CONTENTS

 Units and Measurement

 Motion in a Straight Line

 Motion in a Plane

 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

 Structure of Atom

 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

 The Living World

 Biological Classification

 Plant Kingdom

 Animal Kingdom

 Structural Organization in Animals

 Sets

 Relation function

 Trigonometric Functions

 Linear Inequalities
Blank
 CHAPTER ONE

UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison
with a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally
accepted reference standard called unit. The result of a
1.1 Introduction measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a
1.2 The international system of number (or numerical measure) accompanied by a unit.
units Although the number of physical quantities appears to be
1.3 Significant figures very large, we need only a limited number of units for
expressing all the physical quantities, since they are inter-
1.4 Dimensions of physical related with one another. The units for the fundamental or
quantities base quantities are called fundamental or base units. The
1.5 Dimensional formulae and units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as
dimensional equations combinations of the base units. Such units obtained for the
1.6 Dimensional analysis and its derived quantities are called derived units. A complete set
applications of these units, both the base units and derived units, is
known as the system of units.
Summary
Exercises 1.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
In earlier time scientists of different countries were using
different systems of units for measurement. Three such
systems, the CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the MKS
system were in use extensively till recently.
The base units for length, mass and time in these systems
were as follows :
• In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and second
respectively.
• In FPS system they were foot, pound and second
respectively.
• In MKS system they were metre, kilogram and second
respectively.
The system of units which is at present internationally
accepted for measurement is the Système Internationale
d’ Unites (French for International System of Units),
abbreviated as SI. The SI, with standard scheme of symbols,
units and abbreviations, developed by the Bureau
International des Poids et measures (The International
Bureau of Weights and Measures, BIPM) in 1971 were
recently revised by the General Conference on Weights and
Measures in November 2018. The scheme is now for

2024-25
2 PHYSICS

international usage in scientific, technical, industrial

and commercial work. Because SI units used decimal
system, conversions within the system are quite simple
and convenient. We shall follow the SI units in
this book.
In SI, there are seven base units as given in (a)
Table 1.1. Besides the seven base units, there are two
more units that are defined for (a) plane angle dθ as the
ratio of length of arc ds to the radius r and (b) solid
angle dΩ as the ratio of the intercepted area dA of the
spherical surface, described about the apex O as the
centre, to the square of its radius r, as shown in
Fig. 1.1(a) and (b) respectively. The unit for plane angle
(b)
is radian with the symbol rad and the unit for the solid
angle is steradian with the symbol sr. Both these are Fig. 1.1 Description of (a) plane angle dθ and
dimensionless quantities. (b) solid angle dΩ .
Table 1.1 SI Base Quantities and Units*
Base SI Units
quantity Name Symbol Definition
Length metre m The metre, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the
fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum c to be 299792458
when expressed in the unit m s–1 , where the second is defined in terms of
the caesium frequency ∆ν cs.
Mass kilogram kg The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking the
fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be 6.62607015×10–34 when
expressed in the unit J s, which is equal to kg m2 s–1, where the metre and
the second are defined in terms of c and ∆ν cs.
Time second s The second, symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the fixed
numerical value of the caesium frequency ∆ν cs, the unperturbed ground-
state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom, to be
9192631770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s–1.
Electric ampere A The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined by
taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to be
1.602176634×10–19 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A s,
where the second is defined in terms of ∆ν cs.
Thermo kelvin K The kelvin, symbol K, is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature.
dynamic It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant
Temperature k to be 1.380649×10–23 when expressed in the unit J K–1, which is equal to
kg m2 s–2 k–1, where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of
h, c and ∆ν cs.
Amount of mole mol The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole
substance contains exactly 6.02214076×1023 elementary entities. This number is the
fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant, NA, when expressed in the
unit mol–1 and is called the Avogadro number. The amount of substance,
symbol n, of a system is a measure of the number of specified elementary
entities. An elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron,
any other particle or specified group of particles.
Luminous candela cd The candela, symbol cd, is the SI unit of luminous intensity in given direction.
intensity It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the luminous efficacy of
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012 Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when expressed
in the unit lm W–1, which is equal to cd sr W–1, or cd sr kg–1m–2s3, where the
kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ∆ν cs.

* The values mentioned here need not be remembered or asked in a test. They are given here only to indicate the
extent of accuracy to which they are measured. With progress in technology, the measuring techniques get
improved leading to measurements with greater precision. The definitions of base units are revised to keep up
with this progress.

2024-25
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 3

Table 1.2 Some units retained for general use (Though outside SI)

Note that when mole is used, the elementary the first uncertain digit are known as
entities must be specified. These entities significant digits or significant figures. If we
may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, say the period of oscillation of a simple
other particles or specified groups of such pendulum is 1.62 s, the digits 1 and 6 are
particles. reliable and certain, while the digit 2 is
We employ units for some physical quantities uncertain. Thus, the measured value has three
that can be derived from the seven base units significant figures. The length of an object
(Appendix A 6). Some derived units in terms of reported after measurement to be 287.5 cm has
the SI base units are given in (Appendix A 6.1). four significant figures, the digits 2, 8, 7 are
Some SI derived units are given special names certain while the digit 5 is uncertain. Clearly,
(Appendix A 6.2 ) and some derived SI units make reporting the result of measurement that
use of these units with special names and the includes more digits than the significant digits
seven base units (Appendix A 6.3). These are is superfluous and also misleading since it
given in Appendix A 6.2 and A 6.3 for your ready would give a wrong idea about the precision of
reference. Other units retained for general use measurement.
are given in Table 1.2.
The rules for determining the number of
Common SI prefixes and symbols for multiples
significant figures can be understood from the
and sub-multiples are given in Appendix A2.
following examples. Significant figures
General guidelines for using symbols for physical
indicate, as already mentioned, the precision
quantities, chemical elements and nuclides are
given in Appendix A7 and those for SI units and of measurement which depends on the least
some other units are given in Appendix A8 for count of the measuring instrument. A choice
your guidance and ready reference. of change of different units does not
change the number of significant digits or
1.3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES figures in a measurement. This important
As discussed above, every measurement remark makes most of the following
involves errors. Thus, the result of observations clear:
measurement should be reported in a way that (1) For example, the length 2.308 cm has four
indicates the precision of measurement. significant figures. But in different units, the
Normally, the reported result of measurement same value can be written as 0.02308 m or 23.08
is a number that includes all digits in the mm or 23080 µm.
number that are known reliably plus the first All these numbers have the same number of
digit that is uncertain. The reliable digits plus significant figures (digits 2, 3, 0, 8), namely four.

2024-25
4 PHYSICS

This shows that the location of decimal point is negative exponent (or power) of 10. In order to
of no consequence in determining the number get an approximate idea of the number, we may
of significant figures. round off the number a to 1 (for a ≤ 5) and to 10
The example gives the following rules : (for 5<a ≤ 10). Then the number can be
• All the non-zero digits are significant. expressed approximately as 10b in which the
exponent (or power) b of 10 is called order of
• All the zeros between two non-zero digits
magnitude of the physical quantity. When only
are significant, no matter where the an estimate is required, the quantity is of the
decimal point is, if at all. order of 10b. For example, the diameter of the
• If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) earth (1.28×107m) is of the order of 107m with
on the right of decimal point but to the the order of magnitude 7. The diameter of
left of the first non-zero digit are not hydrogen atom (1.06 ×10–10m) is of the order of
significant. [In 0.00 2308, the underlined 10 –10 m, with the order of magnitude
zeroes are not significant]. –10. Thus, the diameter of the earth is 17 orders
of magnitude larger than the hydrogen atom.
• The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a
It is often customary to write the decimal after
number without a decimal point are not
the first digit. Now the confusion mentioned in
significant.
(a) above disappears :
[Thus 123 m = 12300 cm = 123000 mm has 4.700 m = 4.700 × 102 cm
three significant figures, the trailing zero(s) = 4.700 × 103 mm = 4.700 × 10–3 km
being not significant.] However, you can also
The power of 10 is irrelevant to the
see the next observation.
determination of significant figures. However, all
• The trailing zero(s) in a number with a zeroes appearing in the base number in the
decimal point are significant. scientific notation are significant. Each number
[The numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 have four in this case has four significant figures.
significant figures each.] Thus, in the scientific notation, no confusion
(2) There can be some confusion regarding the arises about the trailing zero(s) in the base
trailing zero(s). Suppose a length is reported to number a. They are always significant.
be 4.700 m. It is evident that the zeroes here (4) The scientific notation is ideal for reporting
are meant to convey the precision of measurement. But if this is not adopted, we use
measurement and are, therefore, significant. [If the rules adopted in the preceding example :
these were not, it would be superfluous to write
them explicitly, the reported measurement • For a number greater than 1, without any
would have been simply 4.7 m]. Now suppose decimal, the trailing zero(s) are not
we change units, then significant.
4.700 m = 470.0 cm = 4700 mm = 0.004700 km • For a number with a decimal, the trailing
zero(s) are significant.
Since the last number has trailing zero(s) in a
number with no decimal, we would conclude (5) The digit 0 conventionally put on the left of a
erroneously from observation (1) above that the decimal for a number less than 1 (like 0.1250)
number has two significant figures, while in is never significant. However, the zeroes at the
fact, it has four significant figures and a mere end of such number are significant in a
change of units cannot change the number of measurement.
significant figures.
(6) The multiplying or dividing factors which are
(3) To remove such ambiguities in neither rounded numbers nor numbers
determining the number of significant representing measured values are exact and
figures, the best way is to report every have infinite number of significant digits. For
measurement in scientific notation (in the
d
power of 10). In this notation, every number is example in r = or s = 2πr, the factor 2 is an
expressed as a × 10b, where a is a number 2
between 1 and 10, and b is any positive or exact number and it can be written as 2.0, 2.00

2024-25
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 5

t decimal place. The final result should, therefore,

or 2.0000 as required. Similarly, in T = , n is be rounded off to 663.8 g.
n
Similarly, the difference in length can be
an exact number.
expressed as :
1.3.1 Rules for Arithmetic Operations with 0.307 m – 0.304 m = 0.003 m = 3 ×10–3 m.
Significant Figures
Note that we should not use the rule (1) applicable
The result of a calculation involving approximate for multiplication and division and write 664 g as
measured values of quantities (i.e. values with the result in the example of addition and
limited number of significant figures) must 3.00 × 10–3 m in the example of subtraction. They
reflect the uncertainties in the original do not convey the precision of measurement
measured values. It cannot be more accurate properly. For addition and subtraction, the rule
than the original measured values themselves
is in terms of decimal places.
on which the result is based. In general, the
final result should not have more significant 1.3.2 Rounding off the Uncertain Digits
figures than the original data from which it was The result of computation with approximate
obtained. Thus, if mass of an object is measured numbers, which contain more than one
to be, say, 4.237 g (four significant figures) and uncertain digit, should be rounded off. The rules
its volume is measured to be 2.51 cm3, then its for rounding off numbers to the appropriate
density, by mere arithmetic division, is significant figures are obvious in most cases. A
1.68804780876 g/cm3 upto 11 decimal places. number 2.746 rounded off to three significant
It would be clearly absurd and irrelevant to figures is 1.75, while the number 1.743 would
record the calculated value of density to such a be 1.74. The rule by convention is that the
precision when the measurements on which the preceding digit is raised by 1 if the
value is based, have much less precision. The
insignificant digit to be dropped (the
following rules for arithmetic operations with
underlined digit in this case) is more than
significant figures ensure that the final result
5, and is left unchanged if the latter is less
of a calculation is shown with the precision that
than 5. But what if the number is 2.745 in
is consistent with the precision of the input
measured values : which the insignificant digit is 5. Here, the
(1) In multiplication or division, the final convention is that if the preceding digit is
result should retain as many significant even, the insignificant digit is simply
figures as are there in the original number dropped and, if it is odd, the preceding digit
with the least significant figures. is raised by 1. Then, the number 2.745 rounded
Thus, in the example above, density should off to three significant figures becomes 1.74. On
be reported to three significant figures. the other hand, the number 2.735 rounded off
4.237g
to three significant figures becomes 1.74 since
-3
Density = 3
= 1.69 g cm the preceding digit is odd.
2.51 cm In any involved or complex multi-step
Similarly, if the speed of light is given as calculation, you should retain, in intermediate
3.00 × 108 m s-1 (three significant figure) and steps, one digit more than the significant digits
one year (1y = 365.25 d) has 3.1557 × 107 s (five and round off to proper significant figures at the
significant figures), the light year is 9.47 × 1015 m end of the calculation. Similarly, a number
(three significant figures). known to be within many significant figures,
such as in 1.99792458 × 108 m/s for the speed
(2) In addition or subtraction, the final result
should retain as many decimal places as are of light in vacuum, is rounded off to an
there in the number with the least approximate value 3 × 108 m/s , which is often
decimal places. employed in computations. Finally, remember
For example, the sum of the numbers that exact numbers that appear in formulae like
436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g by mere arithmetic L
addition, is 663.821 g. But the least precise 2 π in T = 2π , have a large (infinite) number
measurement (227.2 g) is correct to only one g

2024-25
6 PHYSICS

of significant figures. The value of π =

= 16.2 cm ± 0.6 %.
3.1415926.... is known to a large number of
significant figures. You may take the value as Similarly, the breadth b may be written as
3.142 or 3.14 for π, with limited number of b = 10.1 ± 0.1 cm
significant figures as required in specific = 10.1 cm ± 1 %
cases.
Then, the error of the product of two (or more)
Example 1.1 Each side of a cube is experimental values, using the combination of
⊳
measured to be 7.203 m. What are the errors rule, will be
total surface area and the volume of the
cube to appropriate significant figures? l b = 163.62 cm2 + 1.6%

= 163.62 + 2.6 cm2

Answer The number of significant figures in
the measured length is 4. The calculated area This leads us to quote the final result as
and the volume should therefore be rounded off l b = 164 + 3 cm2
to 4 significant figures.
Here 3 cm2 is the uncertainty or error in the
Surface area of the cube = 6(7.203)2 m2 estimation of area of rectangular sheet.
= 311.299254 m2 (2) If a set of experimental data is specified
= 311.3 m2 to n significant figures, a result obtained by
combining the data will also be valid to n
Volume of the cube = (7.203)3 m3
significant figures.
= 373.714754 m3
However, if data are subtracted, the number of
= 373.7 m3 ⊳ significant figures can be reduced.
⊳
Example 1.2 5.74 g of a substance For example, 12.9 g – 7.06 g, both specified to
occupies 1.2 cm3. Express its density by three significant figures, cannot properly be
keeping the significant figures in view. evaluated as 5.84 g but only as 5.8 g, as
Answer There are 3 significant figures in the uncertainties in subtraction or addition combine
measured mass whereas there are only 2 in a different fashion (smallest number of
decimal places rather than the number of
significant figures in the measured volume.
significant figures in any of the number added
Hence the density should be expressed to only
or subtracted).
2 significant figures.
5.74 (3) The relative error of a value of number
Density = g cm−3 specified to significant figures depends not
1.2 only on n but also on the number itself.
= 4.8 g cm--3 . ⊳ For example, the accuracy in measurement of
mass 1.02 g is ± 0.01 g whereas another
1.3.3 Rules for Determining the Uncertainty measurement 9.89 g is also accurate to ± 0.01 g.
in the Results of Arithmetic The relative error in 1.02 g is
Calculations = (± 0.01/1.02) × 100 %
The rules for determining the uncertainty or = ± 1%
error in the number/measured quantity in Similarly, the relative error in 9.89 g is
arithmetic operations can be understood from = (± 0.01/9.89) × 100 %
the following examples. = ± 0.1 %
(1) If the length and breadth of a thin Finally, remember that intermediate results in
rectangular sheet are measured, using a metre a multi-step computation should be
scale as 16.2 cm and, 10.1 cm respectively, there calculated to one more significant figure in
are three significant figures in each every measurement than the number of
measurement. It means that the length l may digits in the least precise measurement.
be written as These should be justified by the data and then
l = 16.2 ± 0.1 cm the arithmetic operations may be carried out;

2024-25
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 7

otherwise rounding errors can build up. For mass, one dimension in length, and –2
example, the reciprocal of 9.58, calculated (after dimensions in time. The dimensions in all other
rounding off) to the same number of significant base quantities are zero.
figures (three) is 0.104, but the reciprocal of Note that in this type of representation, the
0.104 calculated to three significant figures is magnitudes are not considered. It is the quality
of the type of the physical quantity that enters.
9.62. However, if we had written 1/9.58 = 0.1044
Thus, a change in velocity, initial velocity,
and then taken the reciprocal to three significant average velocity, final velocity, and speed are
figures, we would have retrieved the original all equivalent in this context. Since all these
value of 9.58. quantities can be expressed as length/time,
This example justifies the idea to retain one their dimensions are [L]/[T] or [L T–1].
more extra digit (than the number of digits in
the least precise measurement) in intermediate 1.5 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND
steps of the complex multi-step calculations in DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS
order to avoid additional errors in the process The expression which shows how and which of
of rounding off the numbers. the base quantities represent the dimensions
of a physical quantity is called the dimensional
1.4 DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES formula of the given physical quantity. For
example, the dimensional formula of the volume
The nature of a physical quantity is described is [M° L3 T°], and that of speed or velocity is
by its dimensions. All the physical quantities [M° L T-1]. Similarly, [M° L T–2] is the dimensional
represented by derived units can be expressed formula of acceleration and [M L–3 T°] that of
in terms of some combination of seven mass density.
fundamental or base quantities. We shall call An equation obtained by equating a physical
these base quantities as the seven dimensions quantity with its dimensional formula is called
of the physical world, which are denoted with the dimensional equation of the physical
square brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the quantity. Thus, the dimensional equations are
dimension [L], mass [M], time [T], electric current the equations, which represent the dimensions
[A], thermodynamic temperature [K], luminous of a physical quantity in terms of the base
intensity [cd], and amount of substance [mol]. quantities. For example, the dimensional
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the equations of volume [V ], speed [v], force [F ] and
powers (or exponents) to which the base mass density [ρ] may be expressed as
quantities are raised to represent that
[V] = [M0 L3 T0]
quantity. Note that using the square brackets
[v] = [M0 L T–1]
[ ] round a quantity means that we are dealing
[F] = [M L T–2]
with ‘the dimensions of’ the quantity.
[ρ] = [M L–3 T0]
In mechanics, all the physical quantities can
be written in terms of the dimensions [L], [M] The dimensional equation can be obtained
and [T]. For example, the volume occupied by from the equation representing the relations
an object is expressed as the product of length, between the physical quantities. The
breadth and height, or three lengths. Hence the dimensional formulae of a large number and
dimensions of volume are [L] × [L] × [L] = [L]3 = [L3]. wide variety of physical quantities, derived from
the equations representing the relationships
As the volume is independent of mass and time,
among other physical quantities and expressed
it is said to possess zero dimension in mass [M°],
in terms of base quantities are given in
zero dimension in time [T°] and three Appendix 9 for your guidance and ready
dimensions in length. reference.
Similarly, force, as the product of mass and
acceleration, can be expressed as 1.6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS
Force = mass × acceleration APPLICATIONS
= mass × (length)/(time)2
The recognition of concepts of dimensions, which
The dimensions of force are [M] [L]/[T]2 = guide the description of physical behaviour is
[M L T–2]. Thus, the force has one dimension in of basic importance as only those physical

2024-25
8 PHYSICS

quantities can be added or subtracted which such as angle as the ratio (length/length),
have the same dimensions. A thorough refractive index as the ratio (speed of light in
understanding of dimensional analysis helps us vacuum/speed of light in medium) etc., has no
in deducing certain relations among different dimensions.
physical quantities and checking the derivation, Now we can test the dimensional consistency
accuracy and dimensional consistency or or homogeneity of the equation
homogeneity of various mathematical
expressions. When magnitudes of two or more x = x 0 + v0 t + (1/2) a t 2
physical quantities are multiplied, their units for the distance x travelled by a particle or body
should be treated in the same manner as in time t which starts from the position x0 with
ordinary algebraic symbols. We can cancel an initial velocity v0 at time t = 0 and has uniform
identical units in the numerator and
acceleration a along the direction of motion.
denominator. The same is true for dimensions
The dimensions of each term may be written as
of a physical quantity. Similarly, physical
[x] = [L]
quantities represented by symbols on both sides
of a mathematical equation must have the same [x0 ] = [L]
dimensions. [v0 t] = [L T–1] [T]
= [L]
1.6.1 Checking the Dimensional [(1/2) a t2] = [L T–2] [T2]
Consistency of Equations = [L]
As each term on the right hand side of this
The magnitudes of physical quantities may be equation has the same dimension, namely that
added together or subtracted from one another of length, which is same as the dimension of
only if they have the same dimensions. In other left hand side of the equation, hence this
words, we can add or subtract similar physical equation is a dimensionally correct equation.
quantities. Thus, velocity cannot be added to It may be noted that a test of consistency of
force, or an electric current cannot be subtracted dimensions tells us no more and no less than a
from the thermodynamic temperature. This test of consistency of units, but has the
simple principle called the principle of advantage that we need not commit ourselves
homogeneity of dimensions in an equation is to a particular choice of units, and we need not
extremely useful in checking the correctness of worry about conversions among multiples and
an equation. If the dimensions of all the terms sub-multiples of the units. It may be borne in
are not same, the equation is wrong. Hence, if mind that if an equation fails this consistency
we derive an expression for the length (or test, it is proved wrong, but if it passes, it is
distance) of an object, regardless of the symbols not proved right. Thus, a dimensionally correct
appearing in the original mathematical relation, equation need not be actually an exact
when all the individual dimensions are (correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong
simplified, the remaining dimension must be (incorrect) or inconsistent equation must be
that of length. Similarly, if we derive an equation wrong.
of speed, the dimensions on both the sides of
equation, when simplified, must be of length/ ⊳
Example 1.3 Let us consider an equation
time, or [L T–1].
Dimensions are customarily used as a 1
m v2 = m g h
preliminary test of the consistency of an 2
equation, when there is some doubt about the where m is the mass of the body, v its
correctness of the equation. However, the velocity, g is the acceleration due to
dimensional consistency does not guarantee gravity and h is the height. Check
correct equations. It is uncertain to the extent whether this equation is dimensionally
of dimensionless quantities or functions. The correct.
arguments of special functions, such as the
trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential Answer The dimensions of LHS are
functions must be dimensionless. A pure [M] [L T–1 ]2 = [M] [ L2 T–2]
number, ratio of similar physical quantities, = [M L2 T–2]

2024-25
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 9

The dimensions of RHS are string, that oscillates under the action of
[M][L T–2] [L] = [M][L2 T–2] the force of gravity. Suppose that the period
= [M L2 T–2] of oscillation of the simple pendulum
The dimensions of LHS and RHS are the same and depends on its length (l), mass of the bob
hence the equation is dimensionally correct. ⊳ (m) and acceleration due to gravity (g).
Derive the expression for its time period
using method of dimensions.
Example 1.4 The SI unit of energy is
⊳
J = kg m2 s–2; that of speed v is m s–1 and
of acceleration a is m s–2. Which of the Answer The dependence of time period T on
formulae for kinetic energy (K) given below the quantities l, g and m as a product may be
can you rule out on the basis of written as :
dimensional arguments (m stands for the T = k lx gy mz
mass of the body) : where k is dimensionless constant and x, y
(a) K = m2 v3 and z are the exponents.
(b) K = (1/2)mv2 By considering dimensions on both sides, we
(c) K = ma have
(d) K = (3/16)mv2 [Lo M o T 1 ]=[L1 ]x [L1 T –2 ]y [M1 ]z
(e) K = (1/2)mv2 + ma = Lx+y T–2y Mz
Answer Every correct formula or equation must On equating the dimensions on both sides,
have the same dimensions on both sides of the we have
equation. Also, only quantities with the same x + y = 0; –2y = 1; and z = 0
physical dimensions can be added or
1 1
subtracted. The dimensions of the quantity on So that x = ,y = – , z = 0
the right side are [M2 L3 T–3] for (a); [M L2 T–2] for 2 2
–½
(b) and (d); [M L T–2] for (c). The quantity on the
½
Then, T = k l g
right side of (e) has no proper dimensions since
two quantities of different dimensions have been l
added. Since the kinetic energy K has the or, T = k
g
dimensions of [M L2 T–2], formulas (a), (c) and (e)
are ruled out. Note that dimensional arguments Note that value of constant k can not be obtained
cannot tell which of the two, (b) or (d), is the by the method of dimensions. Here it does not
correct formula. For this, one must turn to the matter if some number multiplies the right side
actual definition of kinetic energy (see of this formula, because that does not affect its
Chapter 5). The correct formula for kinetic dimensions.
energy is given by (b). ⊳
l
Actually, k = 2π so that T = 2π ⊳
1.6.2 Deducing Relation among the g
Physical Quantities
The method of dimensions can sometimes be Dimensional analysis is very useful in deducing
used to deduce relation among the physical relations among the interdependent physical
quantities. For this we should know the quantities. However, dimensionless constants
dependence of the physical quantity on other cannot be obtained by this method. The method
quantities (upto three physical quantities or of dimensions can only test the dimensional
linearly independent variables) and consider it validity, but not the exact relationship between
as a product type of the dependence. Let us take physical quantities in any equation. It does not
an example. distinguish between the physical quantities
having same dimensions.
A number of exercises at the end of this
⊳
Example 1.5 Consider a simple
pendulum, having a bob attached to a chapter will help you develop skill in
dimensional analysis.

