Chapter 7: Memory – Class Notes

1. Introduction

Memory is the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information. It allows us to
retain knowledge, experiences, and skills for use later. Understanding memory involves
exploring how information moves through various stages, how it’s organized, and how
factors such as attention, emotion, and interference impact recall.

2. Models of Memory

 Information Processing Model: Memory works similarly to a computer, where

information is processed in stages:

1. Encoding: Getting information into the memory system.

2. Storage: Maintaining information over time.

3. Retrieval: Bringing information out of storage when needed.

 Atkinson-Shi rin Model: Describes memory in three stages:

1. Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information (e.g., sights, sounds).

Lasts milliseconds to seconds.

2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Holds a small amount of information for a

limited time (about 30 seconds). Known for its capacity of 7±2 items.

3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): The vast, permanent storage of information. Its

capacity is thought to be limitless.

3. Encoding: Getting Information In

 Automatic Processing: Encoding of information without conscious e ort, such as

remembering the location of objects or the sound of a familiar voice.

 E ortful Processing: Encoding that requires conscious attention and e ort, such
as learning a new language or studying for a test.

Techniques to Improve Encoding:

 Rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it in STM and transfer it to LTM.

 Chunking: Grouping information into manageable units (e.g., phone numbers).

  Mnemonic Devices: Techniques such as acronyms or visual imagery to improve
memory retention.

4. Storage: Retaining Information

 Semantic Encoding: The encoding of meaning. Information that is meaningful is

more likely to be stored in LTM.

 Visual and Acoustic Encoding: Visual (sight) and acoustic (sound) information can
also be encoded, but they are less durable than semantic encoding.

Organization of Memory:

 Hierarchies: Organizing information into categories and subcategories (e.g., a tree

structure).

 Schemas: Mental frameworks that help organize and interpret information.

 Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): The strengthening of synapses based on repeated

stimulation, which is believed to be a biological mechanism of memory storage.

5. Retrieval: Getting Information Out

 Retrieval Cues: Stimuli or prompts that help retrieve information from memory
(e.g., a scent or a specific location).

 Recall: Retrieving information without any cues (e.g., writing an essay from
memory).

 Recognition: Identifying information when presented with choices (e.g., multiple-

choice tests).

Types of Memory Retrieval:

 Free Recall: Remembering information without hints or prompts (e.g., reciting a list
of words from memory).

 Cued Recall: Using prompts or cues to assist memory retrieval (e.g., remembering
a word by recalling its category).

 Relearning: The process of learning information that was previously learned and
then forgotten.
6. Forgetting

 Encoding Failure: Information may never be encoded into memory in the first place,
so it is never stored or retrieved.

 Storage Decay: Over time, memories can fade if they are not actively recalled.

 Interference: When other information interferes with memory retrieval:

o Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with new information.

o Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with old information.

7. Memory Construction

 Misinformation E ect: Memories can be altered by misleading information

presented after an event (e.g., false eyewitness testimonies).

 Source Amnesia: Forgetting the source of information, leading to inaccurate

memories (e.g., remembering a story but not where it came from).

 False Memories: The creation of memories that are not based on actual events,
often influenced by suggestions or external factors.

8. The Role of Emotion in Memory

 Flashbulb Memories: Vivid, detailed memories of emotional events (e.g.,

remembering where you were during a significant historical event).

 Stress and Memory: Stress can enhance the memory of emotional events but can
impair memory retrieval for neutral or non-emotional events.

9. Biological Basis of Memory

 Hippocampus: Plays a crucial role in the formation of new memories and

transferring information from STM to LTM.

 Amygdala: Involved in emotional memory and the encoding of memories tied to

strong emotions.
  Cerebellum: Associated with procedural memory and motor learning.

 Prefrontal Cortex: Involved in the organization and retrieval of memories.

10. Memory Disorders

 Amnesia: Loss of memory, typically due to brain injury or trauma. There are two
types:

o Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after the injury.

o Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to retrieve memories from before the injury.

 Alzheimer’s Disease: A degenerative brain disorder that causes memory loss,

confusion, and cognitive decline, primarily a ecting the elderly.

11. Improving Memory

 Distributed Practice: Spacing out study sessions over time rather than cramming
all at once.

 Active Learning: Engaging with the material in multiple ways (e.g., summarizing,
teaching others).

 Sleep: Adequate sleep helps consolidate memories and improve recall.