
Magnetic field inside the solenoid is stronger and
denser compared to outside.

Components
Coil: Creates the magnetic field.
Soft Iron Core: Magnetized by the coil, attracts the
armature.
L-shaped Iron Armature: Moves to close or open
contacts.
Contacts: Switches the second circuit on or off.

Reed Switch

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A reed switch uses magnetic fields to control a circuit. A device that produces sound by ringing is an electric bell
Operated by current flowing through a coil, which Pressing the bell push completes the circuit.
magnetizes reeds of magnetic material. Current flows through electromagnet coils, magnetizing
Current flows: Reeds become magnetized, attract each them.
other, and close the circuit. Electromagnet attracts a soft iron bar (armature),
Current stops: Reeds lose magnetization, separate, and causing the hammer to hit the gong.
open the circuit. The circuit breaks at contact screw point
Electromagnet loses magnetism, armature returns to its
original position.
The springy metal strip reconnects the circuit, and the
cycle repeats as long as the bell push is pressed.

Loudspeaker
It converts electrical signals into sound waves.
Varying currents pass through a coil placed in a magnetic
field.
Magnetic fields interact, causing the coil to vibrate.
A paper cone attached to the coil moves with it. 1.9. Motors and generators
Vibrations create sound waves in the surrounding air.
Components Simple $d.c.$ Electric Motor
Coil: Receives electrical signals and vibrates.
Magnet: Provides the magnetic field for interaction.
Paper Cone: Moves with the coil to produce sound.

Electric Bell

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Components Fleming’s Left Hand Rule is used for the $d.c.$

Rectangular coil: Fixed up on an axle that can rotate. motor
C-shaped magnet: Provides the magnetic field.
Split-ring commutator: A copper ring split into two
halves, connected to the ends of the coil. It rotates
with the coil.
Brushes: Carbon blocks pressed against the commutator
to supply current continuously.

The $a.c$ Generator

Components

Rectangular coil: Positioned between the poles of a C-

shaped magnet.
Slip rings: Connected to the ends of the coil, rotate with
Operation the coil.
When direct current ($d.c.)$ flows through the coil, a Carbon brushes: Press against the slip rings to conduct
force acts on the coil due to the interaction with the current.
magnetic field.
This force creates a turning effect, causing the coil to
rotate.
The split-ring commutator reverses the direction of
current in the coil as it rotates, making sure there is
continuous rotation by maintaining the direction of
force.

Operation

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As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, it cuts through This occurs when current changes in one coil, inducing a
the field lines, inducing an electromotive force ($e.m.f.$) voltage in a neighboring coil.
The $e.m.f.$ varies as the coil moves Magnetic field lines from the primary cut through the
Vertical Position: No $e.m.f.$ as the coil cuts the least secondary coil, inducing voltage.
number of field lines. Induced voltage increases with a soft iron rod or
Horizontal Position: Maximum $e.m.f.$ as the coil cuts complete iron ring core due to increased magnetic field
the most field lines. lines.
The direction of $e.m.f.$ reverses as the coil continues to
rotate, producing alternating current ($a.c.$) in the
circuit.
The frequency of the $a.c$. is determined by the rotation
speed of the coil. For example, a coil rotating twice per
second generates an $a.c$. with a frequency of 2 $Hz.$

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule is used for the

$a.c.$ generator.

Transformer Equation

The alternating voltage applied to the primary induces an

alternating voltage in the secondary.
Relationship given by $\frac{V_p}{V_s}$ = $\frac{N_p}
{N_s}$
$V_p$ and $V_s$ the primary and secondary voltages.
$N_p$ and $N_s$ are the primary and secondary turns.
1.10. Transformers Step-up transformer: More turns are on secondary $(V_s
> V_p)$.
The transformer changes alternating voltage to different Step-down transformer: fewer turns on secondary, ($V_s
values. < V_p$).
Consists of primary and secondary coils on a soft iron
core. Worked Example
Coils can be wound on top of each other or separate
limbs. A transformer steps down the mains supply from 230V
to 10V.
Mutual Induction Turns ratio: $\frac{N_p}{N_s}$ = $\frac{230V}{10V}$ =
$\frac{23}{1}$
If the secondary has 80 turns, the primary has $80$
$\times$ $2$3= 18$2$ turns.

Energy Losses

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If $V$ s stepped up, current $I$ is stepped down

proportionally.
Ideal transformer (100% efficient): $I_p V_p$ = $I_s V_s$
$I_p$ and $I_s$ are primary and secondary currents.
If $V$ is doubled, $I$ is halved.

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CAIE IGCSE
Physics

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