2024-25
10 PHYSICS

SUMMARY

1. Physics is a quantitative science, based on measurement of physical quantities. Certain

physical quantities have been chosen as fundamental or base quantities (such as
length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance,
and luminous intensity).
2. Each base quantity is defined in terms of a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen but properly
standardised reference standard called unit (such as metre, kilogram, second, ampere,
kelvin, mole and candela). The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called
fundamental or base units.
3. Other physical quantities, derived from the base quantities, can be expressed as a
combination of the base units and are called derived units. A complete set of units,
both fundamental and derived, is called a system of units.
4. The International System of Units (SI) based on seven base units is at present
internationally accepted unit system and is widely used throughout the world.
5. The SI units are used in all physical measurements, for both the base quantities and
the derived quantities obtained from them. Certain derived units are expressed by
means of SI units with special names (such as joule, newton, watt, etc).
6. The SI units have well defined and internationally accepted unit symbols (such as m
for metre, kg for kilogram, s for second, A for ampere, N for newton etc.).
7. Physical measurements are usually expressed for small and large quantities in scientific
notation, with powers of 10. Scientific notation and the prefixes are used to simplify
measurement notation and numerical computation, giving indication to the precision
of the numbers.
8. Certain general rules and guidelines must be followed for using notations for physical
quantities and standard symbols for SI units, some other units and SI prefixes for
expressing properly the physical quantities and measurements.
9. In computing any physical quantity, the units for derived quantities involved in the
relationship(s) are treated as though they were algebraic quantities till the desired
units are obtained.
10. In measured and computed quantities proper significant figures only should be retained.
Rules for determining the number of significant figures, carrying out arithmetic
operations with them, and ‘rounding off ‘ the uncertain digits must be followed.
11. The dimensions of base quantities and combination of these dimensions describe
the nature of physical quantities. Dimensional analysis can be used to check the
dimensional consistency of equations, deducing relations among the physical
quantities, etc. A dimensionally consistent equation need not be actually an
exact (correct) equation, but a dimensionally wrong or inconsistent equation
must be wrong.

EXERCISES

Note : In stating numerical answers, take care of significant figures.

1.1 Fill in the blanks
(a) The volume of a cube of side 1 cm is equal to .....m3
(b) The surface area of a solid cylinder of radius 2.0 cm and height 10.0 cm is equal to
...(mm)2
(c) A vehicle moving with a speed of 18 km h–1 covers....m in 1 s
(d) The relative density of lead is 11.3. Its density is ....g cm–3 or ....kg m–3.
1.2 Fill in the blanks by suitable conversion of units
(a) 1 kg m2 s–2 = ....g cm2 s–2
(b) 1 m = ..... ly
(c) 3.0 m s–2 = .... km h–2
(d) G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 (kg)–2 = .... (cm)3 s–2 g–1.

2024-25
UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 11

1.3 A calorie is a unit of heat (energy in transit) and it equals about 4.2 J where 1J =
1 kg m2 s–2. Suppose we employ a system of units in which the unit of mass equals α
kg, the unit of length equals β m, the unit of time is γ s. Show that a calorie has a
magnitude 4.2 α –1 β –2 γ 2 in terms of the new units.
1.4 Explain this statement clearly :
“To call a dimensional quantity ‘large’ or ‘small’ is meaningless without specifying a
standard for comparison”. In view of this, reframe the following statements wherever
necessary :
(a) atoms are very small objects
(b) a jet plane moves with great speed
(c) the mass of Jupiter is very large
(d) the air inside this room contains a large number of molecules
(e) a proton is much more massive than an electron
(f) the speed of sound is much smaller than the speed of light.
1.5 A new unit of length is chosen such that the speed of light in vacuum is unity. What
is the distance between the Sun and the Earth in terms of the new unit if light takes
8 min and 20 s to cover this distance ?
1.6 Which of the following is the most precise device for measuring length :
(a) a vernier callipers with 20 divisions on the sliding scale
(b) a screw gauge of pitch 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale
(c) an optical instrument that can measure length to within a wavelength of light ?
1.7 A student measures the thickness of a human hair by looking at it through a
microscope of magnification 100. He makes 20 observations and finds that the average
width of the hair in the field of view of the microscope is 3.5 mm. What is the
estimate on the thickness of hair ?
1.8 Answer the following :
(a)You are given a thread and a metre scale. How will you estimate the diameter of
the thread ?
(b)A screw gauge has a pitch of 1.0 mm and 200 divisions on the circular scale. Do
you think it is possible to increase the accuracy of the screw gauge arbitrarily by
increasing the number of divisions on the circular scale ?
(c) The mean diameter of a thin brass rod is to be measured by vernier callipers. Why
is a set of 100 measurements of the diameter expected to yield a more reliable
estimate than a set of 5 measurements only ?
1.9 The photograph of a house occupies an area of 1.75 cm2 on a 35 mm slide. The slide
is projected on to a screen, and the area of the house on the screen is 1.55 m2. What
is the linear magnification of the projector-screen arrangement.
1.10 State the number of significant figures in the following :
(a) 0.007 m2
(b) 2.64 × 1024 kg
(c) 0.2370 g cm–3
(d) 6.320 J
(e) 6.032 N m–2
(f) 0.0006032 m2
1.11 The length, breadth and thickness of a rectangular sheet of metal are 4.234 m, 1.005 m, and
2.01 cm respectively. Give the area and volume of the sheet to correct significant figures.
1.12 The mass of a box measured by a grocer’s balance is 2.30 kg. Two gold pieces of
masses 20.15 g and 20.17 g are added to the box. What is (a) the total mass of the
box, (b) the difference in the masses of the pieces to correct significant figures ?
1.13 A famous relation in physics relates ‘moving mass’ m to the ‘rest mass’ mo of a
particle in terms of its speed v and the speed of light, c. (This relation first arose as
a consequence of special relativity due to Albert Einstein). A boy recalls the relation
almost correctly but forgets where to put the constant c. He writes :
m0
m=
(1 − v )
2 1/2 .

Guess where to put the missing c.

2024-25
12 PHYSICS

1.14 The unit of length convenient on the atomic scale is known as an angstrom and is
denoted by Å: 1 Å = 10–10 m. The size of a hydrogen atom is about 0.5 Å. What is the
total atomic volume in m3 of a mole of hydrogen atoms ?
1.15 One mole of an ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure occupies 22.4 L
(molar volume). What is the ratio of molar volume to the atomic volume of a mole of
hydrogen ? (Take the size of hydrogen molecule to be about 1 Å). Why is this ratio
so large ?
1.16 Explain this common observation clearly : If you look out of the window of a fast
moving train, the nearby trees, houses etc. seem to move rapidly in a direction opposite
to the train’s motion, but the distant objects (hill tops, the Moon, the stars etc.)
seem to be stationary. (In fact, since you are aware that you are moving, these
distant objects seem to move with you).
1.17 The Sun is a hot plasma (ionized matter) with its inner core at a temperature exceeding
10 7 K, and its outer surface at a temperature of about 6000 K. At these high
temperatures, no substance remains in a solid or liquid phase. In what range do you
expect the mass density of the Sun to be, in the range of densities of solids and
liquids or gases ? Check if your guess is correct from the following data : mass of the
Sun = 2.0 ×1030 kg, radius of the Sun = 7.0 × 108 m.

2024-25
 CHAPTER TWO

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Motion is common to everything in the universe. We walk,
run and ride a bicycle. Even when we are sleeping, air moves
2.1 Introduction into and out of our lungs and blood flows in arteries and
2.2 Instantaneous velocity and veins. We see leaves falling from trees and water flowing
speed down a dam. Automobiles and planes carry people from one
2.3 Acceleration place to the other. The earth rotates once every twenty-four
2.4 Kinematic equations for hours and revolves round the sun once in a year. The sun
uniformly accelerated motion itself is in motion in the Milky Way, which is again moving
2.5 Relative velocity within its local group of galaxies.
Summary
Motion is change in position of an object with time. How
Points to ponder does the position change with time ? In this chapter, we shall
Exercises learn how to describe motion. For this, we develop the
concepts of velocity and acceleration. We shall confine
ourselves to the study of motion of objects along a straight
line, also known as rectilinear motion. For the case of
rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration, a set of simple
equations can be obtained. Finally, to understand the relative
nature of motion, we introduce the concept of relative velocity.
In our discussions, we shall treat the objects in motion as
point objects. This approximation is valid so far as the size
of the object is much smaller than the distance it moves in a
reasonable duration of time. In a good number of situations
in real-life, the size of objects can be neglected and they can
be considered as point-like objects without much error.
In Kinematics, we study ways to describe motion without
going into the causes of motion. What causes motion
described in this chapter and the next chapter forms the
subject matter of Chapter 4.

2024-25
14 PHYSICS

2.2 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED

The average velocity tells us how fast an object
has been moving over a given time interval but
does not tell us how fast it moves at different
instants of time during that interval. For this,
we define instantaneous velocity or simply
velocity v at an instant t.
The velocity at an instant is defined as the
limit of the average velocity as the time interval
∆t becomes infinitesimally small. In other words,
∆x
v = lim (2.1a)
∆t → 0 ∆t
Fig. 2.1 Determining velocity from position-time
dx (2.1b) graph. Velocity at t = 4 s is the slope of the
=
dt tangent to the graph at that instant.

lim
where the symbol ∆t →0 stands for the operation Now, we decrease the value of ∆t from 2 s to 1
of taking limit as ∆tg0 of the quantity on its s. Then line P1P2 becomes Q1Q2 and its slope
right. In the language of calculus, the quantity gives the value of the average velocity over
on the right hand side of Eq. (2.1a) is the the interval 3.5 s to 4.5 s. In the limit ∆t → 0,
differential coefficient of x with respect to t and the line P1P2 becomes tangent to the position-
dx time curve at the point P and the velocity at t
is denoted by (see Appendix 2.1). It is the
dt = 4 s is given by the slope of the tangent at
rate of change of position with respect to time, that point. It is difficult to show this
at that instant. process graphically. But if we use
numerical method to obtain the value of
We can use Eq. (2.1a) for obtaining the
the velocity, the meaning of the limiting
value of velocity at an instant either
process becomes clear. For the graph shown
graphically or numerically. Suppose that we
in Fig. 2.1, x = 0.08 t3. Table 2.1 gives the
want to obtain graphically the value of
value of ∆x/∆t calculated for ∆t equal to 2.0 s,
velocity at time t = 4 s (point P) for the motion
1.0 s, 0.5 s, 0.1 s and 0.01 s centred at t =
of the car represented in Fig.2.1 calculation.
4.0 s. The second and third columns give the
Let us take ∆t = 2 s centred at t = 4 s. Then,
by the definition of the average velocity, the  ∆t   ∆t 
value of t1=  t −  and t 2 =  t +  and the
slope of line P1P2 ( Fig. 2.1) gives the value of  2   2 
average velocity over the interval 3 s to 5 s. fourth and the fifth columns give the

∆x
Table 2.1 Limiting value of at t = 4 s
∆t

2024-25
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 15

a + 16b – a – 4b
= = 6.0 × b
3
corresponding values of x, i.e. x (t1) = 0.08 t1
2.0
and x (t2) = 0.08 t 23 . The sixth column lists the = 6.0 × 2.5 = 15 m s-1 ⊳
difference ∆x = x (t 2) – x (t1 ) and the last
column gives the ratio of ∆x and ∆t, i.e. the Note that for uniform motion, velocity is
average velocity corresponding to the value the same as the average velocity at all
of ∆t listed in the first column. instants.
We see from Table 2.1 that as we decrease Instantaneous speed or simply speed is the
the value of ∆t from 2.0 s to 0.010 s, the value of magnitude of velocity. For example, a velocity of
the average velocity approaches the limiting + 24.0 m s–1 and a velocity of – 24.0 m s–1 —
value 3.84 m s–1 which is the value of velocity at both have an associated speed of 24.0 m s-1. It
dx should be noted that though average speed over
t = 4.0 s, i.e. the value of at t = 4.0 s. In this a finite interval of time is greater or equal to the
dt magnitude of the average velocity,
manner, we can calculate velocity at each instantaneous speed at an instant is equal to
instant for motion of the car. the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity at
The graphical method for the determination that instant. Why so ?
of the instantaneous velocity is always not a
convenient method. For this, we must carefully 2.3 ACCELERATION
plot the position–time graph and calculate the The velocity of an object, in general, changes
value of average velocity as ∆t becomes smaller during its course of motion. How to describe
and smaller. It is easier to calculate the value this change? Should it be described as the rate
of velocity at different instants if we have data of change in velocity with distance or with
of positions at different instants or exact time ? This was a problem even in Galileo’s
expression for the position as a function of time. time. It was first thought that this change could
Then, we calculate ∆x/∆t from the data for be described by the rate of change of velocity
decreasing the value of ∆t and find the limiting with distance. But, through his studies of
value as we have done in Table 2.1 or use motion of freely falling objects and motion of
differential calculus for the given expression and objects on an inclined plane, Galileo concluded
that the rate of change of velocity with time is
dx
calculate at different instants as done in a constant of motion for all objects in free fall.
dt On the other hand, the change in velocity with
the following example. distance is not constant – it decreases with the
⊳ increasing distance of fall. This led to the
Example 2.1 The position of an object concept of acceleration as the rate of change
moving along x-axis is given by x = a + bt2 of velocity with time.
where a = 8.5 m, b = 2.5 m s–2 and t is The average acceleration a over a time interval
measured in seconds. What is its velocity at is defined as the change of velocity divided by
t = 0 s and t = 2.0 s. What is the average the time interval :
velocity between t = 2.0 s and t = 4.0 s ?

Answer In notation of differential calculus, the a = v 2 – v1 = ∆v (2.2)

velocity is t 2 – t1 ∆t

where v2 and v1 are the instantaneous velocities

v=
dx
=
dt dt
d
( )
a + bt 2 = 2b t = 5.0 t m s -1 or simply velocities at time t2 and t1 . It is the
average change of velocity per unit time. The SI
At t = 0 s, v = 0 m s–1 and at t = 2.0 s,
-1
unit of acceleration is m s–2 .
v = 10 m s .
On a plot of velocity versus time, the average
acceleration is the slope of the straight line
x ( 4.0 ) − x (2.0 )
Average velocity = connecting the points corresponding to (v2, t2)
4.0 − 2.0 and (v1, t1).

2024-25
16 PHYSICS

Instantaneous acceleration is defined in the (c) An object is moving in negative direction

same way as the instantaneous velocity : with a negative acceleration.
∆v dv (d) An object is moving in positive direction
a = lim = (2.3) till time t1, and then turns back with the
∆t →0∆t dt
same negative acceleration.
The acceleration at an instant is the slope
of the tangent to the v–t curve at that An interesting feature of a velocity-time
instant. graph for any moving object is that the area
Since velocity is a quantity having both under the curve represents the
magnitude and direction, a change in displacement over a given time interval. A
velocity may involve either or both of these general proof of this statement requires use of
factors. Acceleration, therefore, may result calculus. We can, however, see that it is true
from a change in speed (magnitude), a for the simple case of an object moving with
change in direction or changes in both. Like constant velocity u. Its velocity-time graph is
velocity, acceleration can also be positive, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
negative or zero. Position-time graphs for
motion with positive, negative and zero
acceleration are shown in Figs. 2.4 (a), (b)
and (c), respectively. Note that the graph
curves upward for positive acceleration;
downward for negative acceleration and it is
a straight line for zero acceleration.
Although acceleration can vary with time,
our study in this chapter will be restricted
to motion with constant acceleration. In this
case, the average acceleration equals the
constant value of acceleration during the
interval. If the velocity of an object is v o at t
= 0 and v at time t, we have
v − v0
a= or, v = v0 + a t (2.4)
t −0

Fig. 2.3 Velocity–time graph for motions with

Fig. 2.2 Position-time graph for motion with constant acceleration. (a) Motion in positive
(a) positive acceleration; (b) negative
direction with positive acceleration,
acceleration, and (c) zero acceleration.
(b) Motion in positive direction with
Let us see how velocity-time graph looks like negative acceleration, (c) Motion in
for some simple cases. Fig. 2.3 shows velocity- negative direction with negative
time graph for motion with constant acceleration acceleration, (d) Motion of an object with
negative acceleration that changes
for the following cases :
direction at time t1. Between times 0 to
(a) An object is moving in a positive direction t1, it moves in positive x - direction
with a positive acceleration. and between t1 and t2 it moves in the
(b) An object is moving in positive direction opposite direction.
with a negative acceleration.

2024-25
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 17

Fig. 2.4 Area under v–t curve equals displacement

of the object over a given time interval.

The v-t curve is a straight line parallel to the

time axis and the area under it between t = 0
and t = T is the area of the rectangle of height u
and base T. Therefore, area = u × T = uT which Fig. 2.5 Area under v-t curve for an object with
is the displacement in this time interval. How uniform acceleration.
come in this case an area is equal to a distance?
Think! Note the dimensions of quantities on
the two coordinate axes, and you will arrive at As explained in the previous section, the area
the answer. under v-t curve represents the displacement.
Therefore, the displacement x of the object is :
Note that the x-t, v-t, and a-t graphs shown
in several figures in this chapter have sharp 1
kinks at some points implying that the x =
2
(v –v 0 ) t + v 0 t (2.5)
functions are not differentiable at these
But v − v0 = a t
points. In any realistic situation, the
functions will be differentiable at all points 1
and the graphs will be smooth. Therefore, x = a t 2 + v 0t
2
What this means physically is that 1
or, x = v0t + at 2 (2.6)
acceleration and velocity cannot change 2
values abruptly at an instant. Changes are Equation (2.5) can also be written as
always continuous.
v + v0
2.4 KINEMATIC EQU ATIONS FOR x= t = vt (2.7a)
2
UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION
where,
For uniformly accelerated motion, we can derive
some simple equations that relate displacement v + v0
(x), time taken (t), initial velocity (v 0), final v= (constant acceleration only)
2
velocity (v) and acceleration (a). Equation (2.4) (2.7b)
already obtained gives a relation between final
and initial velocities v and v0 of an object moving Equations (2.7a) and (2.7b) mean that the object
with uniform acceleration a : has undergone displacement x with an average
velocity equal to the arithmetic average of the
v = v0 + at (2.4) initial and final velocities.
From Eq. (2.4), t = (v – v0)/a. Substituting this in
This relation is graphically represented in Fig. 2.5. Eq. (2.7a), we get
The area under this curve is :
 v + v0   v − v 0  v − v 0
2 2
Area between instants 0 and t = Area of triangle
x =vt = =
ABC + Area of rectangle OACD  2   a  2a
1
=
2
(v –v0 ) t + v0t v 2 = v02 + 2ax (2.8)

2024-25
18 PHYSICS

This equation can also be obtained by

∫ 0 (v0 + at ) dt
t
substituting the value of t from Eq. (2.4) into Eq. =
(2.6). Thus, we have obtained three important
equations : 1
x – x 0 = v0 t + a t2
v = v0 + at 2
1
1 x = x 0 + v0 t + a t2
x = v 0t + at 2 2
2 We can write
v 2 = v02 + 2ax (2.9a)
a=
dv dv dx
= =v
dv
dt dx dt dx
connecting five quantities v0, v, a, t and x. These
are kinematic equations of rectilinear motion for or, v dv = a dx
constant acceleration. Integrating both sides,
The set of Eq. (2.9a) were obtained by v x

assuming that at t = 0, the position of the particle, ∫v 0

v dv = ∫x 0
a dx
x is 0. We can obtain a more general equation if
v 2 – v 02
we take the position coordinate at t = 0 as non- = a (x – x 0 )
zero, say x0. Then Eqs. (2.9a) are modified 2
(replacing x by x – x0 ) to :
v 2 = v02 + 2a ( x – x 0 )
v = v0 + at The advantage of this method is that it can be used
1 for motion with non-uniform acceleration
x = x 0 + v 0t + at 2 (2.9b) also.
2
Now, we shall use these equations to some
v 2 = v 02 + 2a ( x − x 0 ) (2.9c) important cases. ⊳
⊳
⊳ Example 2.3 A ball is thrown vertically
Example 2.2 Obtain equations of motion upwards with a velocity of 20 m s–1 from
for constant acceleration using method of the top of a multistorey building. The
calculus. height of the point from where the ball is
thrown is 25.0 m from the ground. (a) How
Answer By definition high will the ball rise ? and (b) how long
will it be before the ball hits the ground?
dv Take g = 10 m s–2.
a =
dt
dv = a dt
Answer (a) Let us take the y-axis in the
Integrating both sides
v t
vertically upward direction with zero at the
∫v 0
dv = ∫ 0a dt ground, as shown in Fig. 2.6.
Now vo = + 20 m s–1,
t
= a ∫ dt (a is a = – g = –10 m s–2,
0
v = 0 m s–1
constant) If the ball rises to height y from the point of
v – v 0 = at launch, then using the equation
v = v 0 + at (
v 2 = v02 + 2 a y – y 0 )
we get
dx
Further, v= 0 = (20)2 + 2(–10)(y – y0)
dt
Solving, we get, (y – y0) = 20 m.
dx = v dt
Integrating both sides (b) We can solve this part of the problem in two
x t ways. Note carefully the methods used.
∫x 0
dx = ∫ 0 v dt

2024-25
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 19

0 = 25 +20 t + (½) (-10) t2

Or, 5t2 – 20t – 25 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation for t, we get
t = 5s
Note that the second method is better since we
do not have to worry about the path of the motion
as the motion is under constant acceleration.
⊳
⊳
Example 2.4 Free-fall : Discuss the
motion of an object under free fall. Neglect
air resistance.

Answer An object released near the surface of

the Earth is accelerated downward under the
influence of the force of gravity. The magnitude
of acceleration due to gravity is represented by
g. If air resistance is neglected, the object is
Fig. 2.6 said to be in free fall. If the height through
which the object falls is small compared to the
FIRST METHOD : In the first method, we split earth’s radius, g can be taken to be constant,
the path in two parts : the upward motion (A to equal to 9.8 m s–2. Free fall is thus a case of
B) and the downward motion (B to C) and motion with uniform acceleration.
calculate the corresponding time taken t1 and We assume that the motion is in y-direction,
t2. Since the velocity at B is zero, we have : more correctly in –y-direction because we
v = vo + at choose upward direction as positive. Since the
0 = 20 – 10t1 acceleration due to gravity is always downward,
Or, t1 = 2 s it is in the negative direction and we have
This is the time in going from A to B. From B, or a = – g = – 9.8 m s–2
the point of the maximum height, the ball falls The object is released from rest at y = 0. Therefore,
freely under the acceleration due to gravity. The v0 = 0 and the equations of motion become:
ball is moving in negative y direction. We use
equation v= 0–gt = –9.8 t m s–1
2 2
y = 0 – ½ g t = –4.9 t m
1 2
y = y0 + v 0t + at v2 = 0 – 2 g y = –19.6 y m2 s–2
2 These equations give the velocity and the
We have, y0 = 45 m, y = 0, v0 = 0, a = – g = –10 m s–2 distance travelled as a function of time and also
0 = 45 + (½) (–10) t22 the variation of velocity with distance. The
Solving, we get t2 = 3 s variation of acceleration, velocity, and distance,
Therefore, the total time taken by the ball before with time have been plotted in Fig. 2.7(a), (b)
it hits the ground = t1 + t2 = 2 s + 3 s = 5 s. and (c).

SECOND METHOD : The total time taken can

also be calculated by noting the coordinates of
initial and final positions of the ball with respect
to the origin chosen and using equation
1 2
y = y0 + v 0t + at
2
Now y0 = 25 m y=0m
vo = 20 m s-1, a = –10m s–2, t = ? (a)

2024-25
20 PHYSICS

traversed during successive intervals of

time. Since initial velocity is zero, we have
1 2
y=− gt
2
Using this equation, we can calculate the
position of the object after different time
intervals, 0, τ, 2τ, 3τ… which are given in
second column of Table 2.2. If we take
(–1/ 2) gτ2 as y0 — the position coordinate after
first time interval τ, then third column gives
(b) the positions in the unit of yo. The fourth
column gives the distances traversed in
successive τs. We find that the distances are
in the simple ratio 1: 3: 5: 7: 9: 11… as shown
in the last column. This law was established
by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) who was the first
to make quantitative studies of free fall. ⊳

Example 2.6 Stopping distance of

⊳
vehicles : When brakes are applied to a
moving vehicle, the distance it travels before
stopping is called stopping distance. It is
(c) an important factor for road safety and
depends on the initial velocity (v0) and the
Fig. 2.7 Motion of an object under free fall.
(a) Variation of acceleration with time.
braking capacity, or deceleration, –a that
(b) Variation of velocity with time. is caused by the braking. Derive an
(c) Variation of distance with time ⊳ expression for stopping distance of a vehicle
in terms of vo and a.
⊳ Example 2.5 Galileo’s law of odd Answer Let the distance travelled by the vehicle
numbers : “The distances traversed, during before it stops be ds. Then, using equation of
equal intervals of time, by a body falling motion v2 = vo2 + 2 ax, and noting that v = 0, we
from rest, stand to one another in the same have the stopping distance
ratio as the odd numbers beginning with
unity [namely, 1: 3: 5: 7…...].” Prove it. – v02
ds =
Answer Let us divide the time interval of 2a
motion of an object under free fall into many Thus, the stopping distance is proportional to
equal intervals τ and find out the distances the square of the initial velocity. Doubling the

Table 2.2

2024-25
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 21

initial velocity increases the stopping distance

by a factor of 4 (for the same deceleration).
For the car of a particular make, the braking
distance was found to be 10 m, 20 m, 34 m and
50 m corresponding to velocities of 11, 15, 20
and 25 m/s which are nearly consistent with
the above formula.

Stopping distance is an important factor

considered in setting speed limits, for example,
in school zones. ⊳
⊳
Example 2.7 Reaction time : When a
situation demands our immediate
action, it takes some time before we
really respond. Reaction time is the
time a person takes to observe, think
and act. For example, if a person is Fig. 2.8 Measuring the reaction time.
driving and suddenly a boy appears on
the road, then the time elapsed before Answer The ruler drops under free fall.
he slams the brakes of the car is the Therefore, vo = 0, and a = – g = –9.8 m s–2. The
reaction time. Reaction time depends distance travelled d and the reaction time tr are
on complexity of the situation and on related by
an individual.
You can measure your reaction
time by a simple experiment. Take a
ruler and ask your friend to drop it
vertically through the gap between Or,
your thumb and forefinger (Fig. 2.8).
Given d = 21.0 cm and g = 9.8 m s–2 the reaction
After you catch it, find the distance d
time is
travelled by the ruler. In a particular
case, d was found to be 21.0 cm.
⊳
Estimate reaction time.

SUMMARY

1. An object is said to be in motion if its position changes with time. The position of the
object can be specified with reference to a conveniently chosen origin. For motion in
a straight line, position to the right of the origin is taken as positive and to the left as
negative.
The average speed of an object is greater or equal to the magnitude of the average
velocity over a given time interval.
2. Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity
as the time interval ∆t becomes infinitesimally small :

∆ x dx
v = lim v = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t → 0 ∆t dt

The velocity at a particular instant is equal to the slope of the tangent drawn on
position-time graph at that instant.

2024-25
22 PHYSICS

3. Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time interval during which
the change occurs :

∆v
a=
∆t
4. Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the
time interval ∆t goes to zero :

∆v dv
a = lim a = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t →0 ∆t dt
The acceleration of an object at a particular time is the slope of the velocity-time
graph at that instant of time. For uniform motion, acceleration is zero and the x-t
graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis and the v-t graph is a straight line
parallel to the time axis. For motion with uniform acceleration, x-t graph is a parabola
while the v-t graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis.
5. The area under the velocity-time curve between times t1 and t2 is equal to the displacement
of the object during that interval of time.
6. For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the five quantities, displacement
x, time taken t, initial velocity v0, final velocity v and acceleration a are related by a set
of simple equations called kinematic equations of motion :
v = v0 + at

1 2
x = v0 t + at
2
2 2
v = v0 + 2ax
if the position of the object at time t = 0 is 0. If the particle starts at x = x0 , x in above
equations is replaced by (x – x0).

2024-25
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 23

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The origin and the positive direction of an axis are a matter of choice. You should first specify
this choice before you assign signs to quantities like displacement, velocity and acceleration.
2. If a particle is speeding up, acceleration is in the direction of velocity; if its speed is
decreasing, acceleration is in the direction opposite to that of the velocity. This
statement is independent of the choice of the origin and the axis.
3. The sign of acceleration does not tell us whether the particle’s speed is increasing or
decreasing. The sign of acceleration (as mentioned in point 3) depends on the choice
of the positive direction of the axis. For example, if the vertically upward direction is
chosen to be the positive direction of the axis, the acceleration due to gravity is
negative. If a particle is falling under gravity, this acceleration, though negative,
results in increase in speed. For a particle thrown upward, the same negative
acceleration (of gravity) results in decrease in speed.
4. The zero velocity of a particle at any instant does not necessarily imply zero acceleration
at that instant. A particle may be momentarily at rest and yet have non-zero acceleration.
For example, a particle thrown up has zero velocity at its uppermost point but the
acceleration at that instant continues to be the acceleration due to gravity.
5. In the kinematic equations of motion [Eq. (2.9)], the various quantities are algebraic,
i.e. they may be positive or negative. The equations are applicable in all situations
(for one dimensional motion with constant acceleration) provided the values of different
quantities are substituted in the equations with proper signs.
6. The definitions of instantaneous velocity and acceleration (Eqs. (2.1) and (2.3)) are
exact and are always correct while the kinematic equations (Eq. (2.9)) are true only for
motion in which the magnitude and the direction of acceleration are constant during
the course of motion.

2024-25
24 PHYSICS

EXERCISES

2.1 In which of the following examples of motion, can the body be considered
approximately a point object:
(a) a railway carriage moving without jerks between two stations.
(b) a monkey sitting on top of a man cycling smoothly on a circular track.
(c) a spinning cricket ball that turns sharply on hitting the ground.
(d) a tumbling beaker that has slipped off the edge of a table.
2.2 The position-time (x-t) graphs for two children A and B returning from their school
O to their homes P and Q respectively are shown in Fig. 2.9. Choose the correct
entries in the brackets below ;
(a) (A/B) lives closer to the school than (B/A)
(b) (A/B) starts from the school earlier than (B/A)
(c) (A/B) walks faster than (B/A)
(d) A and B reach home at the (same/different) time
(e) (A/B) overtakes (B/A) on the road (once/twice).

Fig. 2.9
2.3 A woman starts from her home at 9.00 am, walks with a speed of 5 km h–1 on a
straight road up to her office 2.5 km away, stays at the office up to 5.00 pm, and
returns home by an auto with a speed of 25 km h–1. Choose suitable scales and
plot the x-t graph of her motion.
2.4 A drunkard walking in a narrow lane takes 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward,
followed again by 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward, and so on. Each step is 1 m
long and requires 1 s. Plot the x-t graph of his motion. Determine graphically and
otherwise how long the drunkard takes to fall in a pit 13 m away from the start.
2.5 A car moving along a straight highway with speed of 126 km h–1 is brought to a
stop within a distance of 200 m. What is the retardation of the car (assumed
uniform), and how long does it take for the car to stop ?
2.6 A player throws a ball upwards with an initial speed of 29.4 m s–1.
(a) What is the direction of acceleration during the upward motion of the ball ?
(b) What are the velocity and acceleration of the ball at the highest point of its motion ?
(c) Choose the x = 0 m and t = 0 s to be the location and time of the ball at its
highest point, vertically downward direction to be the positive direction of
x-axis, and give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration of the ball
during its upward, and downward motion.
(d) To what height does the ball rise and after how long does the ball return to the
player’s hands ? (Take g = 9.8 m s–2 and neglect air resistance).
2.7 Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons and examples, if it is
true or false ;
A particle in one-dimensional motion
(a) with zero speed at an instant may have non-zero acceleration at that instant
(b) with zero speed may have non-zero velocity,
(c) with constant speed must have zero acceleration,
(d) with positive value of acceleration must be speeding up.

2024-25
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 25

2.8 A ball is dropped from a height of 90 m on a floor. At each collision with the floor,
the ball loses one tenth of its speed. Plot the speed-time graph of its motion
between t = 0 to 12 s.
2.9 Explain clearly, with examples, the distinction between :
(a) magnitude of displacement (sometimes called distance) over an interval of time,
and the total length of path covered by a particle over the same interval;
(b) magnitude of average velocity over an interval of time, and the average speed
over the same interval. [Average speed of a particle over an interval of time is
defined as the total path length divided by the time interval]. Show in both (a)
and (b) that the second quantity
is either greater than or equal to
the first. When is the equality sign
true ? [For simplicity, consider
one-dimensional motion only].
2.10 A man walks on a straight road from
his home to a market 2.5 km away with
a speed of 5 km h–1 . Finding the
market closed, he instantly turns and
walks back home with a speed of 7.5
km h–1. What is the
(a) magnitude of average velocity, and
(b) average speed of the man over the
interval of time (i) 0 to 30 min, (ii)
0 to 50 min, (iii) 0 to 40 min ?
[Note: You will appreciate from this
exercise why it is better to define
average speed as total path length
divided by time, and not as
magnitude of average velocity. You
would not like to tell the tired man
on his return home that his
average speed was zero !] Fig. 2.10
2.11 In Exercises 2.9 and 2.10, we have
carefully distinguished between
average speed and magnitude of average
velocity. No such distinction is necessary when
we consider instantaneous speed and
magnitude of velocity. The instantaneous speed
is always equal to the magnitude of
instantaneous velocity. Why?
2.12 Look at the graphs (a) to (d) (Fig. 2.10) carefully
and state, with reasons, which of these cannot
possibly represent one-dimensional motion of
a particle.
2.13 Figure 2.11shows the x-t plot of one-
dimensional motion of a particle. Is it correct
to say from the graph that the particle moves Fig. 2.11
in a straight line for t < 0 and on a parabolic
path for t >0 ? If not, suggest a suitable physical
context for this graph.
2.14 A police van moving on a highway with a speed of
30 km h–1 fires a bullet at a thief’s car speeding away in
the same direction with a speed of 192 km h–1. If the muzzle
speed of the bullet is 150 m s–1, with what speed does the
bullet hit the thief’s car ? (Note: Obtain that speed which
is relevant for damaging the thief’s car).

2024-25
26 PHYSICS

2.15 Suggest a suitable physical situation for each of the following graphs (Fig 2.12):

Fig. 2.12

2.16 Figure 2.13 gives the x-t plot of a particle executing one-dimensional simple
harmonic motion. (You will learn about this motion in more detail in Chapter13).
Give the signs of position, velocity and acceleration variables of the particle at
t = 0.3 s, 1.2 s, – 1.2 s.

Fig. 2.13

2.17 Figure 2.14 gives the x-t plot of a

particle in one-dimensional motion.
Three different equal intervals of time
are shown. In which interval is the
average speed greatest, and in which
is it the least ? Give the sign of average
velocity for each interval.

Fig. 2.14
2.18 Figure 2.15 gives a speed-time graph of
a particle in motion along a constant
direction. Three equal intervals of time
are shown. In which interval is the
average acceleration greatest in
magnitude? In which interval is the
average speed greatest ? Choosing the
positive direction as the constant
direction of motion, give the signs of v
and a in the three intervals. What are
the accelerations at the points A, B, C
and D ? Fig. 2.15

2024-25
 CHAPTER THREE

MOTION IN A PLANE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last chapter we developed the concepts of position,
displacement, velocity and acceleration that are needed to
3.1 Introduction describe the motion of an object along a straight line. We
3.2 Scalars and vectors found that the directional aspect of these quantities can be
3.3 Multiplication of vectors by taken care of by + and – signs, as in one dimension only two
real numbers directions are possible. But in order to describe motion of an
3.4 Addition and subtraction of object in two dimensions (a plane) or three dimensions
vectors — graphical method (space), we need to use vectors to describe the above-
3.5 Resolution of vectors mentioned physical quantities. Therefore, it is first necessary
3.6 Vector addition — analytical to learn the language of vectors. What is a vector ? How to
method add, subtract and multiply vectors ? What is the result of
3.7 Motion in a plane multiplying a vector by a real number ? We shall learn this
3.8 Motion in a plane with to enable us to use vectors for defining velocity and
constant acceleration acceleration in a plane. We then discuss motion of an object
3.9 Projectile motion in a plane. As a simple case of motion in a plane, we shall
3.10 Uniform circular motion discuss motion with constant acceleration and treat in detail
the projectile motion. Circular motion is a familiar class of
Summary motion that has a special significance in daily-life situations.
Points to ponder We shall discuss uniform circular motion in some detail.
Exercises
The equations developed in this chapter for motion in a
plane can be easily extended to the case of three dimensions.

3.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS

In physics, we can classify quantities as scalars or
vectors. Basically, the difference is that a direction is
associated with a vector but not with a scalar. A scalar
quantity is a quantity with magnitude only. It is specified
completely by a single number, along with the proper
unit. Examples are : the distance between two points,
mass of an object, the temperature of a body and the
time at which a certain event happened. The rules for
combining scalars are the rules of ordinary algebra.
Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided

2024-25
28 PHYSICS

just as the ordinary numbers*. For example, represented by another position vector, OP′
if the length and breadth of a rectangle are denoted by r′. The length of the vector r
1.0 m and 0.5 m respectively, then its represents the magnitude of the vector and its
perimeter is the sum of the lengths of the direction is the direction in which P lies as seen
four sides, 1.0 m + 0.5 m +1.0 m + 0.5 m = from O. If the object moves from P to P′, the
3.0 m. The length of each side is a scalar vector PP′ (with tail at P and tip at P′) is called
and the perimeter is also a scalar. Take the displacement vector corresponding to
another example: the maximum and motion from point P (at time t) to point P′ (at time t′).
minimum temperatures on a particular day
are 35.6 °C and 24.2 °C respectively. Then,
the difference between the two temperatures
is 11.4 °C. Similarly, if a uniform solid cube
of aluminium of side 10 cm has a mass of
2.7 kg, then its volume is 10–3 m3 (a scalar)
and its density is 2.7×103 kg m –3 (a scalar).
A vector quantity is a quantity that has both
a magnitude and a direction and obeys the
triangle law of addition or equivalently the Fig. 3.1 (a) Position and displacement vectors.
parallelogram law of addition. So, a vector is (b) Displacement vector PQ and different
specified by giving its magnitude by a number courses of motion.
and its direction. Some physical quantities that It is important to note that displacement
are represented by vectors are displacement, vector is the straight line joining the initial and
velocity, acceleration and force. final positions and does not depend on the actual
To represent a vector, we use a bold face type path undertaken by the object between the two
in this book. Thus, a velocity vector can be
positions. For example, in Fig. 3.1(b), given the
represented by a symbol v. Since bold face is
initial and final positions as P and Q, the
difficult to produce, when written by hand, a
displacement vector is the same PQ for different
vector is often represented by an arrow placed
r r paths of journey, say PABCQ, PDQ, and PBEFQ.
over a letter, say v . Thus, both v and v
Therefore, the magnitude of displacement is
represent the velocity vector. The magnitude of
either less or equal to the path length of an
a vector is often called its absolute value,
object between two points. This fact was
indicated by |v| = v. Thus, a vector is
emphasised in the previous chapter also while
represented by a bold face, e.g. by A, a, p, q, r, ...
x, y, with respective magnitudes denoted by light discussing motion along a straight line.
face A, a, p, q, r, ... x, y. 3.2.2 Equality of Vectors
3.2.1 Position and Displacement Vectors Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, and
To describe the position of an object moving in only if, they have the same magnitude and the
a plane, we need to choose a convenient point, same direction.**
say O as origin. Let P and P′ be the positions of Figure 3.2(a) shows two equal vectors A and
the object at time t and t′, respectively [Fig. 3.1(a)]. B. We can easily check their equality. Shift B
We join O and P by a straight line. Then, OP is parallel to itself until its tail Q coincides with that
the position vector of the object at time t. An of A, i.e. Q coincides with O. Then, since their
arrow is marked at the head of this line. It is tips S and P also coincide, the two vectors are
represented by a symbol r, i.e. OP = r. Point P′ is said to be equal. In general, equality is indicated

* Addition and subtraction of scalars make sense only for quantities with same units. However, you can multiply
and divide scalars of different units.
** In our study, vectors do not have fixed locations. So displacing a vector parallel to itself leaves the vector
unchanged. Such vectors are called free vectors. However, in some physical applications, location or line of
application of a vector is important. Such vectors are called localised vectors.

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 29

The factor λ by which a vector A is multiplied

could be a scalar having its own physical
dimension. Then, the dimension of λ A is the
product of the dimensions of λ and A. For
example, if we multiply a constant velocity vector
by duration (of time), we get a displacement
vector.
3.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF
VECTORS — GRAPHICAL METHOD
Fig. 3.2 (a) Two equal vectors A and B. (b) Two As mentioned in section 4.2, vectors, by
vectors A′ and B′ are unequal though they definition, obey the triangle law or equivalently,
are of the same length. the parallelogram law of addition. We shall now
describe this law of addition using the graphical
as A = B. Note that in Fig. 3.2(b), vectors A′ and method. Let us consider two vectors A and B that
B′ have the same magnitude but they are not lie in a plane as shown in Fig. 3.4(a). The lengths
equal because they have different directions. of the line segments representing these vectors
Even if we shift B′ parallel to itself so that its tail are proportional to the magnitude of the vectors.
Q′ coincides with the tail O′ of A′, the tip S′ of B′ To find the sum A + B, we place vector B so that
does not coincide with the tip P′ of A′. its tail is at the head of the vector A, as in
3.3 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY REAL Fig. 3.4(b). Then, we join the tail of A to the head
NUMBERS of B. This line OQ represents a vector R, that is,
Multiplying a vector A with a positive number λ the sum of the vectors A and B. Since, in this
gives a vector whose magnitude is changed by procedure of vector addition, vectors are
the factor λ but the direction is the same as that
of A :
λ A = λ A if λ > 0.
For example, if A is multiplied by 2, the resultant
vector 2A is in the same direction as A and has
a magnitude twice of |A| as shown in Fig. 3.3(a).
Multiplying a vector A by a negative number
−λ gives another vector whose direction is
opposite to the direction of A and whose
magnitude is λ times |A|.
Multiplying a given vector A by negative
numbers, say –1 and –1.5, gives vectors as
shown in Fig 3.3(b).

(c) (d)
Fig. 3.3 (a) Vector A and the resultant vector after
multiplying A by a positive number 2. Fig. 3.4 (a) Vectors A and B. (b) Vectors A and B
(b) Vector A and resultant vectors after added graphically. (c) Vectors B and A
multiplying it by a negative number –1 added graphically. (d) Illustrating the
and –1.5. associative law of vector addition.

2024-25
30 PHYSICS

arranged head to tail, this graphical method is What is the physical meaning of a zero vector?
called the head-to-tail method. The two vectors Consider the position and displacement vectors
and their resultant form three sides of a triangle, in a plane as shown in Fig. 3.1(a). Now suppose
so this method is also known as triangle method that an object which is at P at time t, moves to
of vector addition. If we find the resultant of P′ and then comes back to P. Then, what is its
B + A as in Fig. 3.4(c), the same vector R is displacement? Since the initial and final
obtained. Thus, vector addition is commutative: positions coincide, the displacement is a “null
A+B=B+A (3.1) vector”.

The addition of vectors also obeys the associative Subtraction of vectors can be defined in terms
law as illustrated in Fig. 3.4(d). The result of of addition of vectors. We define the difference
adding vectors A and B first and then adding of two vectors A and B as the sum of two vectors
vector C is the same as the result of adding B A and –B :
and C first and then adding vector A : A – B = A + (–B) (3.5)
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (3.2) It is shown in Fig 3.5. The vector –B is added to
What is the result of adding two equal and vector A to get R2 = (A – B). The vector R1 = A + B
opposite vectors ? Consider two vectors A and is also shown in the same figure for comparison.
–A shown in Fig. 3.3(b). Their sum is A + (–A). We can also use the parallelogram method to
Since the magnitudes of the two vectors are the find the sum of two vectors. Suppose we have
same, but the directions are opposite, the two vectors A and B. To add these vectors, we
resultant vector has zero magnitude and is bring their tails to a common origin O as
represented by 0 called a null vector or a zero shown in Fig. 3.6(a). Then we draw a line from
vector : the head of A parallel to B and another line from
the head of B parallel to A to complete a
A–A=0 |0|= 0 (3.3)
parallelogram OQSP. Now we join the point of
Since the magnitude of a null vector is zero, its the intersection of these two lines to the origin
direction cannot be specified. O. The resultant vector R is directed from the
The null vector also results when we multiply common origin O along the diagonal (OS) of the
a vector A by the number zero. The main parallelogram [Fig. 3.6(b)]. In Fig.3.6(c), the
properties of 0 are : triangle law is used to obtain the resultant of A
A+0=A and B and we see that the two methods yield the
λ0=0 same result. Thus, the two methods are
0A=0 (3.4) equivalent.

Fig. 3.5 (a) Two vectors A and B, – B is also shown. (b) Subtracting vector B from vector A – the result is R2. For
comparison, addition of vectors A and B, i.e. R1 is also shown.

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 31

Fig. 3.6 (a) Two vectors A and B with their tails brought to a common origin. (b) The sum A + B obtained using
the parallelogram method. (c) The parallelogram method of vector addition is equivalent to the triangle
method.

⊳
Example 3.1 Rain is falling vertically with 3.5 RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
a speed of 35 m s–1. Winds starts blowing Let a and b be any two non-zero vectors in a
after sometime with a speed of 12 m s–1 in plane with different directions and let A be
east to west direction. In which direction another vector in the same plane (Fig. 3.8). A
should a boy waiting at a bus stop hold can be expressed as a sum of two vectors — one
his umbrella ? obtained by multiplying a by a real number and
the other obtained by multiplying b by another
real number. To see this, let O and P be the tail
and head of the vector A. Then, through O, draw
a straight line parallel to a, and through P, a
straight line parallel to b. Let them intersect at
Q. Then, we have
A = OP = OQ + QP (3.6)
But since OQ is parallel to a, and QP is parallel
to b, we can write :

Fig. 3.7 OQ = λ a, and QP = µ b (3.7)

where λ and µ are real numbers.
Answer The velocity of the rain and the wind
are represented by the vectors vr and vw in Fig. Therefore, A = λ a + µ b (3.8)
3.7 and are in the direction specified by the
problem. Using the rule of vector addition, we
see that the resultant of vr and vw is R as shown
in the figure. The magnitude of R is
2 2 2 2 −1 −1
R = vr + vw = 35 + 12 ms = 37 m s

The direction θ that R makes with the vertical

is given by
vw 12
tan θ = = = 0.343 Fig. 3.8 (a) Two non-colinear vectors a and b.
vr 35 (b) Resolving a vector A in terms of vectors
a and b.
θ = tan ( 0.343) = 19°
Or, -1

Therefore, the boy should hold his umbrella We say that A has been resolved into two
in the vertical plane at an angle of about 19o component vectors λ a and µ b along a and b
with the vertical towards the east. ⊳

2024-25
32 PHYSICS

respectively. Using this method one can resolve

and A2 is parallel to ɵj , we have :
a given vector into two component vectors along
a set of two vectors – all the three lie in the same A1= Ax ɵi , A2 = Ay ɵj (3.11)
plane. It is convenient to resolve a general vector
where Ax and Ay are real numbers.
along the axes of a rectangular coordinate
system using vectors of unit magnitude. These Thus, A = Ax ɵi + Ay ɵj (3.12)
are called unit vectors that we discuss now. A
unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and This is represented in Fig. 3.9(c). The quantities
points in a particular direction. It has no Ax and Ay are called x-, and y- components of the
dimension and unit. It is used to specify a vector A. Note that Ax is itself not a vector, but
direction only. Unit vectors along the x-, y- and
A ɵi is a vector, and so is A ɵj . Using simple
z-axes of a rectangular coordinate system are x y
trigonometry, we can express Ax and Ay in terms
denoted by ɵi , ɵj and k̂ , respectively, as shown of the magnitude of A and the angle θ it makes
in Fig. 3.9(a). with the x-axis :
Since these are unit vectors, we have Ax = A cos θ
Ay = A sin θ (3.13)
 î  =  ĵ  =  k̂ =1 (3.9)
As is clear from Eq. (3.13), a component of a
These unit vectors are perpendicular to each vector can be positive, negative or zero
other. In this text, they are printed in bold face depending on the value of θ.
with a cap (^) to distinguish them from other Now, we have two ways to specify a vector A
vectors. Since we are dealing with motion in two in a plane. It can be specified by :
dimensions in this chapter, we require use of (i) its magnitude A and the direction θ it makes
only two unit vectors. If we multiply a unit vector, with the x-axis; or
say n̂ by a scalar, the result is a vector (ii) its components Ax and Ay
λ = λ n̂. In general, a vector A can be written as If A and θ are given, Ax and Ay can be obtained
using Eq. (3.13). If Ax and Ay are given, A and θ
A = |A| n̂ (3.10) can be obtained as follows :
where n̂ is a unit vector along A. 2 2 2 2 2 2
A x + Ay = A cos θ + A sin θ
We can now resolve a vector A in terms
= A2
of component vectors that lie along unit vectors
î and ɵj . Consider a vector A that lies in x-y Or, A= A 2x + Ay2 (3.14)
plane as shown in Fig. 3.9(b). We draw lines from
the head of A perpendicular to the coordinate Ay Ay
And tan θ = , θ = tan− 1 (3.15)
axes as in Fig. 3.9(b), and get vectors A1 and A2 Ax Ax
such that A + A = A. Since A is parallel to ɵi
1 2 1

Fig. 3.9 (a) Unit vectors ɵi , ɵj and kɵ lie along the x-, y-, and z-axes. (b) A vector A is resolved into its
components Ax and Ay along x-, and y- axes. (c) A1 and A2 expressed in terms of ɵi and ɵj .

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 33

So far we have considered a vector lying in

B = B x iɵ + By ɵj
an x-y plane. The same procedure can be used
to resolve a general vector A into three Let R be their sum. We have
components along x-, y-, and z-axes in three R=A+B
dimensions. If α , β, and γ are the angles *
between A and the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively
( ) (
= A x ɵi + Ay ɵj + B x iɵ + By ɵj ) (3.19a)
[Fig. 3.9(d)], we have Since vectors obey the commutative and
associative laws, we can arrange and regroup
the vectors in Eq. (3.19a) as convenient to us :

(
R = ( A x + B x ) ɵi + Ay + By ɵj ) (3.19b)

Since R = R x iɵ + Ry ɵj (3.20)

we have, R x = A x + B x , R y = Ay + B y (3.21)
Thus, each component of the resultant
vector R is the sum of the corresponding
components of A and B.
In three dimensions, we have
A = A iɵ + A ɵj + A kɵ
x y z

B = B x iɵ + By ɵj + Bz kɵ
(d)
R = A + B = R x iɵ + Ry ɵj + Rz kɵ
Fig. 3.9 (d) A vector A resolved into components along
x-, y-, and z-axes
with Rx = Ax + Bx
A x = A cos α , A y = A cos β , A z = A cos γ (3.16a) Ry = Ay + By
In general, we have Rz = Az + Bz (3.22)
A = Ax ˆi + Ay ˆj + Az k
ˆ (3.16b) This method can be extended to addition and
The magnitude of vector A is subtraction of any number of vectors. For
A = A x2 + Ay2 + Az2 (3.16c) example, if vectors a, b and c are given as
A position vector r can be expressed as a = a iɵ + a ɵj + a kɵ
x y z
r = x ɵi + y ɵj + z k
ɵ (3.17)
b = b x iɵ + by ɵj + bz kɵ
where x, y, and z are the components of r along
x-, y-, z-axes, respectively. c = c x iɵ + c y ɵj + c z kɵ (3.23a)
3.6 VECTOR ADDITION – ANALYTICAL then, a vector T = a + b – c has components :
METHOD Tx = a x + b x − c x
Although the graphical method of adding vectors Ty = a y + by − c y (3.23b)
helps us in visualising the vectors and the
Tz = a z + b z − c z .
resultant vector, it is sometimes tedious and has
limited accuracy. It is much easier to add vectors ⊳
by combining their respective components. Example 3.2 Find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant of two vectors A
Consider two vectors A and B in x-y plane with
and B in terms of their magnitudes and
components Ax, Ay and Bx, By :
angle θ between them.
A = A x iɵ + Ay ɵj (3.18)

* Note that angles α, β, and γ are angles in space. They are between pairs of lines, which are not coplanar.

2024-25
34 PHYSICS

⊳
Example 3.3 A motorboat is racing
towards north at 25 km/h and the water
current in that region is 10 km/h in the
direction of 60° east of south. Find the
resultant velocity of the boat.

Answer The vector vb representing the velocity

of the motorboat and the vector vc representing
Fig. 3.10
the water current are shown in Fig. 3.11 in
Answer Let OP and OQ represent the two vectors directions specified by the problem. Using the
A and B making an angle θ (Fig. 3.10). Then, parallelogram method of addition, the resultant
using the parallelogram method of vector R is obtained in the direction shown in the
addition, OS represents the resultant vector R : figure.
R=A+B
SN is normal to OP and PM is normal to OS.
From the geometry of the figure,
OS2 = ON2 + SN2
but ON = OP + PN = A + B cos θ
SN = B sin θ
OS2 = (A + B cos θ)2 + (B sin θ)2
or, R2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos θ

R= A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ (3.24a)

In ∆ OSN, SN = OS sinα = R sinα, and
in ∆ PSN, SN = PS sin θ = B sin θ
Therefore, R sin α = B sin θ
R B
or, = (3.24b)
sin θ sin α
Fig. 3.11
Similarly,
PM = A sin α = B sin β
We can obtain the magnitude of R using the Law
A B of cosine :
or, = (3.24c)
sin β sin α
Combining Eqs. (3.24b) and (3.24c), we get R = v 2b + v c2 + 2v bv c cos120o
R A B
= = (3.24d) = 252 + 102 + 2 × 25 × 10 ( -1/2 ) ≅ 22 km/h
sin θ sin β sin α
To obtain the direction, we apply the Law of sines
Using Eq. (3.24d), we get:
R vc vc
B = or, sin φ = sin θ
sin α = sin θ (3.24e) sin θ sin φ R
R
where R is given by Eq. (3.24a). 10 × sin120 10 3
= = ≅ 0.397
SN B sin θ 21.8 2 × 21.8
or, tan α = = (3.24f)
OP + PN A + B cos θ
φ ≅ 23.4 ⊳
Equation (3.24a) gives the magnitude of the
resultant and Eqs. (3.24e) and (3.24f) its direction. 3.7 MOTION IN A PLANE
Equation (3.24a) is known as the Law of cosines In this section we shall see how to describe
and Eq. (3.24d) as the Law of sines. ⊳ motion in two dimensions using vectors.

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 35

3.7.1 Position Vector and Displacement Suppose a particle moves along the curve shown
The position vector r of a particle P located in a by the thick line and is at P at time t and P′ at
plane with reference to the origin of an x-y time t′ [Fig. 3.12(b)]. Then, the displacement is :
reference frame (Fig. 3.12) is given by ∆r = r′ – r (3.25)
and is directed from P to P′.
r = x iɵ + y ɵj
We can write Eq. (3.25) in a component form:
where x and y are components of r along x-, and
y- axes or simply they are the coordinates of
the object.
∆r ( ) (
= x' ɵi + y' ɵj − x iɵ + y ɵj )
= ɵi∆x + ɵj∆y
where ∆x = x ′ – x, ∆y = y′ – y (3.26)
Velocity
The average velocity ( v ) of an object is the ratio
of the displacement and the corresponding time
interval :
∆r ∆x iɵ + ∆y ɵj ∆x ɵ ∆y
v= = = iɵ +j (3.27)
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t

Or, v = v x ˆi + v y j
(a)
∆r
Since v = , the direction of the average velocity
∆t
is the same as that of ∆r (Fig. 3.12). The velocity
(instantaneous velocity) is given by the limiting
value of the average velocity as the time interval
approaches zero :
∆ r dr
v = lim = (3.28)
∆t → 0 ∆ t dt
The meaning of the limiting process can be easily
understood with the help of Fig 3.13(a) to (d). In
these figures, the thick line represents the path
of an object, which is at P at time t. P1, P2 and
(b) P3 represent the positions of the object after
Fig. 3.12 (a) Position vector r. (b) Displacement ∆r and times ∆t1,∆t2, and ∆t3. ∆r1, ∆r2, and ∆r3 are the
average velocity v of a particle. displacements of the object in times ∆t1, ∆t2, and

Fig. 3.13 As the time interval ∆t approaches zero, the average velocity approaches the velocity v. The direction
of v is parallel to the line tangent to the path.

2024-25
36 PHYSICS

∆t3, respectively. The direction of the average

velocity v is shown in figures (a), (b) and (c) for
three decreasing values of ∆t, i.e. ∆t1,∆t2, and ∆t3,
( ∆ t 1 > ∆ t 2 > ∆ t 3 ). As ∆ t → 0, ∆ r → 0
and is along the tangent to the path [Fig. 3.13(d)].
Therefore, the direction of velocity at any point
on the path of an object is tangential to the
path at that point and is in the direction of
motion.
We can express v in a component form : Fig. 3.14 The components vx and vy of velocity v and
the angle θ it makes with x-axis. Note that
dr vx = v cos θ, vy = v sin θ.
v=
dt
The acceleration (instantaneous acceleration)
 ∆x ∆y ɵ  is the limiting value of the average acceleration
= lim  iɵ + j (3.29)
∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t  as the time interval approaches zero :
∆v
∆x ɵ ∆y a = lim
= iɵ lim + j lim (3. 32a)
∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t
dx ɵ dy Since ∆v = ∆v x iɵ + ∆v y ɵj, we have
Or, v = iɵ +j = v x iɵ + vy ɵj.
dt dt ∆v y
∆v x
dx dy a = iɵ lim + ɵj lim
where v x = , vy = (3.30a) ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆t → 0 ∆t
dt dt
So, if the expressions for the coordinates x and Or, a = a x iɵ + a y ɵj (3.32b)
y are known as functions of time, we can use
these equations to find vx and vy. dv x dv y
where, a x = , ay = (3.32c)*
The magnitude of v is then dt dt
2 2 As in the case of velocity, we can understand
v= v x + vy (3.30b)
graphically the limiting process used in defining
and the direction of v is given by the angle θ : acceleration on a graph showing the path of the
object’s motion. This is shown in Figs. 3.15(a) to
vy v 
−1  y
 (d). P represents the position of the object at
tanθ = , θ = tan (3.30c)
  time t and P1, P2, P3 positions after time ∆t1, ∆t2,
vx  vx 
∆t3, respectively (∆t 1> ∆t2>∆t3). The velocity vectors
vx, vy and angle θ are shown in Fig. 3.14 for a at points P, P1, P2, P3 are also shown in Figs. 3.15
velocity vector v at point p. (a), (b) and (c). In each case of ∆t, ∆v is obtained
using the triangle law of vector addition. By
Acceleration
definition, the direction of average acceleration
The average acceleration a of an object for a is the same as that of ∆v. We see that as ∆t
time interval ∆t moving in x-y plane is the change decreases, the direction of ∆v changes and
in velocity divided by the time interval : consequently, the direction of the acceleration

a=
∆v
=
(
∆ v x iɵ + v y ɵj ) = ∆v x
iɵ +
∆v y
ɵj (3.31a)
changes. Finally, in the limit ∆t g0 [Fig. 3.15(d)],
the average acceleration becomes the
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t instantaneous acceleration and has the direction
as shown.
Or, a = a x iɵ + a y ɵj . (3.31b)

* In terms of x and y, ax and ay can be expressed as

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 37

x (m)

Fig. 3.15 The average acceleration for three time intervals (a) ∆t1, (b) ∆t2, and (c) ∆t3, (∆t1> ∆t2> ∆t3). (d) In the
limit ∆t g0, the average acceleration becomes the acceleration.

Note that in one dimension, the velocity and

the acceleration of an object are always along  vy  −1  4  °
θ = tan-1   = tan   ≅ 53 with x-axis.
the same straight line (either in the same  x
v  3 
direction or in the opposite direction).
However, for motion in two or three ⊳
dimensions, velocity and acceleration vectors
may have any angle between 0° and 180° 3.8 MOTION IN A PLANE WITH CONSTANT
between them. ACCELERATION
⊳
Example 3.4 The position of a particle is Suppose that an object is moving in x-y plane
given by and its acceleration a is constant. Over an
interval of time, the average acceleration will
r = 3.0t ˆi + 2.0t 2ˆj + 5.0 kˆ equal this constant value. Now, let the velocity
where t is in seconds and the of the object be v0 at time t = 0 and v at time t.
coefficients have the proper units for r to Then, by definition
be in metres. (a) Find v(t) and a(t) of the v − v0 v − v0
particle. (b) Find the magnitude and a= =
t−0 t
direction of v(t) at t = 1.0 s.
Or, v = v 0 + at (3.33a)
Answer In terms of components :
v x = v ox + a x t
v( t ) =
dr
dt
=
d
dt
(3.0 t iɵ + 2.0t 2 ɵj + 5.0 kɵ
) v y = v oy + a y t (3.33b)

= 3.0iɵ + 4.0t ɵj
Let us now find how the position r changes with
dv time. We follow the method used in the one-
a (t ) = = +4.0 ɵj
dt dimensional case. Let ro and r be the position
a = 4.0 m s–2 along y- direction vectors of the particle at time 0 and t and let the
velocities at these instants be vo and v. Then,
At t = 1.0 s, v = 3.0ˆi + 4.0ˆj over this time interval t, the average velocity is
-1 (vo + v)/2. The displacement is the average
It’s magnitude is v = 3 + 4 = 5.0 m s
2 2
velocity multiplied by the time interval :
and direction is

2024-25
38 PHYSICS

 v + v0   ( v + at ) + v 0  ( )
= 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 ˆi + 1.0 t 2 ˆj
r − r0 =   t= 0 t
 2   2 
Therefore, x (t ) = 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2

= v0t +
1 2
at y (t ) = +1.0 t 2
2 Given x (t) = 84 m, t = ?

1 5.0 t + 1.5 t 2 = 84 ⇒ t = 6 s
Or, r = r0 + v 0t + at 2 (3.34a) At t = 6 s, y = 1.0 (6)2 = 36.0 m
2
dr
It can be easily verified that the derivative of Now, the velocity v = = (5.0 + 3.0 t ) ˆi + 2.0 t ˆj
dt
dr
Eq. (3.34a), i.e. gives Eq.(3.33a) and it also At t = 6 s, v = 23.0iɵ + 12.0 ɵj
dt
satisfies the condition that at t=0, r = r o . speed = v = 232 + 122 ≅ 26 m s−1 .
Equation (3.34a) can be written in component ⊳
form as 3.9 PROJECTILE MOTION
1
x = x 0 + v ox t + a x t 2 As an application of the ideas developed in the
2 previous sections, we consider the motion of a
1 projectile. An object that is in flight after being
y = y0 + v oy t + ayt 2 (3.34b) thrown or projected is called a projectile. Such
2
a projectile might be a football, a cricket ball, a
One immediate interpretation of Eq.(3.34b) is that baseball or any other object. The motion of a
the motions in x- and y-directions can be treated projectile may be thought of as the result of two
independently of each other. That is, motion in separate, simultaneously occurring components
a plane (two-dimensions) can be treated as two
of motions. One component is along a horizontal
separate simultaneous one-dimensional
direction without any acceleration and the other
motions with constant acceleration along two
along the vertical direction with constant
perpendicular directions. This is an important
acceleration due to the force of gravity. It was
result and is useful in analysing motion of objects
Galileo who first stated this independency of the
in two dimensions. A similar result holds for three
dimensions. The choice of perpendicular horizontal and the vertical components of
directions is convenient in many physical projectile motion in his Dialogue on the great
situations, as we shall see in section 3.9 for world systems (1632).
projectile motion. In our discussion, we shall assume that the
air resistance has negligible effect on the motion
⊳ Example 3.5 A particle starts from origin of the projectile. Suppose that the projectile is
at t = 0 with a velocity 5.0 î m/s and moves launched with velocity vo that makes an angle
in x-y plane under action of a force which θo with the x-axis as shown in Fig. 3.16.
produces a constant acceleration of
After the object has been projected, the
(3.0iɵ +2.0jɵ ) m/s 2 . (a) What is the
acceleration acting on it is that due to gravity
y-coordinate of the particle at the instant which is directed vertically downward:
its x-coordinate is 84 m ? (b) What is the
speed of the particle at this time ? a = −g ɵj
Or, ax = 0, ay = – g (3.35)

Answer From Eq. (3.34a) for r0 = 0, the position The components of initial velocity vo are :
of the particle is given by
1 2
r (t ) = v 0 t + at vox = vo cos θo
2 voy= vo sin θo (3.36)
( )
= 5.0ˆi t + (1/2) 3.0ˆi + 2.0ˆj t 2

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 39

Now, since g, θo and vo are constants, Eq. (3.39)

is of the form y = a x + b x2, in which a and b are
constants. This is the equation of a parabola,
i.e. the path of the projectile is a parabola
(Fig. 3.17).

Fig 3.16 Motion of an object projected with velocity

vo at angle θ0.
If we take the initial position to be the origin of
the reference frame as shown in Fig. 3.16, we
have :
xo = 0, yo = 0
Then, Eq.(3.34b) becomes :
x = vox t = (vo cos θo ) t
and y = (vo sin θo ) t – ( ½ )g t2 (3.37) Fig. 3.17 The path of a projectile is a parabola.

The components of velocity at time t can be Time of maximum height

obtained using Eq.(3.33b) : How much time does the projectile take to reach the
vx = vox = vo cos θo maximum height ? Let this time be denoted by tm.
Since at this point, vy= 0, we have from Eq. (3.38):
vy = vo sin θo – g t (3.38) vy = vo sinθo – g tm = 0
Equation (3.37) gives the x-, and y-coordinates Or, tm = vo sinθo /g (3.40a)
of the position of a projectile at time t in terms of
The total time Tf during which the projectile is
two parameters — initial speed vo and projection
in flight can be obtained by putting y = 0 in
angle θo. Notice that the choice of mutually
Eq. (3.37). We get :
perpendicular x-, and y-directions for the
analysis of the projectile motion has resulted in Tf = 2 (vo sin θo )/g (3.40b)
a simplification. One of the components of Tf is known as the time of flight of the projectile.
velocity, i.e. x-component remains constant We note that Tf = 2 tm , which is expected
throughout the motion and only the because of the symmetry of the parabolic path.
y- component changes, like an object in free fall Maximum height of a projectile
in vertical direction. This is shown graphically
The maximum height h m reached by the
at few instants in Fig. 3.17. Note that at the point
projectile can be calculated by substituting
of maximum height, vy= 0 and therefore,
t = tm in Eq. (3.37) :
vy
θ = tan-1 =o  v sinθ  g  v sinθ 2
vx (
y = hm = v0 sinθ 0 
0
)
0
− 
 0 0

Equation of path of a projectile  g  2 g 

What is the shape of the path followed by the

( v 0 sin θ 0 ) 2
projectile? This can be seen by eliminating the Or, hm = (3.41)
time between the expressions for x and y as 2g
given in Eq. (3.37). We obtain: Horizontal range of a projectile
g
y = ( tan θo ) x −
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from
x2
2 (v o cosθo )
2 (3.39) its initial position (x = y = 0) to the position where it
passes y = 0 during its fall is called the horizontal

2024-25
40 PHYSICS

range, R. It is the distance travelled during the time y (t) = yo + voy t +(1/2) ay t2
of flight Tf . Therefore, the range R is Here, xo = yo = 0, voy = 0, ay = –g = –9.8 m s-2,
R = (vo cos θo) (Tf ) vox = 15 m s-1.
=(vo cos θo) (2 vo sin θo)/g The stone hits the ground when y(t) = – 490 m.
– 490 m = –(1/2)(9.8) t2.
2
v0 sin 2θ 0 This gives t =10 s.
Or, R= (3.42a) The velocity components are vx = vox and
g
vy = voy – g t
Equation (3.42a) shows that for a given so that when the stone hits the ground :
projection velocity vo , R is maximum when sin vox = 15 m s–1
2θ0 is maximum, i.e., when θ0 = 450. voy = 0 – 9.8 × 10 = – 98 m s–1
The maximum horizontal range is, therefore, Therefore, the speed of the stone is
2
Rm =
v0 v 2x + vy2 = 152 + 982 = 99 m s −1 ⊳
(3.42b)
g
⊳
Example 3.6 Galileo, in his book Two new ⊳ Example 3.8 A cricket ball is thrown at a
sciences, stated that “for elevations which speed of 28 m s–1 in a direction 30° above
exceed or fall short of 45° by equal amounts, the horizontal. Calculate (a) the maximum
the ranges are equal”. Prove this statement. height, (b) the time taken by the ball to
return to the same level, and (c) the
distance from the thrower to the point
Answer For a projectile launched with velocity
where the ball returns to the same level.
vo at an angle θo , the range is given by

v02 sin 2θ0

R= Answer (a) The maximum height is given by
g
hm =
(v0 sinθo )2 = (28 sin 30°)2
Now, for angles, (45° + α ) and ( 45° – α), 2θo is m
2g 2 (9.8 )
(90° + 2α ) and ( 90° – 2α ) , respectively. The
values of sin (90° + 2α ) and sin (90° – 2α ) are 14 × 14
the same, equal to that of cos 2α. Therefore, = = 10.0 m
2 × 9.8
ranges are equal for elevations which exceed or
fall short of 45° by equal amounts α. ⊳ (b) The time taken to return to the same level is
Tf = (2 vo sin θo )/g = (2× 28 × sin 30° )/9.8
⊳ = 28/9.8 s = 2.9 s
Example 3.7 A hiker stands on the edge (c) The distance from the thrower to the point
of a cliff 490 m above the ground and where the ball returns to the same level is
throws a stone horizontally with an initial
speed of 15 m s-1. Neglecting air resistance,
find the time taken by the stone to reach R=
(v sin 2θ )
2
o o
=
28 × 28 × sin 60o
= 69 m ⊳
g 9.8
the ground, and the speed with which it
hits the ground. (Take g = 9.8 m s-2 ).
3.10 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
Answer We choose the origin of the x-,and y-
When an object follows a circular path at a
axis at the edge of the cliff and t = 0 s at the
constant speed, the motion of the object is called
instant the stone is thrown. Choose the positive
uniform circular motion. The word “uniform”
direction of x-axis to be along the initial velocity refers to the speed, which is uniform (constant)
and the positive direction of y-axis to be the throughout the motion. Suppose an object is
vertically upward direction. The x-, and y- moving with uniform speed v in a circle of radius
components of the motion can be treated R as shown in Fig. 3.18. Since the velocity of the
independently. The equations of motion are : object is changing continuously in direction, the
x (t) = xo + vox t object undergoes acceleration. Let us find the
magnitude and the direction of this acceleration.

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 41

Fig. 3.18 Velocity and acceleration of an object in uniform circular motion. The time interval ∆t decreases from
(a) to (c) where it is zero. The acceleration is directed, at each point of the path, towards the centre of
the circle.
Let r and r′ be the position vectors and v and r′ be ∆θ. Since the velocity vectors v and v′ are
v′ the velocities of the object when it is at point P always perpendicular to the position vectors, the
and P ′ as shown in Fig. 3.18(a). By definition, angle between them is also ∆θ . Therefore, the
velocity at a point is along the tangent at that triangle CPP′ formed by the position vectors and
point in the direction of motion. The velocity the triangle GHI formed by the velocity vectors
vectors v and v′ are as shown in Fig. 3.18(a1). v, v′ and ∆v are similar (Fig. 3.18a). Therefore,
∆v is obtained in Fig. 3.18 (a2) using the triangle the ratio of the base-length to side-length for
law of vector addition. Since the path is circular, one of the triangles is equal to that of the other
v is perpendicular to r and so is v′ to r′. triangle. That is :
Therefore, ∆v is perpendicular to ∆r. Since
 ∆v  ∆v ∆r
average acceleration is along ∆v  a =  , the =
 ∆t  v R
average acceleration a is perpendicular to ∆r. If
we place ∆v on the line that bisects the angle ∆r
Or, ∆v = v
between r and r′, we see that it is directed towards R
the centre of the circle. Figure 3.18(b) shows the Therefore,
same quantities for smaller time interval. ∆v and
∆v v ∆r v ∆r
hence a is again directed towards the centre. a = lim = lim = lim
In Fig. 3.18(c), ∆t Ž 0 and the average ∆t → 0 ∆t ∆ t → 0 R∆ t R ∆t → 0 ∆t
acceleration becomes the instantaneous If ∆t is small, ∆θ will also be small and then arc
acceleration. It is directed towards the centre*. PP′ can be approximately taken to be|∆r|:
Thus, we find that the acceleration of an object ∆ r ≅ v∆ t
in uniform circular motion is always directed
∆r
towards the centre of the circle. Let us now find ≅v
the magnitude of the acceleration. ∆t
The magnitude of a is, by definition, given by ∆r
lim =v
∆v Or,
a = ∆t → 0 ∆t
lim
∆t → 0 ∆t
Let the angle between position vectors r and Therefore, the centripetal acceleration ac is :

* In the limit ∆tŽ0, ∆r becomes perpendicular to r. In this limit ∆v→ 0 and is consequently also perpendicular
to V. Therefore, the acceleration is directed towards the centre, at each point of the circular path.

2024-25
42 PHYSICS

v 2 2
ω R
2
ac =   v = v2/R (3.43) ac =
v
=
2
=ω R
R 
R R
Thus, the acceleration of an object moving with 2
ac = ω R (3.46)
speed v in a circle of radius R has a magnitude
2
v /R and is always directed towards the centre.
The time taken by an object to make one revolution
This is why this acceleration is called centripetal
acceleration (a term proposed by Newton). A is known as its time period T and the number of
thorough analysis of centripetal acceleration was revolution made in one second is called its
first published in 1673 by the Dutch scientist frequency ν (=1/T ). However, during this time
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) but it was the distance moved by the object is s = 2πR.
probably known to Newton also some years earlier. Therefore, v = 2πR/T =2πRν (3.47)
“Centripetal” comes from a Greek term which means In terms of frequency ν, we have
‘centre-seeking’. Since v and R are constant, the ω = 2πν
magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is also v = 2πRν
constant. However, the direction changes —
ac = 4π2 ν2R (3.48)
pointing always towards the centre. Therefore, a
centripetal acceleration is not a constant vector. ⊳
Example 3.9 An insect trapped in a
We have another way of describing the
circular groove of radius 12 cm moves along
velocity and the acceleration of an object in
the groove steadily and completes 7
uniform circular motion. As the object moves
revolutions in 100 s. (a) What is the
from P to P′ in time ∆t (= t′ – t), the line CP
angular speed, and the linear speed of the
(Fig. 3.18) turns through an angle ∆θ as shown
motion? (b) Is the acceleration vector a
in the figure. ∆θ is called angular distance. We
constant vector ? What is its magnitude ?
define the angular speed ω (Greek letter omega)
as the time rate of change of angular
Answer This is an example of uniform circular
displacement :
motion. Here R = 12 cm. The angular speed ω is
∆θ given by
ω=
∆t
(3.44) ω = 2π/T = 2π × 7/100 = 0.44 rad/s
Now, if the distance travelled by the object The linear speed v is :
during the time ∆t is ∆s, i.e. PP′ is ∆s, then : v =ω R = 0.44 s-1 × 12 cm = 5.3 cm s-1
∆s The direction of velocity v is along the tangent
v=
∆t to the circle at every point. The acceleration is
directed towards the centre of the circle. Since
but ∆s = R ∆θ. Therefore :
this direction changes continuously,
∆θ acceleration here is not a constant vector.
v=R =Rω
∆t However, the magnitude of acceleration is
v= Rω (3.45) constant:
We can express centripetal acceleration ac in a = ω2 R = (0.44 s–1)2 (12 cm)
terms of angular speed : = 2.3 cm s-2 ⊳

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 43

SUMMARY

1. Scalar quantities are quantities with magnitudes only. Examples are distance, speed,
mass and temperature.
2. Vector quantities are quantities with magnitude and direction both. Examples are
displacement, velocity and acceleration. They obey special rules of vector algebra.
3. A vector A multiplied by a real number λ is also a vector, whose magnitude is λ times
the magnitude of the vector A and whose direction is the same or opposite depending
upon whether λ is positive or negative.
4. Two vectors A and B may be added graphically using head-to-tail method or parallelogram
method.
5. Vector addition is commutative :
A+B=B+A
It also obeys the associative law :
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
6. A null or zero vector is a vector with zero magnitude. Since the magnitude is zero, we
don’t have to specify its direction. It has the properties :
A+0=A
λ0 = 0
0A=0
7. The subtraction of vector B from A is defined as the sum of A and –B :
A – B = A+ (–B)
8. A vector A can be resolved into component along two given vectors a and b lying in the
same plane :
A=λa+µb
where λ and µ are real numbers.
9. A unit vector associated with a vector A has magnitude 1 and is along the vector A:
A
n̂ =
A
The unit vectors i,ɵ ɵj, k
ɵ are vectors of unit magnitude and point in the direction of
the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively in a right-handed coordinate system.
10. A vector A can be expressed as
A = A iɵ + A ɵj x y
where Ax, Ay are its components along x-, and y -axes. If vector A makes an angle θ
Ay
with the x-axis, then Ax = A cos θ, Ay=A sin θ and A = A = Ax2 + Ay2 , tanθ = .
Ax
11. Vectors can be conveniently added using analytical method. If sum of two vectors A
and B, that lie in x-y plane, is R, then :
R = Rx iɵ + Ry ɵj , where, Rx = Ax + Bx, and Ry = Ay + By

12. The position vector of an object in x-y plane is given by r = x iɵ + y ɵj and the
displacement from position r to position r’ is given by
∆r = r′− r
= ( x ′ − x ) iɵ + (y ′ − y ) ɵj
= ∆x iɵ + ∆y ɵj
13. If an object undergoes a displacement ∆r in time ∆t, its average velocity is given by
∆r
v= . The velocity of an object at time t is the limiting value of the average velocity
∆t
as ∆t tends to zero :

2024-25
44 PHYSICS

∆r dr
v= lim =. It can be written in unit vector notation as :
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
dx dy dz
v = v iɵ + v ɵj + v
x y
ɵ
z k where vx = dt , v y = dt , v z = dt
When position of an object is plotted on a coordinate system, v is always tangent to
the curve representing the path of the object.
14. If the velocity of an object changes from v to v′in time ∆t, then its average acceleration
v − v' ∆v
is given by: a = =
∆t ∆t
The acceleration a at any time t is the limiting value of a as ∆t Ž0 :
∆v dv
lima= =
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
ɵ ɵ ɵ
In component form, we have : a = a x i + a y j + a z k
dv x dvy dvz
where, a x = , ay = , az =
dt dt dt
15. If an object is moving in a plane with constant acceleration a = a = a x2 + a y2 and
its position vector at time t = 0 is ro, then at any other time t, it will be at a point given
by:
1 2
r = ro + v o t + at
2
and its velocity is given by :
v = vo + a t
where vo is the velocity at time t = 0
In component form :
1
x = x o + vox t + ax t 2
2
1
y = yo + voy t + ay t 2
2
v x = v ox + a x t

v y = v oy + a y t

Motion in a plane can be treated as superposition of two separate simultaneous one-

dimensional motions along two perpendicular directions
16. An object that is in flight after being projected is called a projectile. If an object is
projected with initial velocity vo making an angle θo with x-axis and if we assume its
initial position to coincide with the origin of the coordinate system, then the position
and velocity of the projectile at time t are given by :
x = (vo cos θo) t
y = (vo sin θo) t − (1/2) g t2
vx = vox = vo cos θo
vy = vo sin θo − g t
The path of a projectile is parabolic and is given by :

gx 2
y = ( tanθ0 ) x –
2 (v o cos θo )
2

The maximum height that a projectile attains is :

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 45

hm =
(vo sinqo )
2g
The time taken to reach this height is :
vo sinθ o
tm =
g
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from its initial position to the position
it passes y = 0 during its fall is called the range, R of the projectile. It is :
vo2
R= sin 2θo
g
17. When an object follows a circular path at constant speed, the motion of the object is
called uniform circular motion. The magnitude of its acceleration is ac = v2 /R. The
direction of ac is always towards the centre of the circle.
The angular speed ω, is the rate of change of angular distance. It is related to velocity
v by v = ω R. The acceleration is ac = ω 2R.
If T is the time period of revolution of the object in circular motion and ν is its
frequency, we have ω = 2π ν, v = 2πνR, ac = 4π2ν2R

2024-25
46 PHYSICS

POINTS TO PONDER
1. The path length traversed by an object between two points is, in general, not the same as
the magnitude of displacement. The displacement depends only on the end points; the
path length (as the name implies) depends on the actual path. The two quantities are
equal only if the object does not change its direction during the course of motion. In all
other cases, the path length is greater than the magnitude of displacement.
2. In view of point 1 above, the average speed of an object is greater than or equal to the
magnitude of the average velocity over a given time interval. The two are equal only if the
path length is equal to the magnitude of displacement.
3. The vector equations (3.33a) and (3.34a) do not involve any choice of axes. Of course,
you can always resolve them along any two independent axes.
4. The kinematic equations for uniform acceleration do not apply to the case of uniform
circular motion since in this case the magnitude of acceleration is constant but its
direction is changing.
5. An object subjected to two velocities v1 and v2 has a resultant velocity v = v1 + v2. Take
care to distinguish it from velocity of object 1 relative to velocity of object 2 : v12= v1 − v2.
Here v1 and v2 are velocities with reference to some common reference frame.
6. The resultant acceleration of an object in circular motion is towards the centre only if
the speed is constant.
7. The shape of the trajectory of the motion of an object is not determined by the acceleration
alone but also depends on the initial conditions of motion ( initial position and initial
velocity). For example, the trajectory of an object moving under the same acceleration
due to gravity can be a straight line or a parabola depending on the initial conditions.

EXERCISES
3.1 State, for each of the following physical quantities, if it is a scalar or a vector :
volume, mass, speed, acceleration, density, number of moles, velocity, angular
frequency, displacement, angular velocity.
3.2 Pick out the two scalar quantities in the following list :
force, angular momentum, work, current, linear momentum, electric field, average
velocity, magnetic moment, relative velocity.
3.3 Pick out the only vector quantity in the following list :
Temperature, pressure, impulse, time, power, total path length, energy, gravitational
potential, coefficient of friction, charge.
3.4 State with reasons, whether the following algebraic operations with scalar and vector
physical quantities are meaningful :
(a) adding any two scalars, (b) adding a scalar to a vector of the same dimensions ,
(c) multiplying any vector by any scalar, (d) multiplying any two scalars, (e) adding any
two vectors, (f) adding a component of a vector to the same vector.
3.5 Read each statement below carefully and state with reasons, if it is true or false :
(a) The magnitude of a vector is always a scalar, (b) each component of a vector is
always a scalar, (c) the total path length is always equal to the magnitude of the
displacement vector of a particle. (d) the average speed of a particle (defined as total
path length divided by the time taken to cover the path) is either greater or equal to
the magnitude of average velocity of the particle over the same interval of time, (e)
Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add up to give a null vector.
3.6 Establish the following vector inequalities geometrically or otherwise :
(a) |a+b| < |a| + |b|
(b) |a+b| > ||a| − |b||

2024-25
MOTION IN A PLANE 47

(c) − b| < |a| + |b|

|a−
(d) − b| > ||a| − |b||
|a−
When does the equality sign above apply?
3.7 Given a + b + c + d = 0, which of the following
statements are correct : Q
(a) a, b, c, and d must each be a null vector,
(b) The magnitude of (a + c) equals the magnitude of
( b + d),
(c) The magnitude of a can never be greater than the
sum of the magnitudes of b, c, and d,
(d) b + c must lie in the plane of a and d if a and d are
not collinear, and in the line of a and d, if they are
collinear ?
3.8 Three girls skating on a circular ice ground of radius
200 m start from a point P on the edge of the ground
and reach a point Q diametrically opposite to P following
different paths as shown in Fig. 3.19. What is the
magnitude of the displacement vector for each ? For Fig. 3.19
which girl is this equal to the actual length of
path skate ?

3.9 A cyclist starts from the centre O of a circular park of radius 1 km, reaches the edge P
of the park, then cycles along the circumference, and returns to the centre along QO
as shown in Fig. 3.20. If the round trip takes 10 min, what is the (a) net displacement,
(b) average velocity, and (c) average speed of the cyclist ?

Fig. 3.20
3.10 On an open ground, a motorist follows a track that turns to his left by an angle of 600
after every 500 m. Starting from a given turn, specify the displacement of the motorist
at the third, sixth and eighth turn. Compare the magnitude of the displacement with
the total path length covered by the motorist in each case.
3.11 A passenger arriving in a new town wishes to go from the station to a hotel located
10 km away on a straight road from the station. A dishonest cabman takes him along
a circuitous path 23 km long and reaches the hotel in 28 min. What is (a) the average
speed of the taxi, (b) the magnitude of average velocity ? Are the two equal ?
3.12 The ceiling of a long hall is 25 m high. What is the maximum horizontal distance that
a ball thrown with a speed of 40 m s-1 can go without hitting the ceiling of the hall ?
3.13 A cricketer can throw a ball to a maximum horizontal distance of 100 m. How much
high above the ground can the cricketer throw the same ball ?

2024-25
48 PHYSICS

3.14 A stone tied to the end of a string 80 cm long is whirled in a horizontal circle with a
constant speed. If the stone makes 14 revolutions in 25 s, what is the magnitude and
direction of acceleration of the stone ?
3.15 An aircraft executes a horizontal loop of radius 1.00 km with a steady speed of 900
km/h. Compare its centripetal acceleration with the acceleration due to gravity.
3.16 Read each statement below carefully and state, with reasons, if it is true or false :
(a) The net acceleration of a particle in circular motion is always along the radius of
the circle towards the centre
(b) The velocity vector of a particle at a point is always along the tangent to the path
of the particle at that point
(c) The acceleration vector of a particle in uniform circular motion averaged over one
cycle is a null vector

3.17 The position of a particle is given by

r = 3.0t ˆi − 2.0t 2 ˆj + 4.0 k
ˆ m
where t is in seconds and the coefficients have the proper units for r to be in metres.
(a) Find the v and a of the particle? (b) What is the magnitude and direction of
velocity of the particle at t = 2.0 s ?
3.18 A particle starts from the origin at t = 0 s with a velocity of 10.0 ɵj m/s and moves in

( )
the x-y plane with a constant acceleration of 8.0ɵi + 2.0 ɵj m s-2. (a) At what time is
the x- coordinate of the particle 16 m? What is the y-coordinate of the particle at
that time? (b) What is the speed of the particle at the time ?
3.19 ɵi and ɵj are unit vectors along x- and y- axis respectively. What is the magnitude
and direction of the vectors ɵi + ɵj , and ɵi − ɵj ? What are the components of a vector

A= 2 ɵi + 3ɵj along the directions of ɵi + ɵj and ɵi − ɵj ? [You may use graphical method]
3.20 For any arbitrary motion in space, which of the following relations are true :
(a) vaverage = (1/2) (v (t1) + v (t2))
(b) v average = [r(t2) - r(t1) ] /(t2 – t1)
(c) v (t) = v (0) + a t
(d) r (t) = r (0) + v (0) t + (1/2) a t2
(e) a average =[ v (t2) - v (t1 )] /( t2 – t1)
(The ‘average’ stands for average of the quantity over the time interval t1 to t2)
3.21 Read each statement below carefully and state, with reasons and examples, if it is
true or false :
A scalar quantity is one that
(a) is conserved in a process
(b) can never take negative values
(c) must be dimensionless
(d) does not vary from one point to another in space
(e) has the same value for observers with different orientations of axes.
3.22 An aircraft is flying at a height of 3400 m above the ground. If the angle subtended at
a ground observation point by the aircraft positions 10.0 s a part is 30°, wat is the
speed of the aircraft ?

2024-25
 UNIT 1

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the science of molecules and their

transformations. It is the science not so much of the one
hundred elements but of the infinite variety of molecules
After studying this unit, you will be that may be built from them.
able to
• appreciate the contribution of India Roald Hoffmann
in the development of chemistry
understand the role of chemistry
in different spheres of life; Science can be viewed as a continuing human effort to
• explain the characteristics of three systematise knowledge for describing and understanding
states of matter; nature. You have learnt in your previous classes that we
• classify different substances come across diverse substances present in nature and
into elements, compounds and changes in them in daily life. Curd formation from milk,
mixtures;
formation of vinegar from sugarcane juice on keeping
• use scientific notations and for prolonged time and rusting of iron are some of the
determine significant figures;
examples of changes which we come across many times.
• differentiate between precision and
For the sake of convenience, science is sub-divided into
accuracy;
various disciplines: chemistry, physics, biology, geology,
• define SI base units and convert
etc. The branch of science that studies the preparation,
physical quantities from one
system of units to another;
properties, structure and reactions of material substances
• explain various laws of chemical
is called chemistry.
combination; DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMISTRY
• appreciate significance of atomic Chemistry, as we understand it today, is not a very old
mass, average atomic mass,
discipline. Chemistry was not studied for its own sake, rather
molecular mass and formula mass;
it came up as a result of search for two interesting things:
• describe the terms – mole and
molar mass;
i. Philosopher’s stone (Paras) which would convert
all baser metals e.g., iron and copper into gold.
• calculate the mass per cent of
component elements constituting
ii. ‘Elixir of life’ which would grant immortality.
a compound; People in ancient India, already had the knowledge of
• determine empirical formula and many scientific phenomenon much before the advent of
molecular formula for a compound modern science. They applied that knowledge in various
from the given experimental data; walks of life. Chemistry developed mainly in the form
and of Alchemy and Iatrochemistry during 1300-1600 CE.
• perform the stoichiometric Modern chemistry took shape in the 18th century Europe,
calculations. after a few centuries of alchemical traditions which were
introduced in Europe by the Arabs.

2024-25
 2 chemistry

Other cultures – especially the Chinese be shown to agree with modern scientific
and the Indian – had their own alchemical findings. Copper utensils, iron, gold, silver
traditions. These included much knowledge of ornaments and terracotta discs and painted
chemical processes and techniques. grey pottery have been found in many
In ancient India, chemistry was called archaeological sites in north India. Sushruta
Rasayan Shastra, Rastantra, Ras Kriya or Samhita explains the importance of Alkalies.
Rasvidya. It included metallurgy, medicine, The Charaka Samhita mentions ancient
manufacture of cosmetics, glass, dyes, etc. indians who knew how to prepare sulphuric
Systematic excavations at Mohenjodaro in acid, nitric acid and oxides of copper, tin and
Sindh and Harappa in Punjab prove that the zinc; the sulphates of copper, zinc and iron
story of development of chemistry in India
and the carbonates of lead and iron.
is very old. Archaeological findings show
that baked bricks were used in construction Rasopanishada describes the preparation
work. It shows the mass production of of gunpowder mixture. Tamil texts also
pottery, which can be regarded as the earliest describe the preparation of fireworks using
chemical process, in which materials were sulphur, charcoal, saltpetre (i.e., potassium
mixed, moulded and subjected to heat by nitrate), mercury, camphor, etc.
using fire to achieve desirable qualities. Nagarjuna was a great Indian scientist. He
Remains of glazed pottery have been found in was a reputed chemist, an alchemist and a
Mohenjodaro. Gypsum cement has been used metallurgist. His work Rasratnakar deals with
in the construction work. It contains lime, the formulation of mercury compounds. He
sand and traces of CaCO3. Harappans made has also discussed methods for the extraction
faience, a sort of glass which was used in of metals, like gold, silver, tin and copper. A
ornaments. They melted and forged a variety book, Rsarnavam, appeared around 800 CE.
of objects from metals, such as lead, silver,
It discusses the uses of various furnaces,
gold and copper. They improved the hardness
ovens and crucibles for different purposes. It
of copper for making artefacts by using tin
describes methods by which metals could be
and arsenic. A number of glass objects were
found in Maski in South India (1000–900 identified by flame colour.
BCE), and Hastinapur and Taxila in North Chakrapani discovered mercury sulphide.
India (1000–200 BCE). Glass and glazes were The credit for inventing soap also goes to him.
coloured by addition of colouring agents like He used mustard oil and some alkalies as
metal oxides. ingredients for making soap. Indians began
Copper metallurgy in India dates back to making soaps in the 18th century CE. Oil of
the beginning of chalcolithic cultures in the Eranda and seeds of Mahua plant and calcium
subcontinent. There are much archeological carbonate were used for making soap.
evidences to support the view that technologies The paintings found on the walls of Ajanta
for extraction of copper and iron were and Ellora, which look fresh even after ages,
developed indigenously. testify to a high level of science achieved in
According to Rigveda, tanning of leather ancient India. Varähmihir’s Brihat Samhita is
and dying of cotton were practised during a sort of encyclopaedia, which was composed
1000–400 BCE. The golden gloss of the in the sixth century CE. It informs about the
black polished ware of northen India could preparation of glutinous material to be applied
not be replicated and is still a chemical on walls and roofs of houses and temples. It
mystery. These wares indicate the mastery was prepared entirely from extracts of various
with which kiln temperatures could be plants, fruits, seeds and barks, which were
controlled. Kautilya’s Arthashastra describes concentrated by boiling, and then, treated
the production of salt from sea. with various resins. It will be interesting to
A vast number of statements and material test such materials scientifically and assess
described in the ancient Vedic literature can them for use.

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 2 9/9/2022 4:27:29 PM

 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 3

A number of classical texts, like forces cause interaction between them. He

Atharvaveda (1000 BCE) mention some conceptualised this theory around 2500 years
dye stuff, the material used were turmeric, before John Dalton (1766-1844).
madder, sunflower, orpiment, cochineal and Charaka Samhita is the oldest Ayurvedic
lac. Some other substances having tinting epic of India. It describes the treatment of
property were kamplcica, pattanga and jatuka. diseases. The concept of reduction of particle
Varähmihir’s Brihat Samhita gives size of metals is clearly discussed in Charaka
references to perfumes and cosmetics. Samhita. Extreme reduction of particle size is
Recipes for hair dying were made from plants, termed as nanotechnology. Charaka Samhita
like indigo and minerals like iron power, describes the use of bhasma of metals in the
black iron or steel and acidic extracts of sour treatment of ailments. Now-a-days, it has
rice gruel. Gandhayukli describes recipes been proved that bhasmas have nanoparticles
for making scents, mouth perfumes, bath of metals.
powders, incense and talcum power. After the decline of alchemy, Iatrochemistry
Paper was known to India in the 17 th reached a steady state, but it too declined due
century as account of Chinese traveller I-tsing to the introduction and practise of western
describes. Excavations at Taxila indicate that medicinal system in the 20th century. During
ink was used in India from the fourth century. this period of stagnation, pharmaceutical
Colours of ink were made from chalk, red lead industry based on Ayurveda continued to
and minimum. exist, but it too declined gradually. It took
It seems that the process of fermentation about 100-150 years for Indians to learn
was well-known to Indians. Vedas and and adopt new techniques. During this time,
Kautilya’s Arthashastra mention about foreign products poured in. As a result,
many types of liquors. Charaka Samhita also indigenous traditional techniques gradually
mentions ingredients, such as barks of plants, declined. Modern science appeared in Indian
stem, flowers, leaves, woods, cereals, fruits scene in the later part of the nineteenth
and sugarcane for making Asavas. century. By the mid-nineteenth century,
European scientists started coming to India
The concept that matter is ultimately
and modern chemistry started growing.
made of indivisible building blocks, appeared
in India a few centuries BCE as a part of From the above discussion, you have learnt
philosophical speculations. Acharya Kanda, that chemistry deals with the composition,
born in 600 BCE, originally known by the structure, properties and interection of matter
name Kashyap, was the first proponent and is of much use to human beings in daily
of the ‘atomic theory’. He formulated the life. These aspects can be best described and
theory of very small indivisible particles, understood in terms of basic constituents of
which he named ‘Paramãnu’ (comparable matter that are atoms and molecules. That
to atoms). He authored the text Vaiseshika is why, chemistry is also called the science of
Sutras. According to him, all substances are atoms and molecules. Can we see, weigh and
aggregated form of smaller units called atoms perceive these entities (atoms and molecules)?
(Paramãnu), which are eternal, indestructible, Is it possible to count the number of atoms
spherical, suprasensible and in motion in and molecules in a given mass of matter and
the original state. He explained that this have a quantitative relationship between the
individual entity cannot be sensed through mass and the number of these particles?
any human organ. Kanda added that there We will get the answer of some of these
are varieties of atoms that are as different as questions in this Unit. We will further describe
the different classes of substances. He said how physical properties of matter can be
these (Paramãnu) could form pairs or triplets, quantitatively described using numerical
among other combinations and unseen values with suitable units.

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 3 9/9/2022 4:27:29 PM

 4 chemistry

1.1 IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY many big environmental problems continue to

Chemistry plays a central role in science and be matters of grave concern to the chemists.
is often intertwined with other branches of One such problem is the management of the
science. Green House gases, like methane, carbon
dioxide, etc. Understanding of biochemical
Principles of chemistry are applicable processes, use of enzymes for large-scale
in diverse areas, such as weather patterns, production of chemicals and synthesis of new
functioning of brain and operation of a exotic material are some of the intellectual
computer, production in chemical industries, challenges for the future generation of
manufacturing fertilisers, alkalis, acids, salts, chemists. A developing country, like India,
dyes, polymers, drugs, soaps, detergents, needs talented and creative chemists for
metals, alloys, etc., including new material. accepting such challenges. To be a good
Chemistry contributes in a big way to the chemist and to accept such challanges, one
national economy. It also plays an important needs to understand the basic concepts of
role in meeting human needs for food, chemistry, which begin with the concept of
healthcare products and other material matter. Let us start with the nature of matter.
aimed at improving the quality of life. This 1.2 Nature of Matter
is exemplified by the large-scale production You are already familiar with the term matter
of a variety of fertilisers, improved variety from your earlier classes. Anything which has
of pesticides and insecticides. Chemistry mass and occupies space is called matter.
provides methods for the isolation of life- Everything around us, for example, book, pen,
saving drugs from natural sources and pencil, water, air, all living beings, etc., are
makes possible synthesis of such drugs. composed of matter. You know that they have
Some of these drugs are cisplatin and mass and they occupy space. Let us recall the
taxol, which are effective in cancer therapy. characteristics of the states of matter, which
The drug AZT (Azidothymidine) is used for you learnt in your previous classes.
helping AIDS patients.
Chemistry contributes to a large extent in 1.2.1 States of Matter
the development and growth of a nation. With You are aware that matter can exist in three
a better understanding of chemical principles physical states viz. solid, liquid and gas.
it has now become possible to design and The constituent particles of matter in these
synthesise new material having specific three states can be represented as shown in
magnetic, electric and optical properties. This Fig. 1.1.
has lead to the production of superconducting Particles are held very close to each other
ceramics, conducting polymers, optical fibres, in solids in an orderly fashion and there is not
etc. Chemistry has helped in establishing much freedom of movement. In liquids, the
industries which manufacture utility goods, particles are close to each other but they can
like acids, alkalies, dyes, polymesr metals, move around. However, in gases, the particles
etc. These industries contribute in a big way are far apart as compared to those present in
to the economy of a nation and generate solid or liquid states and their movement is
employment. easy and fast. Because of such arrangement
In recent years, chemistry has helped in of particles, different states of matter exhibit
dealing with some of the pressing aspects the following characteristics:
of environmental degradation with a fair (i) Solids have definite volume and definite
degree of success. Safer alternatives to shape.
environmentally hazardous refrigerants, (ii) Liquids have definite volume but do
like CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), responsible not have definite shape. They take the
for ozone depletion in the stratosphere, have shape of the container in which they are
been successfully synthesised. However, placed.

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 4 9/9/2022 4:27:29 PM

 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 5

Fig. 1.1 Arrangement of particles in solid, liquid Fig. 1.2 Classification of matter
and gaseous state

(iii) Gases have neither definite volume nor completely mix with each other. This means
definite shape. They completely occupy particles of components of the mixture are
the space in the container in which they uniformly distributed throughout the bulk of
are placed. the mixture and its composition is uniform
throughout. Sugar solution and air are the
These three states of matter are
examples of homogeneous mixtures. In
interconvertible by changing the conditions
contrast to this, in a heterogeneous mixture,
of temperature and pressure.
the composition is not uniform throughout
Solid liquid Gas and sometimes different components are
On heating, a solid usually changes to visible. For example, mixtures of salt and
a liquid, and the liquid on further heating sugar, grains and pulses along with some
changes to gas (or vapour). In the reverse dirt (often stone pieces), are heterogeneous
process, a gas on cooling liquifies to the liquid mixtures. You can think of many more
and the liquid on further cooling freezes to examples of mixtures which you come across
the solid. in the daily life. It is worthwhile to mention
here that the components of a mixture can
1.2.2. Classification of Matter be separated by using physical methods,
In Class IX (Chapter 2), you have learnt that such as simple hand-picking, filtration,
at the macroscopic or bulk level, matter can crystallisation, distillation, etc.
be classified as mixture or pure substance.
Pure substances have characteristics
These can be further sub-divided as shown
different from mixtures. Constituent particles
in Fig. 1.2.
of pure substances have fixed composition.
When all constituent particles of a Copper, silver, gold, water and glucose are
substance are same in chemical nature, it some examples of pure substances. Glucose
is said to be a pure substance. A mixture contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in
contains many types of particles. a fixed ratio and its particles are of same
A mixture contains particles of two or composition. Hence, like all other pure
more pure substances which may be present substances, glucose has a fixed composition.
in it in any ratio. Hence, their composition is Also, its constituents—carbon, hydrogen
variable. Pure substances forming mixture and oxygen—cannot be separated by simple
are called its components. Many of the physical methods.
substances present around you are mixtures. Pure substances can further be classified
For example, sugar solution in water, air, into elements and compounds. Particles
tea, etc., are all mixtures. A mixture may of an element consist of only one type of
be homogeneous or heterogeneous. In a atoms. These particles may exist as atoms or
homogeneous mixture, the components molecules. You may be familiar with atoms

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 5 9/9/2022 4:27:30 PM

 6 chemistry

and molecules from the previous classes;

however, you will be studying about them
in detail in Unit 2. Sodium, copper, silver,
hydrogen, oxygen, etc., are some examples
of elements. Their all atoms are of one type.
However, the atoms of different elements Water molecule Carbon dioxide
are different in nature. Some elements, (H2O) molecule (CO2)
such as sodium or copper, contain atoms Fig. 1.4 A depiction of molecules of water and
as their constituent particles, whereas, in carbon dioxide
some others, the constituent particles are
molecules which are formed by two or more elements are present in a compound in a fixed
atoms. For example, hydrogen, nitrogen and and definite ratio and this ratio is characteristic
oxygen gases consist of molecules, in which of a particular compound. Also, the properties
two atoms combine to give their respective of a compound are different from those of its
molecules. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. constituent elements. For example, hydrogen
and oxygen are gases, whereas, the compound
formed by their combination i.e., water is a
liquid. It is interesting to note that hydrogen
burns with a pop sound and oxygen is a
supporter of combustion, but water is used
as a fire extinguisher.
1.3 Properties of Matter and
their Measurement

1.3.1 Physical and chemical properties

Every substance has unique or characteristic
properties. These properties can be classified
into two categories — physical properties,
such as colour, odour, melting point, boiling
point, density, etc., and chemical properties,
like composition, combustibility, ractivity with
Fig. 1.3 A representation of atoms and molecules
acids and bases, etc.
When two or more atoms of different Physical properties can be measured
elements combine together in a definite ratio, or observed without changing the identity
the molecule of a compound is obtained. or the composition of the substance. The
Moreover, the constituents of a compound measurement or observation of chemical
cannot be separated into simpler substances properties requires a chemical change to
by physical methods. They can be separated occur. Measurement of physical properties
by chemical methods. Examples of some does not require occurance of a chemical
change. The examples of chemical properties
compounds are water, ammonia, carbon
are characteristic reactions of different
dioxide, sugar, etc. The molecules of water
substances; these include acidity or basicity,
and carbon dioxide are represented in Fig. 1.4.
combustibility, etc. Chemists describe,
Note that a water molecule comprises interpret and predict the behaviour of
two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. substances on the basis of knowledge of their
Similarly, a molecule of carbon dioxide physical and chemical properties, which are
contains two oxygen atoms combined with determined by careful measurement and
one carbon atom. Thus, the atoms of different experimentation. In the following section, we

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 6 9/9/2022 4:27:30 PM

 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 7

will learn about the measurement of physical

properties. Maintaining the National
Standards of Measurement
1.3.2 Measurement of physical properties
The system of units, including unit
Quantitative measurement of properties is definitions, keeps on changing with time.
reaquired for scientific investigation. Many Whenever the accuracy of measurement of a
properties of matter, such as length, area, particular unit was enhanced substantially
volume, etc., are quantitative in nature. Any by adopting new principles, member nations
quantitative observation or measurement is of metre treaty (signed in 1875), agreed
represented by a number followed by units to change the formal definition of that
in which it is measured. For example, length unit. Each modern industrialised country,
of a room can be represented as 6 m; here, including India, has a National Metrology
Institute (NMI), which maintains standards of
6 is the number and m denotes metre, the
measurements. This responsibility has been
unit in which the length is measured. given to the National Physical Laboratory
Earlier, two different systems of (NPL), New Delhi. This laboratory establishes
measurement, i.e., the English System experiments to realise the base units and
and the Metric System were being used derived units of measurement and maintains
National Standards of Measurement. These
in different parts of the world. The metric
standards are periodically inter-compared
system, which originated in France in late with standards maintained at other National
eighteenth century, was more convenient as Metrology Institutes in the world, as well
it was based on the decimal system. Late, as those, established at the International
need of a common standard system was felt Bureau of Standards in Paris.
by the scientific community. Such a system
was established in 1960 and is discussed in governmental treaty organisation created by a
detail below. diplomatic treaty known as Metre Convention,
1.3.3 The International System of Units (SI) which was signed in Paris in 1875.
The International System of Units (in The SI system has seven base units
French Le Systeme International d’Unités and they are listed in Table 1.1. These units
— abbreviated as SI) was established by pertain to the seven fundamental scientific
the 11th General Conference on Weights and quantities. The other physical quantities,
Measures (CGPM from Conference Generale such as speed, volume, density, etc., can be
des Poids et Measures). The CGPM is an inter- derived from these quantities.

Table 1.1 Base Physical Quantities and their Units

Base Physical Symbol for Name of Symbol for
Quantity Quantity SI Unit SI Unit
Length l metre m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Electric current I ampere A
Thermodynamic T kelvin K
temperature
Amount of n mole mol
substance candela
Iv cd
Luminous
intensity

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 7 9/9/2022 4:27:30 PM

 8 chemistry

The definitions of the SI base units are These prefixes are listed in Table 1.3.
given in Table 1.2. Let us now quickly go through some of
The SI system allows the use of prefixes to the quantities which you will be often using
indicate the multiples or submultiples of a unit. in this book.

Table 1.2 Definitions of SI Base Units

The metre, symbol m is the SI unit of length. It is defined by

taking the fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum
Unit of length metre
c to be 299792458 when expressed in the unit ms–1, where
the second is defined in terms of the caesium frequencyV Cs.

The kilogram, symbol kg. is the SI unit of mass. It is defined

by taking the fixed numerical value of the planck constant h to
Unit of mass kilogram be 6.62607015×10–34 when expressed in the unit Js, which is
equal to kgm2s–1, where the metre and the second are defined
in terms of c and V Cs.

The second symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by

taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency V Cs,
Unit of time second the unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency
of the caesium-133 atom, to be 9192631770 when expressed
in the unit Hz, which is equal to s–1.

The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current. It is

defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary
Unit of electric
ampere charge e to be 1.602176634×10–19 when expressed in the unit
current
C, which is equal to As, where the second is defined in terms
of V Cs.

The kelvin, symbol k, is the SI unit of thermodynamic

temperature. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value
Unit of
of the Boltzmann constant k to be 1.380649×10–23 when
thermodynamic kelvin
expressed in the unit JK–1, which is equal to kgm2s–2k–1 where
temperature
the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c
and V Cs.

The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance.

One mole contains exactly 6.02214076×10 23 elementary
entities. This number is the fixed numerical value of the
Avogadro constant, NA, when expressed in the unit mol–1 and
Unit of amount
mole is called the Avogadro number. The amount of substance,
of substance
symbol n, of a system is a measure of the number of specified
elementary entities. An elementary entity may be an atom, a
molecule, an ion, an electron, any other particle or specified
group of particles.

The candela, symbol cd is the SI unit of luminous intensity in

a given direction. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical
value of the luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation
Unit of luminous
Candela of frequency 540×1012 Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when expressed
Intensity
in the unit lm·W–1, which is equal to cd·sr·W–1, or cd sr kg–1
m–2s3, where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in
terms of h, c and V Cs.

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 8 9/9/2022 4:27:30 PM

 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 9

Table 1.3 Prefixes used in the SI System

Multiple Prefix Symbol

10–24 yocto y
10 –21
zepto z
10–18 atto a
10–15 femto f
10 –12
pico p
10 –9
nano n
10 –6
micro µ
10–3 milli m
10–2 centi c
10 –1
deci d
10 deca da
10 2
hecto h
103 kilo k
10 6
mega M Fig. 1.5 Analytical balance
109 giga G
10 12
tera T
SI system, volume has units of m3. But again,
10 15
peta P in chemistry laboratories, smaller volumes
1018 exa E are used. Hence, volume is often denoted in
1021 zeta Z cm3 or dm3 units.
10 24
yotta Y A common unit, litre (L) which is not an
SI unit, is used for measurement of volume
1.3.4 Mass and Weight
of liquids.
Mass of a substance is the amount of matter
1 L = 1000 mL, 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
present in it, while weight is the force
Fig. 1.6 helps to visualise these relations.
exerted by gravity on an object. The mass of
a substance is constant, whereas, its weight
may vary from one place to another due to
change in gravity. You should be careful in
using these terms.
The mass of a substance can be determined
accurately in the laboratory by using an
analytical balance (Fig. 1.5).
The SI unit of mass as given in Table 1.1 is
kilogram. However, its fraction named as gram
(1 kg = 1000 g), is used in laboratories due
to the smaller amounts of chemicals used in
chemical reactions.
1.3.5 Volume
Volume is the amont of space occupied by a Fig. 1.6 Different units used to express
substance. It has the units of (length)3. So in volume

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 9 9/9/2022 4:27:31 PM

 10 chemistry

In the laboratory, the volume of liquids fahrenheit) and K (kelvin). Here, K is the
or solutions can be measured by graduated SI unit. The thermometers based on these
cylinder, burette, pipette, etc. A volumetric scales are shown in Fig. 1.8. Generally,
flask is used to prepare a known volume of a the thermometer with celsius scale are
solution. These measuring devices are shown calibrated from 0° to 100°, where these two
in Fig. 1.7. temperatures are the freezing point and
the boiling point of water, respectively. The
fahrenheit scale is represented between 32°
to 212°.
The temperatures on two scales are
related to each other by the following
relationship:
9
F C  32
5
The kelvin scale is related to celsius scale
as follows:
K = °C + 273.15
It is interesting to note that temperature
below 0 °C (i.e., negative values) are possible
in Celsius scale but in Kelvin scale, negative
Fig. 1.7 Some volume measuring devices
temperature is not possible.
1.3.6 Density
The two properties — mass and volume
discussed above are related as follows:
Mass
Density =
Volume
Density of a substance is its amount of mass
per unit volume. So, SI units of density can
be obtained as follows:

SI unit of density =

kg
= or kg m–3
m3
This unit is quite large and a chemist often
expresses density in g cm–3, where mass is
expressed in gram and volume is expressed
in cm3. Density of a substance tells us about Fig. 1.8 Thermometers using different
temperature scales
how closely its particles are packed. If density
is more, it means particles are more closely
1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement
packed.
Many a time in the study of chemistry, one
1.3.7 Temperature has to deal with experimental data as well as
There are three common scales to measure theoretical calculations. There are meaningful
temperature — °C (degree celsius), °F (degree ways to handle the numbers conveniently and

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 10 9/9/2022 4:27:32 PM

 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 11

present the data realistically with certainty to

Reference Standard the extent possible. These ideas are discussed
below in detail.
After defining a unit of measurement such as
the kilogram or the metre, scientists agreed 1.4.1 Scientific Notation
on reference standards that make it possible
As chemistry is the study of atoms and
to calibrate all measuring devices. For getting
molecules, which have extremely low masses
reliable measurements, all devices such as
metre sticks and analytical balances have
and are present in extremely large numbers,
been calibrated by their manufacturers a chemist has to deal with numbers as large
to give correct readings. However, each of as 602, 200,000,000,000,000,000,000 for the
these devices is standardised or calibrated molecules of 2 g of hydrogen gas or as small as
against some reference. The mass standard 0.00000000000000000000000166 g mass of
is the kilogram since 1889. It has been a H atom. Similarly, other constants such as
defined as the mass of platinum-iridium Planck’s constant, speed of light, charges on
(Pt-Ir) cylinder that is stored in an airtight particles, etc., involve numbers of the above
jar at International Bureau of Weights magnitude.
and Measures in Sevres, France. Pt-Ir was
chosen for this standard because it is highly It may look funny for a moment to
resistant to chemical attack and its mass write or count numbers involving so many
will not change for an extremely long time. zeros but it offers a real challenge to do
Scientists are in search of a new simple mathematical operations of addition,
standard for mass. This is being attempted subtraction, multiplication or division with
through accurate determination of Avogadro such numbers. You can write any two
constant. Work on this new standard focuses
numbers of the above type and try any one
on ways to measure accurately the number
of the operations you like to accept as a
of atoms in a well-defined mass of sample.
One such method, which uses X-rays to
challenge, and then, you will really appreciate
determine the atomic density of a crystal of the difficulty in handling such numbers.
ultrapure silicon, has an accuracy of about This problem is solved by using scientific
1 part in 106 but has not yet been adopted to notation for such numbers, i.e., exponential
serve as a standard. There are other methods notation in which any number can be
but none of them are presently adequate to represented in the form N × 10n, where n is an
replace the Pt-Ir cylinder. No doubt, changes
exponent having positive or negative values
are expected within this decade.
and N is a number (called digit term) which
The metre was originally defined as the
varies between 1.000... and 9.999....
length between two marks on a Pt-Ir bar
kept at a temperature of 0°C (273.15 K). In Thus, we can write 232.508 as
1960 the length of the metre was defined as 2.32508 × 102 in scientific notation. Note that
1.65076373 × 106 times the wavelength of while writing it, the decimal had to be moved
light emitted by a krypton laser. Although to the left by two places and same is the
this was a cumbersome number, it preserved exponent (2) of 10 in the scientific notation.
the length of the metre at its agreed value.
The metre was redefined in 1983 by CGPM
Similarly, 0.00016 can be written as
as the length of path travelled by light in 1.6 × 10 –4 . Here, the decimal has to be
vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 moved four places to the right and (–4) is the
458 of a second. Similar to the length and exponent in the scientific notation.
the mass, there are reference standards for While performing mathematical operations
other physical quantities. on numbers expressed in scientific notations,
the following points are to be kept in mind.

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 11 9/9/2022 4:27:32 PM

 12 chemistry

Multiplication and Division mass obtained by an analytical balance is

These two operations follow the same rules slightly higher than the mass obtained by
which are there for exponential numbers, i.e. using a platform balance. Therefore, digit 4
placed after decimal in the measurement by
platform balance is uncertain.
5.6  10   6.9  10  = 5.6  6.9 10 
5 8 58

The uncertainty in the experimental

= 5.6  6.9  1013
or the calculated values is indicated by
= 38..64  1013 mentioning the number of significant
= 3.864  1014 figures. Significant figures are meaningful
digits which are known with certainty plus
9.8  10   2.5  10  = 9.8  2.5 10   
2 6 2  6
one which is estimated or uncertain. The
= 9.8  2.5 10  2  6 uncertainty is indicated by writing the certain
digits and the last uncertain digit. Thus, if we
= 24.50  10 8 write a result as 11.2 mL, we say the 11 is
= 2.450  10 7 certain and 2 is uncertain and the uncertainty
would be +1 in the last digit. Unless otherwise
2.7  10 3
5  104
5.5
 
= 2.7  5.5 10 3  4 = 0.4909  10 7 stated, an uncertainty of +1 in the last digit
is always understood.
= 4.909  10 8 There are certain rules for determining
the number of significant figures. These are
Addition and Subtraction stated below:
For these two operations, first the numbers are (1) All non-zero digits are significant. For
written in such a way that they have the same example in 285 cm, there are three
exponent. After that, the coefficients (digit significant figures and in 0.25 mL, there
terms) are added or subtracted as the case are two significant figures.
may be. (2) Zeros preceding to first non-zero digit
Thus, for adding 6.65×104 and 8.95×103, are not significant. Such zero indicates
exponent is made same for both the numbers. the position of decimal point. Thus,
Thus, we get (6.65×104) + (0.895×104) 0.03 has one significant figure and
Then, these numbers can be added as follows 0.0052 has two significant figures.
(6.65 + 0.895)×104 = 7.545×104 (3) Zeros between two non-zero digits
Similarly, the subtraction of two numbers can are significant. Thus, 2.005 has four
be done as shown below: significant figures.
(2.5 × 10–2) – (4.8 ×10–3) (4) Zeros at the end or right of a number
are significant, provided they are on
= (2.5 × 10–2) – (0.48 × 10–2) the right side of the decimal point. For
= (2.5 – 0.48)×10–2 = 2.02 × 10–2 example, 0.200 g has three significant
figures. But, if otherwise, the terminal
1.4.2 Significant Figures zeros are not significant if there is no
Every experimental measurement has decimal point. For example, 100 has
some amount of uncertainty associated only one significant figure, but 100 has
with it because of limitation of measuring three significant figures and 100.0 has
instrument and the skill of the person making four significant figures. Such numbers
the measurement. For example, mass of an are better represented in scientific
object is obtained using a platform balance notation. We can express the number
and it comes out to be 9.4g. On measuring 100 as 1×102 for one significant figure,
the mass of this object on an analytical 1.0×102 for two significant figures and
balance, the mass obtained is 9.4213g. The 1.00×102 for three significant figures.

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 12 9/9/2022 4:27:32 PM

 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 13

(5) Counting the numbers of object, for Here, 18.0 has only one digit after the decimal
example, 2 balls or 20 eggs, have infinite point and the result should be reported only
significant figures as these are exact up to one digit after the decimal point, which
numbers and can be represented by is 31.1.
writing infinite number of zeros after
placing a decimal i.e., 2 = 2.000000 or Multiplication and Division of
20 = 20.000000. Significant Figures
In numbers written in scientific notation, In these operations, the result must be
all digits are significant e.g., 4.01×102 has reported with no more significant figures as
three significant figures, and 8.256×10–3 has in the measurement with the few significant
four significant figures. figures.
However, one would always like the results
to be precise and accurate. Precision and 2.5×1.25 = 3.125
accuracy are often referred to while we talk Since 2.5 has two significant figures,
about the measurement. the result should not have more than two
Precision refers to the closeness of significant figures, thus, it is 3.1.
various measurements for the same quantity. While limiting the result to the required
However, accuracy is the agreement of a number of significant figures as done in the
particular value to the true value of the above mathematical operation, one has to
result. For example, if the true value for a keep in mind the following points for rounding
result is 2.00 g and student ‘A’ takes two off the numbers
measurements and reports the results as 1.95 1. If the rightmost digit to be removed is
g and 1.93 g. These values are precise as they more than 5, the preceding number is
are close to each other but are not accurate. increased by one. For example, 1.386. If
Another student ‘B’ repeats the experiment we have to remove 6, we have to round
and obtains 1.94 g and 2.05 g as the results it to 1.39.
for two measurements. These observations 2. If the rightmost digit to be removed is
are neither precise nor accurate. When the less than 5, the preceding number is not
third student ‘C’ repeats these measurements changed. For example, 4.334 if 4 is to
and reports 2.01 g and 1.99 g as the result, be removed, then the result is rounded
these values are both precise and accurate. upto 4.33.
This can be more clearly understood from the 3. If the rightmost digit to be removed is 5,
data given in Table 1.4. then the preceding number is not changed
Table 1.4 Data to Illustrate Precision if it is an even number but it is increased
and Accuracy by one if it is an odd number. For example,
Measurements/g if 6.35 is to be rounded by removing 5, we
1 2 Average (g) have to increase 3 to 4 giving 6.4 as the
result. However, if 6.25 is to be rounded
Student A 1.95 1.93 1.940
off it is rounded off to 6.2.
Student B 1.94 2.05 1.995
1.4.3 Dimensional Analysis
Student C 2.01 1.99 2.000
Often while calculating, there is a need to
Addition and Subtraction of convert units from one system to the other.
Significant Figures The method used to accomplish this is called
The result cannot have more digits to the right factor label method or unit factor method
of the decimal point than either of the original or dimensional analysis. This is illustrated
numbers. 12.11 below.
18.0 Example
1.012 A piece of metal is 3 inch (represented by in)
31.122 long. What is its length in cm?

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 13 9/9/2022 4:27:32 PM

 14 chemistry

Solution The above is multiplied by the unit factor

We know that 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 m3 2 m3
2  1000 cm 3  6 3
 3
 2  10 3 m 3
From this equivalence, we can write 10 cm 10

1 in 2.54 cm Example
= 1=
2.54 cm 1 in How many seconds are there in 2 days?
Solution
1 in 2.54 cm Here, we know 1 day = 24 hours (h)
Thus, equals 1 and
2.54 cm 1 in 1 day 24 h
or = 1=
24 h 1 day
also equals 1. Both of these are called unit then, 1h = 60 min
factors. If some number is multiplied by these 1h 60 min
unit factors (i.e., 1), it will not be affected or = 1=
60 min 1h
otherwise.
so, for converting 2 days to seconds,
Say, the 3 in given above is multiplied by
the unit factor. So, i.e., 2 days – – – – – – = – – – seconds
2.54 cm The unit factors can be multiplied in
3 in = 3 in × = 3 × 2.54 cm = 7.62 cm
1 in series in one step only as follows:
24 h 60 min 60 s
Now, the unit factor by which multiplication 2 day × × ×
2.54 cm 1 day 1h 1 min
is to be done is that unit factor ( in
1 in = 2 × 24 × 60 × 60 s
= 172800 s
the above case) which gives the desired units
i.e., the numerator should have that part 1.5 Laws of Chemical
which is required in the desired result. Combinations
It should also be noted in the above The combination of elements
example that units can be handled just like to form compounds is
other numerical part. It can be cancelled, governed by the following five
divided, multiplied, squared, etc. Let us study basic laws.
Antoine Lavoisier
one more example. (1743–1794)
1.5.1 Law of Conservation
Example of Mass
A jug contains 2 L of milk. Calculate the This law was put forth by Antoine Lavoisier
volume of the milk in m3. in 1789. He performed careful experimental
Solution studies for combustion reactions and reached
Since 1 L = 1000 cm3 to the conclusion that in all physical and
and 1m = 100 cm, which gives chemical changes, there is no net change in
1m 100 cm mass duting the process. Hence, he reached
= 1= to the conclusion that matter can neither be
100 cm 1m
created nor destroyed. This is called ‘Law
To get m3 from the above unit factors, the of Conservation of Mass’. This law formed
first unit factor is taken and it is cubed. the basis for several later developments in
 1m 
3 chemistry. Infact, this was the result of exact
1 m3
 1  1
3
 100 cm   measurement of masses of reactants and
106 cm 3
products, and carefully planned experiments
Now 2 L = 2 ×1000 cm3 performed by Lavoisier.

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 14 9/9/2022 4:27:33 PM

 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 15

1.5.2 Law of Definite Proportions are produced in a chemical

This law was given by, a reaction they do so in a
French chemist, Joseph simple ratio by volume,
Proust. He stated that a given provided all gases are at
compound always contains the same temperature and
exactly the same proportion of pressure.
elements by weight. Thus, 100 mL of hydrogen Joseph Louis
Proust worked with two Joseph Proust combine with 50 mL of Gay Lussac

samples of cupric carbonate (1754–1826)

oxygen to give 100 mL of
— one of which was of natural water vapour.
origin and the other was synthetic. He found Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
that the composition of elements present in it 100 mL 50 mL 100 mL
was same for both the samples as shown below: Thus, the volumes of hydrogen and
% of % of % of oxygen which combine (i.e., 100 mL and
copper carbon oxygen 50 mL) bear a simple ratio of 2:1.
Natural Sample 51.35 9.74 38.91 Gay Lussac’s discovery of integer ratio
Synthetic Sample 51.35 9.74 38.91 in volume relationship is actually the law of
definite proportions by volume. The law of
Thus, he concluded that irrespective of the definite proportions, stated earlier, was with
source, a given compound always contains respect to mass. The Gay Lussac’s law was
same elements combined together in the same explained properly by the work of Avogadro
proportion by mass. The validity of this law in 1811.
has been confirmed by various experiments.
It is sometimes also referred to as Law of 1.5.5 Avogadro’s Law
Definite Composition. In 1811, Avogadro proposed that equal
volumes of all gases at the same temperature
1.5.3 Law of Multiple Proportions
and pressure should contain equal number
This law was proposed by Dalton in 1803. of molecules. Avogadro made a distinction
According to this law, if two elements can between atoms and molecules which is
combine to form more than one compound, quite understandable in present times. If
the masses of one element that combine with we consider again the reaction of hydrogen
a fixed mass of the other element, are in the and oxygen to produce water, we see that
ratio of small whole numbers. two volumes of hydrogen combine with one
For example, hydrogen combines with volume of oxygen to give two volumes of water
oxygen to form two compounds, namely, water without leaving any unreacted oxygen.
and hydrogen peroxide.
Note that in the Fig. 1.9 (Page 16) each
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water box contains equal number of
2g 16g 18g molecules. In fact, Avogadro
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Hydrogen Peroxide could explain the above result
by considering the molecules
2g 32g 34g
to be polyatomic. If hydrogen
Here, the masses of oxygen (i.e., 16 g and 32 g),
which combine with a fixed mass of hydrogen and oxygen were considered
(2g) bear a simple ratio, i.e., 16:32 or 1: 2. as diatomic as recognised
now, then the above results Lorenzo Romano
1.5.4 Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous are easily understandable. Amedeo Carlo
Volumes However, Dalton and others Avogadro di
Quareqa edi
This law was given by Gay Lussac in 1808. believed at that time that Carreto
He observed that when gases combine or atoms of the same kind (1776–1856)

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 15 9/9/2022 4:27:34 PM

 16 chemistry

Fig. 1.9 Two volumes of hydrogen react with one volume of oxygen to give two volumes of water vapour

cannot combine and molecules of oxygen or Dalton’s theory could explain the laws
hydrogen containing two atoms did not exist. of chemical combination. However, it could
Avogadro’s proposal was published in the not explain the laws of gaseous volumes. It
French Journal de Physique. In spite of being could not provide the reason for combining
correct, it did not gain much support. of atoms, which was answered later by other
After about 50 years, in 1860, the first scientists.
international conference on chemistry was
1.7 Atomic and Molecular Masses
held in Karlsruhe, Germany, to resolve
various ideas. At the meeting, Stanislao After having some idea about the terms
Cannizaro presented a sketch of a course of atoms and molecules, it is appropriate here
chemical philosophy, which emphasised on to understand what do we mean by atomic
the importance of Avogadro’s work. and molecular masses.

1.6 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 1.7.1 Atomic Mass

Although the origin of the idea that matter is The atomic mass or the mass of an atom is
composed of small indivisible particles called actually very-very small because atoms are
‘a-tomio’ (meaning, indivisible), dates back extremely small. Today, we have sophisticated
to the time of Democritus, techniques e.g., mass spectrometry for
a Greek Philosopher (460– determining the atomic masses fairly
370 BC), it again started accurately. But in the nineteenth century,
emerging as a result of several scientists could determine the mass of one
experimental studies which atom relative to another by experimental
led to the laws mentioned means, as has been mentioned earlier.
above. Hydrogen, being the lightest atom was
In 1808, Dalton published John Dalton
arbitrarily assigned a mass of 1 (without
‘A New System of Chemical (1776–1884) any units) and other elements were assigned
Philosophy’, in which he masses relative to it. However, the present
proposed the following : system of atomic masses is based on
1. Matter consists of indivisible atoms. carbon-12 as the standard and has been
agreed upon in 1961. Here, Carbon-12 is
2. All atoms of a given element have identical
one of the isotopes of carbon and can be
properties, including identical mass. Atoms
represented as 12C. In this system, 12C is
of different elements differ in mass.
assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of unit (amu) and masses of all other atoms are
different elements combine in a fixed ratio. given relative to this standard. One atomic
4. Chemical reactions involve reorganisation mass unit is defined as a mass exactly equal
of atoms. These are neither created nor to one-twelfth of the mass of one carbon – 12
destroyed in a chemical reaction. atom.

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 16 9/9/2022 4:27:34 PM

 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 17

And 1 amu = 1.66056×10–24 g 1.7.3 Molecular Mass

Mass of an atom of hydrogen Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses
= 1.6736×10–24 g of the elements present in a molecule. It is
obtained by multiplying the atomic mass
Thus, in terms of amu, the mass
of each element by the number of its atoms
of hydrogen atom = and adding them together. For example,
molecular mass of methane, which contains
one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms,
= 1.0078 amu
can be obtained as follows:
= 1.0080 amu
Molecular mass of methane,
Similarly, the mass of oxygen - 16 (16O) (CH4) = (12.011 u) + 4 (1.008 u)
atom would be 15.995 amu.
= 16.043 u
At present, ‘amu’ has been replaced by
Similarly, molecular mass of water (H2O)
‘u’, which is known as unified mass.
= 2 × atomic mass of hydrogen + 1× atomic
When we use atomic masses of elements
mass of oxygen
in calculations, we actually use average
atomic masses of elements, which are = 2 (1.008 u) + 16.00 u
explained below. = 18.02 u
1.7.2 Average Atomic Mass 1.7.4 Formula Mass
Many naturally occurring elements exist Some substances, such as sodium chloride,
as more than one isotope. When we take do not contain discrete molecules as their
into account the existence of these isotopes constituent units. In such compounds,
and their relative abundance (per cent positive (sodium ion) and negative (chloride ion)
occurrence), the average atomic mass of entities are arranged in a three-dimensional
that element can be computed. For example, structure, as shown in Fig. 1.10.
carbon has the following three isotopes with
relative abundances and masses as shown
against each of them.
Isotope Relative Atomic Mass
Abundance (amu)
(%)

12
C 98.892 12
13
C 1.108 13.00335
14
C 2 ×10 –10
14.00317
Fig. 1.10 Packing of Na+ and Cl– ions
From the above data, the average atomic in sodium chloride
mass of carbon will come out to be:
(0.98892) (12 u) + (0.01108) (13.00335 u) + It may be noted that in sodium chloride,
(2 × 10–12) (14.00317 u) = 12.011 u one Na+ ion is surrounded by six Cl– ion and
Similarly, average atomic masses for vice-versa.
other elements can be calculated. In the The formula, such as NaCl, is used to
periodic table of elements, the atomic masses calculate the formula mass instead of
mentioned for different elements actually molecular mass as in the solid state sodium
represent their average atomic masses. chloride does not exist as a single entity.

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 17 9/9/2022 4:27:35 PM

 18 chemistry

Thus, the formula mass of sodium chloride is This number of entities in 1 mol is so
atomic mass of sodium + atomic mass of chlorine important that it is given a separate name and
= 23.0 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u symbol. It is known as ‘Avogadro constant’,
or Avogadro number denoted by NA in honour
Problem 1.1 of Amedeo Avogadro. To appreciate the
Calculate the molecular mass of glucose largeness of this number, let us write it with
(C6H12O6) molecule. all zeroes without using any powers of ten.
Solution 602213670000000000000000
Molecular mass of glucose (C6H12O6) Hence, so many entities (atoms, molecules or
= 6 (12.011 u) + 12 (1.008 u) + any other particle) constitute one mole of a
6 (16.00 u) particular substance.
= (72.066 u) + (12.096 u) + We can, therefore, say that 1 mol of hydrogen
(96.00 u) atoms = 6.022 × 1023 atoms
= 180.162 u
1 mol of water molecules = 6.022 × 1023 water
1.8 Mole concept and Molar Masses molecules
Atoms and molecules are extremely small 1 mol of sodium chloride = 6.022 ×1023 formula
in size and their numbers in even a small units of sodium chloride
amount of any substance is really very large.
To handle such large numbers, a unit of Having defined the mole, it is easier to
convenient magnitude is required. know the mass of one mole of a substance
Just as we denote one dozen for 12 items, or the constituent entities. The mass of one
score for 20 items, gross for 144 items, we mole of a substance in grams is called its
use the idea of mole to count entities at the molar mass. The molar mass in grams is
microscopic level (i.e., atoms, molecules, numerically equal to atomic/molecular/
particles, electrons, ions, etc). formula mass in u.
In SI system, mole (symbol, mol) was
introduced as seventh base quantity for the Molar mass of water = 18.02 g mol–1
amount of a substance. Molar mass of sodium chloride = 58.5 g mol–1
The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of
amount of substance. One mole contains 1.9 Percentage Composition
exactly 6.02214076 × 1023 elementary entities. So far, we were dealing with the number of
This number is the fixed numerical value of entities present in a given sample. But many
the Avogadro constant, NA, when expressed a time, information regarding the percentage
in the unit mol–1 and is called the Avogadro of a particular element present in a compound
number. The amount of substance, symbol is required. Suppose, an unknown or new
n, of a system is a measure of the number of compound is given to you, the first question
specified elementary entities. An elementary
entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion,
an electron, any other particle or specified
group of particles. It may be emphasised that
the mole of a substance always contains the
same number of entities, no matter what the
substance may be. In order to determine this
number precisely, the mass of a carbon–12
atom was determined by a mass spectrometer
and found to be equal to 1.992648 × 10–23 g.
Knowing that one mole of carbon weighs 12 g,
the number of atoms in it is equal to:
12 g / mol 12C
1.992648  10 23 g /12 C atom
 6.0221367  1023 atoms/mol Fig. 1.11 One mole of various substances

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 18 9/9/2022 4:27:35 PM

 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 19

you would ask is: what is its formula or what 1.9.1 Empirical Formula for Molecular
are its constituents and in what ratio are they Formula
present in the given compound? For known An empirical formula represents the simplest
compounds also, such information provides a whole number ratio of various atoms present
check whether the given sample contains the in a compound, whereas, the molecular
same percentage of elements as present in a formula shows the exact number of different
pure sample. In other words, one can check types of atoms present in a molecule of a
the purity of a given sample by analysing this compound.
data.
If the mass per cent of various elements
Let us understand it by taking the example present in a compound is known, its empirical
of water (H2O). Since water contains hydrogen formula can be determined. Molecular formula
and oxygen, the percentage composition of can further be obtained if the molar mass is
both these elements can be calculated as known. The following example illustrates
follows: this sequence.
Mass % of an element =
mass of that element in the compound × 100
molar mass of the compound Problem 1.2
A compound contains 4.07% hydrogen,
Molar mass of water = 18.02 g 24.27% carbon and 71.65% chlorine.
Mass % of hydrogen = Its molar mass is 98.96 g. What are its
empirical and molecular formulas?
= 11.18 Solution
16.00
Mass % of oxygen = × 100 Step 1. Conversion of mass per cent
18.02 to grams
= 88.79
Since we are having mass per cent, it is
Let us take one more example. What is the convenient to use 100 g of the compound
percentage of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen as the starting material. Thus, in the
in ethanol? 100 g sample of the above compound,
Molecular formula of ethanol is: C2H5OH 4.07g hydrogen, 24.27g carbon and
71.65g chlorine are present.
Molar mass of ethanol is:
(2×12.01 + 6×1.008 + 16.00) g = 46.068 g Step 2. Convert into number moles of
each element
Mass per cent of carbon
24.02 g Divide the masses obtained above by
= × 100 = 52.14% respective atomic masses of various
46.068 g elements. This gives the number of
Mass per cent of hydrogen moles of constituent elements in the
6.048 g compound
= × 100 = 13.13%
46.068 g 4.07 g
Moles of hydrogen = = 4.04
Mass per cent of oxygen 1.008 g
16.00 g 24.27 g
= × 100 = 34.73% Moles of carbon = = 2.021
46.068 g 12.01 g
After understanding the calculation of 71.65 g
per cent of mass, let us now see what Moles of chlorine = = 2.021
information can be obtained from the 35.453 g
per cent composition data.

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 19 9/9/2022 4:27:36 PM

 20 chemistry

equation of a given reaction. Let us consider

Step 3. Divide each of the mole values the combustion of methane. A balanced
obtained above by the smallest number equation for this reaction is as given below:
amongst them
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
Since 2.021 is smallest value, division Here, methane and dioxygen are called
by it gives a ratio of 2:1:1 for H:C:Cl. reactants and carbon dioxide and water are
In case the ratios are not whole numbers, called products. Note that all the reactants
then they may be converted into whole and the products are gases in the above
number by multiplying by the suitable reaction and this has been indicated by
coefficient. letter (g) in the brackets next to its formula.
Step 4. Write down the empirical Similarly, in case of solids and liquids, (s) and
formula by mentioning the numbers (l) are written respectively.
after writing the symbols of respective The coefficients 2 for O 2 and H2O are
elements called stoichiometric coefficients. Similarly
CH2Cl is, thus, the empirical formula the coefficient for CH4 and CO2 is one in each
of the above compound. case. They represent the number of molecules
(and moles as well) taking part in the reaction
Step 5. Writing molecular formula
or formed in the reaction.
(a) Determine empirical formula mass by
Thus, according to the above chemical
adding the atomic masses of various
atoms present in the empirical formula. reaction,
For CH2Cl, empirical formula mass is • One mole of CH4(g) reacts with two moles
12.01 + (2 ×1.008) + 35.453 of O2(g) to give one mole of CO2(g) and
= 49.48 g two moles of H2O(g)
(b) Divide Molar mass by empirical • One molecule of CH 4 (g) reacts with
formula mass
2 molecules of O2(g) to give one molecule
of CO2(g) and 2 molecules of H2O(g)
• 22.7 L of CH4(g) reacts with 45.4 L of O2
= 2 = (n) (g) to give 22.7 L of CO2 (g) and 45.4 L of
(c) Multiply empirical formula by n H2O(g)
obtained above to get the molecular • 16 g of CH4 (g) reacts with 2×32 g of O2
formula
(g) to give 44 g of CO2 (g) and 2×18 g of
Empirical formula = CH2Cl, n = 2. Hence H2O (g).
molecular formula is C2H4Cl2.
From these relationships, the given data can
be interconverted as follows:
1.10 Stoichiometry and
mass
Stoichiometric Calculations
The word ‘stoichiometry’ is derived from
two Greek words — stoicheion (meaning, Mass
= Density
element) and metron (meaning, measure). Volume
Stoichiometry, thus, deals with the calculation
of masses (sometimes volumes also) of the 1.10.1 Limiting Reagent
reactants and the products involved in a Many a time, reactions are carried out with
chemical reaction. Before understanding how the amounts of reactants that are different
to calculate the amounts of reactants required than the amounts as required by a balanced
or the products produced in a chemical chemical reaction. In such situations, one
reaction, let us study what information reactant is in more amount than the amount
is available from the balanced chemical required by balanced chemical reaction. The

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 20 9/9/2022 4:27:36 PM

 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 21

reactant which is present in the least amount important to understand as how the amount
gets consumed after sometime and after that of substance is expressed when it is present in
further reaction does not take place whatever the solution. The concentration of a solution
be the amount of the other reactant. Hence, or the amount of substance present in its
the reactant, which gets consumed first, given volume can be expressed in any of the
limits the amount of product formed and is, following ways.
therefore, called the limiting reagent. 1. Mass per cent or weight per cent (w/w %)
In performing stoichiometric calculations, 2. Mole fraction
this aspect is also to be kept in mind. 3. Molarity
1.10.2 Reactions in Solutions 4. Molality
A majority of reactions in the laboratories Let us now study each one of them in
are carried out in solutions. Therefore, it is detail.

Balancing a chemical equation

According to the law of conservation of mass, a balanced chemical equation has the same number of
atoms of each element on both sides of the equation. Many chemical equations can be balanced by
trial and error. Let us take the reactions of a few metals and non-metals with oxygen to give oxides
4 Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s) (a) balanced equation
2 Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s) (b) balanced equation
P4(s) + O2 (g) → P4O10(s) (c) unbalanced equation
Equations (a) and (b) are balanced, since there are same number of metal and oxygen atoms on
each side of the equations. However equation (c) is not balanced. In this equation, phosphorus
atoms are balanced but not the oxygen atoms. To balance it, we must place the coefficient 5 on
the left of oxygen on the left side of the equation to balance the oxygen atoms appearing on the
right side of the equation.
P4(s) + 5O2(g) → P4O10(s) balanced equation
Now, let us take combustion of propane, C3H8. This equation can be balanced in steps.
Step 1 Write down the correct formulas of reactants and products. Here, propane and oxygen are
reactants, and carbon dioxide and water are products.
C3H8(g) + O2(g) → CO2 (g) + H2O(l) unbalanced equation
Step 2 Balance the number of C atoms: Since 3 carbon atoms are in the reactant, therefore, three
CO2 molecules are required on the right side.
C3H8 (g) + O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Step 3 Balance the number of H atoms: on the left there are 8 hydrogen atoms in the reactants
however, each molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms, so four molecules of water will be
required for eight hydrogen atoms on the right side.
C3H8 (g) +O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g)+4H2O (l)
Step 4 Balance the number of O atoms: There are 10 oxygen atoms on the right side (3 × 2 = 6 in
CO2 and 4×1= 4 in water). Therefore, five O2 molecules are needed to supply the required 10 CO2
and 4×1= 4 in water). Therefore, five O2 molecules are needed to supply the required 10 oxygen
atoms.
C3H8 (g) +5O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (l)
Step 5 Verify that the number of atoms of each element is balanced in the final equation. The
equation shows three carbon atoms, eight hydrogen atoms, and 10 oxygen atoms on each side.
All equations that have correct formulas for all reactants and products can be balanced. Always
remember that subscripts in formulas of reactants and products cannot be changed to balance
an equation.

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 21 9/9/2022 4:27:36 PM

 22 chemistry

Problem 1.3 the limiting reagent in the production of

NH3 in this situation.
Calculate the amount of water (g)
produced by the combustion of 16 g Solution
of methane.
A balanced equation for the above
Solution reaction is written as follows :
The balanced equation for the
combustion of methane is :
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g) Calculation of moles :
(i) 16 g of CH4 corresponds to one mole. Number of moles of N2
(ii) From the above equation, 1 mol of 1000 g N 2 1 mol N 2
CH4 (g) gives 2 mol of H2O (g). = 50.0 kg N 2 × ×
1 kg N 2 28.0 g N 2
2 mol of water (H2O) = 2×(2+16)
= 2×18 = 36 g = 17.86×102 mol
Number of moles of H2
18 g H2O
1 mol H2O = 18 g H2O ⇒ =1 1000 g H2 1 mol H2
1mol H2O = 10.00 kg H2 × ×
1 kg H2 2.016 g H2
18 g H2O = 4.96 × 10 mol
3

Hence, 2 mol H2O×

1mol H2O According to the above equation, 1
mol N2 (g) requires 3 mol H2 (g), for the
= 2×18 g H2O = 36 g H2O reaction. Hence, for 17.86×102 mol of
Problem 1.4 N2, the moles of H2 (g) required would be
How many moles of methane are 3 mol H2  g 
required to produce 22g CO2 (g) after 17.86  102 mol N 2 
1 mol N 2  g 
combustion?
= 5.36 × 103 mol H2
Solution
But we have only 4.96×10 3 mol H 2.
According to the chemical equation, Hence, dihydrogen is the limiting
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g) reagent in this case. So, NH3(g) would
44g CO2 (g) is obtained from 16 g CH4 (g). be formed only from that amount of
available dihydrogen i.e., 4.96 × 103 mol
[∴ 1 mol CO2(g) is obtained from 1 mol
of CH4(g)] Since 3 mol H2(g) gives 2 mol NH3(g)
Number of moles of CO2 (g) 2 mol NH3  g 
1 mol CO2  g  4.96 ×103 mol H2 (g) ×
= 22 g CO2 (g) × 3 mol H2  g 
44 g CO2  g 
= 3.30 × 103 mol NH3 (g)
= 0.5 mol CO2 (g)
Hence, 0.5 mol CO 2 (g) would be 3.30 × 103 mol NH3 (g) is obtained.
obtained from 0.5 mol CH4 (g) or 0.5 mol If they are to be converted to grams, it
of CH4 (g) would be required to produce is done as follows :
22 g CO2 (g).
1 mol NH3 (g) = 17.0 g NH3 (g)
Problem 1.5
17.0 g NH3  g 
50.0 kg of N2 (g) and 10.0 kg of H2 (g) 3.30 ×103 mol NH3 (g) ×
are mixed to produce NH3 (g). Calculate 1 mol NH3  g 
the amount of NH3 (g) formed. Identify

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 22 9/9/2022 4:27:37 PM

 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 23

3. Molarity
= 3.30×103×17 g NH3 (g)
It is the most widely used unit and is denoted
= 56.1×103 g NH3 by M. It is defined as the number of moles of
= 56.1 kg NH3 the solute in 1 litre of the solution. Thus,
No. of moles of solute
1. Mass per cent Molarity (M) =
Volume of solution in litres
It is obtained by using the following relation: Suppose, we have 1 M solution of a
substance, say NaOH, and we want to prepare
a 0.2 M solution from it.
1 M NaOH means 1 mol of NaOH present
in 1 litre of the solution. For 0.2 M solution,
Problem 1.6 we require 0.2 moles of NaOH dissolved in
A solution is prepared by adding 2 g of a 1 litre solution.
substance A to 18 g of water. Calculate Hence, for making 0.2M solution from 1M
the mass per cent of the solute. solution, we have to take that volume of 1M
Solution NaOH solution, which contains 0.2 mol of NaOH
and dilute the solution with water to 1 litre.
Now, how much volume of concentrated
(1M) NaOH solution be taken, which contains
0.2 moles of NaOH can be calculated as follows:
If 1 mol is present in 1L or 1000 mL
solution
then, 0.2 mol is present in
1000 mL
× 0.2 mol solution
1 mol
2. Mole Fraction
It is the ratio of number of moles of a = 200 mL solution
particular component to the total number Thus, 200 mL of 1M NaOH are taken and
of moles of the solution. If a substance ‘A’ enough water is added to dilute it to make it 1 litre.
dissolves in substance ‘B’ and their number In fact for such calculations, a general
of moles are nA and nB, respectively, then the formula, M1×V1 = M2 × V2 where M and V are
mole fractions of A and B are given as: molarity and volume, respectively, can be used.
In this case, M1 is equal to 0.2M; V1 = 1000
mL and, M2 = 1.0M; V2 is to be calculated.
Substituting the values in the formula:
0.2 M × 1000 mL = 1.0 M × V2

Note that the number of moles of solute

(NaOH) was 0.2 in 200 mL and it has remained
the same, i.e., 0.2 even after dilution ( in 1000
mL) as we have changed just the amount
of solvent (i.e., water) and have not done
anything with respect to NaOH. But keep in
mind the concentration.

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 23 9/9/2022 4:27:37 PM

 24 chemistry

Problem 1.7 Problem 1.8

Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the The density of 3 M solution of NaCl is
solution prepared by dissolving its 4 g 1.25 g mL–1. Calculate the molality of
in enough water to form 250 mL of the the solution.
solution.
Solution
Solution M = 3 mol L–1
Since molarity (M) Mass of NaCl
in 1 L solution = 3 × 58.5 = 175.5 g
Mass of
1L solution = 1000 × 1.25 = 1250 g
(since density = 1.25 g mL–1)
Mass of water in solution = 1250 –75.5
= 1074.5 g
No. of moles of solute
Molality =
Mass of solvent in kg
3 mol
= = 2.79 m
Note that molarity of a solution depends 1.0745 kg
upon temperature because volume of a Often in a chemistry laboratory, a
solution is temperature dependent. solution of a desired concentration is
prepared by diluting a solution of known
4. Molality higher concentration. The solution of
higher concentration is also known as
It is defined as the number of moles of solute stock solution. Note that the molality
present in 1 kg of solvent. It is denoted by m. of a solution does not change with
No. of moles of solute temperature since mass remains
Thus, Molality (m) = unaffected with temperature.
Mass of solvent in kg

Summary

Chemistry, as we understand it today is not a very old discipline. People in ancient India,
already had the knowledge of many scientific phenomenon much before the advent of
modern science. They applied the knowledge in various walks of life.

The study of chemistry is very important as its domain encompasses every sphere
of life. Chemists study the properties and structure of substances and the changes
undergone by them. All substances contain matter, which can exist in three states –
solid, liquid or gas. The constituent particles are held in different ways in these states
of matter and they exhibit their characteristic properties. Matter can also be classified
into elements, compounds or mixtures. An element contains particles of only one type,
which may be atoms or molecules. The compounds are formed where atoms of two or
more elements combine in a fixed ratio to each other. Mixtures occur widely and many
of the substances present around us are mixtures.

When the properties of a substance are studied, measurement is inherent. The

quantification of properties requires a system of measurement and units in which the
quantities are to be expressed. Many systems of measurement exist, of which the English

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 24 11/30/2022 14:49:36

 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 25

and the Metric Systems are widely used. The scientific community, however, has agreed to
have a uniform and common system throughout the world, which is abbreviated as SI units
(International System of Units).
Since measurements involve recording of data, which are always associated with a certain
amount of uncertainty, the proper handling of data obtained by measuring the quantities
is very important. The measurements of quantities in chemistry are spread over a wide
range of 10–31 to 10+23. Hence, a convenient system of expressing the numbers in scientific
notation is used. The uncertainty is taken care of by specifying the number of significant
figures, in which the observations are reported. The dimensional analysis helps to express
the measured quantities in different systems of units. Hence, it is possible to interconvert
the results from one system of units to another.
The combination of different atoms is governed by basic laws of chemical combination
— these being the Law of Conservation of Mass, Law of Definite Proportions, Law of
Multiple Proportions, Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes and Avogadro Law. All
these laws led to the Dalton’s atomic theory, which states that atoms are building blocks
of matter. The atomic mass of an element is expressed relative to 12C isotope of carbon,
which has an exact value of 12u. Usually, the atomic mass used for an element is the
average atomic mass obtained by taking into account the natural abundance of different
isotopes of that element. The molecular mass of a molecule is obtained by taking sum of
the atomic masses of different atoms present in a molecule. The molecular formula can be
calculated by determining the mass per cent of different elements present in a compound
and its molecular mass.
The number of atoms, molecules or any other particles present in a given system are
expressed in the terms of Avogadro constant (6.022 × 1023). This is known as 1 mol of the
respective particles or entities.
Chemical reactions represent the chemical changes undergone by different elements and
compounds. A balanced chemical equation provides a lot of information. The coefficients
indicate the molar ratios and the respective number of particles taking part in a particular
reaction. The quantitative study of the reactants required or the products formed is called
stoichiometry. Using stoichiometric calculations, the amount of one or more reactant(s)
required to produce a particular amount of product can be determined and vice-versa. The
amount of substance present in a given volume of a solution is expressed in number of ways,
e.g., mass per cent, mole fraction, molarity and molality.

exerciseS

1.1 Calculate the molar mass of the following:

(i) H2O (ii) CO2 (iii) CH4
1.2 Calculate the mass per cent of different elements present in sodium sulphate
(Na2SO4).
1.3 Determine the empirical formula of an oxide of iron, which has 69.9% iron and
30.1% dioxygen by mass.
1.4 Calculate the amount of carbon dioxide that could be produced when
(i) 1 mole of carbon is burnt in air.
(ii) 1 mole of carbon is burnt in 16 g of dioxygen.
(iii) 2 moles of carbon are burnt in 16 g of dioxygen.
1.5 Calculate the mass of sodium acetate (CH3COONa) required to make 500 mL of
0.375 molar aqueous solution. Molar mass of sodium acetate is 82.0245 g mol–1.

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 25 9/9/2022 4:27:38 PM

 26 chemistry

1.6 Calculate the concentration of nitric acid in moles per litre in a sample which has
a density, 1.41 g mL–1 and the mass per cent of nitric acid in it being 69%.
1.7 How much copper can be obtained from 100 g of copper sulphate (CuSO4)?
1.8 Determine the molecular formula of an oxide of iron, in which the mass per cent of
iron and oxygen are 69.9 and 30.1, respectively.
1.9 Calculate the atomic mass (average) of chlorine using the following data:
% Natural Abundance Molar Mass
35
Cl 75.77 34.9689
37
Cl 24.23 36.9659
1.10 In three moles of ethane (C2H6), calculate the following:
(i) Number of moles of carbon atoms.
(ii) Number of moles of hydrogen atoms.
(iii) Number of molecules of ethane.
1.11 What is the concentration of sugar (C12H22O11) in mol L–1 if its 20 g are dissolved in
enough water to make a final volume up to 2L?
1.12 If the density of methanol is 0.793 kg L–1, what is its volume needed for making 2.5
L of its 0.25 M solution?
1.13 Pressure is determined as force per unit area of the surface. The SI unit of pressure,
pascal is as shown below:
1Pa = 1N m–2
If mass of air at sea level is 1034 g cm–2, calculate the pressure in pascal.
1.14 What is the SI unit of mass? How is it defined?
1.15 Match the following prefixes with their multiples:
Prefixes Multiples
(i) micro 106
(ii) deca 109
(iii) mega 10–6
(iv) giga 10–15
(v) femto 10
1.16 What do you mean by significant figures?
1.17 A sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with chloroform,
CHCl3, supposed to be carcinogenic in nature. The level of contamination was 15
ppm (by mass).
(i) Express this in per cent by mass.
(ii) Determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample.
1.18 Express the following in the scientific notation:
(i) 0.0048
(ii) 234,000
(iii) 8008
(iv) 500.0
(v) 6.0012
1.19 How many significant figures are present in the following?
(i) 0.0025
(ii) 208
(iii) 5005

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 26 9/9/2022 4:27:38 PM

 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 27

(iv) 126,000
(v) 500.0
(vi) 2.0034
1.20 Round up the following upto three significant figures:
(i) 34.216
(ii) 10.4107
(iii) 0.04597
(iv) 2808
1.21 The following data are obtained when dinitrogen and dioxygen react together to form
different compounds:
Mass of dinitrogen Mass of dioxygen
(i) 14 g 16 g
(ii) 14 g 32 g
(iii) 28 g 32 g
(iv) 28 g 80 g
(a) Which law of chemical combination is obeyed by the above experimental data? Give
its statement.
(b) Fill in the blanks in the following conversions:
(i) 1 km = ...................... mm = ...................... pm
(ii) 1 mg = ...................... kg = ...................... ng
(iii) 1 mL = ...................... L = ...................... dm3
1.22 If the speed of light is 3.0 × 108 m s–1, calculate the distance covered by light in
2.00 ns.
1.23 In a reaction
A + B2  AB2
Identify the limiting reagent, if any, in the following reaction mixtures.
(i) 300 atoms of A + 200 molecules of B
(ii) 2 mol A + 3 mol B
(iii) 100 atoms of A + 100 molecules of B
(iv) 5 mol A + 2.5 mol B
(v) 2.5 mol A + 5 mol B
1.24 Dinitrogen and dihydrogen react with each other to produce ammonia according to
the following chemical equation:
N2 (g) + H2 (g)  2NH3 (g)
(i) Calculate the mass of ammonia produced if 2.00 × 103 g dinitrogen reacts
with 1.00 × 103 g of dihydrogen.
(ii) Will any of the two reactants remain unreacted?
(iii) If yes, which one and what would be its mass?
1.25 How are 0.50 mol Na2CO3 and 0.50 M Na2CO3 different?
1.26 If 10 volumes of dihydrogen gas reacts with five volumes of dioxygen gas, how many
volumes of water vapour would be produced?
1.27 Convert the following into basic units:
(i) 28.7 pm
(ii) 15.15 pm
(iii) 25365 mg

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 27 9/9/2022 4:27:38 PM

 28 chemistry

1.28 Which one of the following will have the largest number of atoms?
(i) 1 g Au (s)
(ii) 1 g Na (s)
(iii) 1 g Li (s)
(iv) 1 g of Cl2(g)
1.29 Calculate the molarity of a solution of ethanol in water, in which the mole fraction of
ethanol is 0.040 (assume the density of water to be one).
1.30 What will be the mass of one 12
C atom in g?
1.31 How many significant figures should be present in the answer of the following
calculations?
0.02856 × 298.15 × 0.112
(i) (ii) 5 × 5.364
0.5785
(iii) 0.0125 + 0.7864 + 0.0215
1.32 Use the data given in the following table to calculate the molar mass of naturally occuring
argon isotopes:
Isotope Isotopic molar mass Abundance
36
Ar 35.96755 g mol–1 0.337%
38
Ar 37.96272 g mol –1
0.063%
40
Ar 39.9624 g mol –1
99.600%
1.33 Calculate the number of atoms in each of the following (i) 52 moles of Ar (ii) 52 u of He
(iii) 52 g of He.
1.34 A welding fuel gas contains carbon and hydrogen only. Burning a small sample of it in
oxygen gives 3.38 g carbon dioxide, 0.690 g of water and no other products. A volume
of 10.0 L (measured at STP) of this welding gas is found to weigh 11.6 g. Calculate
(i) empirical formula, (ii) molar mass of the gas, and (iii) molecular formula.
1.35 Calcium carbonate reacts with aqueous HCl to give CaCl2 and CO2 according to the
reaction, CaCO3 (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
What mass of CaCO3 is required to react completely with 25 mL of 0.75 M HCl?
1.36 Chlorine is prepared in the laboratory by treating manganese dioxide (MnO2) with
aqueous hydrochloric acid according to the reaction
4 HCl (aq) + MnO2(s) → 2H2O (l) + MnCl2(aq) + Cl2 (g)
How many grams of HCl react with 5.0 g of manganese dioxide?

2024-25

Unit 1.indd 28 9/9/2022 4:27:38 PM

 Unit 2

structure of atom

The rich diversity of chemical behaviour of different

Objectives elements can be traced to the differences in the internal

structure of atoms of these elements.

After studying this unit you will be

able to
• know about the discovery of The existence of atoms has been proposed since the time
electron, proton and neutron and of early Indian and Greek philosophers (400 B.C.) who
their characteristics; were of the view that atoms are the fundamental building
• describe Thomson, Rutherford blocks of matter. According to them, the continued
and Bohr atomic models; subdivisions of matter would ultimately yield atoms
which would not be further divisible. The word ‘atom’
• understand the important features
has been derived from the Greek word ‘a-tomio’ which
of the quantum mechanical model
means ‘uncut-able’ or ‘non-divisible’. These earlier ideas
of atom;
were mere speculations and there was no way to test
• understand nature of them experimentally. These ideas remained dormant for
electromagnetic radiation and a very long time and were revived again by scientists in
Planck’s quantum theory; the nineteenth century.
• explain the photoelectric effect The atomic theory of matter was first proposed
and describe features of atomic on a firm scientific basis by John Dalton, a British
spectra; school teacher in 1808. His theory, called Dalton’s
• state the de Broglie relation and atomic theory, regarded the atom as the ultimate
Heisenberg uncertainty principle; particle of matter (Unit 1). Dalton’s atomic theory was
able to explain the law of conservation of mass, law of
• define an atomic orbital in terms
constant composition and law of multiple proportion
of quantum numbers;
very successfully. However, it failed to explain the results
• state aufbau principle, Pauli of many experiments, for example, it was known that
exclusion principle and Hund’s substances like glass or ebonite when rubbed with silk
rule of maximum multiplicity; and or fur get electrically charged.
• write the electronic configurations In this unit we start with the experimental observations
of atoms. made by scientists towards the end of nineteenth and
beginning of twentieth century. These established that
atoms are made of sub-atomic particles, i.e., electrons,
protons and neutrons — a concept very different from
that of Dalton.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 29 9/9/2022 4:28:07 PM

 30 chemistry

2.1 Discovery of Sub-atomic

Particles
An insight into the structure of atom was
obtained from the experiments on electrical
discharge through gases. Before we discuss
these results we need to keep in mind a
basic rule regarding the behaviour of charged
particles : “Like charges repel each other and
unlike charges attract each other”. Fig. 2.1(a) A cathode ray discharge tube

2.1.1 Discovery of Electron

In 1830, Michael Faraday showed that if
electricity is passed through a solution of an
electrolyte, chemical reactions occurred at the
electrodes, which resulted in the liberation
and deposition of matter at the electrodes.
He formulated certain laws which you will
study in Class XII. These results suggested
the particulate nature of electricity.
Fig. 2.1(b) A cathode ray discharge tube with
In mid 1850s many scientists mainly perforated anode
Faraday began to study electrical discharge
in partially evacuated tubes, known as The results of these experiments are
cathode ray discharge tubes. It is depicted summarised below.
in Fig. 2.1. A cathode ray tube is made of (i) The cathode rays start from cathode and
move towards the anode.
glass containing two thin pieces of metal,
called electrodes, sealed in it. The electrical (ii) These rays themselves are not visible
but their behaviour can be observed
discharge through the gases could be
with the help of certain kind of materials
observed only at very low pressures and at (fluorescent or phosphorescent) which
very high voltages. The pressure of different glow when hit by them. Television
gases could be adjusted by evacuation of the picture tubes are cathode ray tubes
glass tubes. When sufficiently high voltage and television pictures result due to
is applied across the electrodes, current fluorescence on the television screen
starts flowing through a stream of particles coated with certain fluorescent or
moving in the tube from the negative phosphorescent materials.
electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode (iii) In the absence of electrical or magnetic
field, these rays travel in straight lines
(anode). These were called cathode rays or
(Fig. 2.2).
cathode ray particles. The flow of current
(iv) In the presence of electrical or magnetic
from cathode to anode was further checked
field, the behaviour of cathode rays are
by making a hole in the anode and coating
similar to that expected from negatively
the tube behind anode with phosphorescent charged particles, suggesting that
material zinc sulphide. When these rays, the cathode rays consist of negatively
after passing through anode, strike the zinc charged particles, called electrons.
sulphide coating, a bright spot is developed (v) The characteristics of cathode rays
on the coating [Fig. 2.1(b)]. (electrons) do not depend upon the

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 30 9/9/2022 4:28:08 PM

 structure of atom 31

material of electrodes and the nature of (iii) the strength of the electrical or magnetic
the gas present in the cathode ray tube. field — the deflection of electrons from its
Thus, we can conclude that electrons are original path increases with the increase
basic constituent of all the atoms. in the voltage across the electrodes, or
the strength of the magnetic field.
2.1.2 Charge to Mass Ratio of Electron
By carrying out accurate measurements
In 1897, British physicist J.J. Thomson on the amount of deflections observed by
measured the ratio of electrical charge (e) to the electrons on the electric field strength or
the mass of electron (me ) by using cathode magnetic field strength, Thomson was able to
ray tube and applying electrical and magnetic determine the value of e/me as:
field perpendicular to each other as well as
to the path of electrons (Fig. 2.2). When only = 1.758820 × 1011 C kg–1 (2.1)
electric field is applied, the electrons deviate
from their path and hit the cathode ray tube Where me is the mass of the electron in kg
at point A (Fig. 2.2). Similarly when only and e is the magnitude of the charge on the
magnetic field is applied, electron strikes electron in coulomb (C). Since electrons are
the cathode ray tube at point C. By carefully negatively charged, the charge on electron
balancing the electrical and magnetic field is –e.
strength, it is possible to bring back the
electron to the path which is followed in the 2.1.3 Charge on the Electron
absence of electric or magnetic field and they R.A. Millikan (1868-1953) devised a method
hit the screen at point B. Thomson argued known as oil drop experiment (1906-14),
that the amount of deviation of the particles to determine the charge on the electrons.
from their path in the presence of electrical He found the charge on the electron to be
or magnetic field depends upon: – 1.6 × 10–19 C. The present accepted value of
electrical charge is – 1.602176 × 10–19 C. The
(i) the magnitude of the negative charge on
mass of the electron (me) was determined by
the particle, greater the magnitude of
combining these results with Thomson’s value
the charge on the particle, greater is the
of e/me ratio.
interaction with the electric or magnetic
field and thus greater is the deflection.
(ii) the mass of the particle — lighter the
particle, greater the deflection. = 9.1094×10–31 kg (2.2)

Fig. 2.2 The apparatus to determine the charge to the mass ratio of electron

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 31 9/9/2022 4:28:08 PM

 32 chemistry

2.1.4 Discovery of Protons and Neutrons

Millikan’s Oil Drop Method
Electrical discharge carried out in the modified
cathode ray tube led to the discovery of canal In this method, oil droplets in the form of
rays carrying positively charged particles. The mist, produced by the atomiser, were allowed
characteristics of these positively charged to enter through a tiny hole in the upper
particles are listed below. plate of electrical condenser. The downward
motion of these droplets was viewed through
(i) Unlike cathode rays, mass of positively the telescope, equipped with a micrometer
charged particles depends upon the eye piece. By measuring the rate of fall of
nature of gas present in the cathode these droplets, Millikan was able to measure
ray tube. These are simply the positively the mass of oil droplets. The air inside the
charged gaseous ions. chamber was ionized by passing a beam of
(ii) The charge to mass ratio of the particles X-rays through it. The electrical charge on
depends on the gas from which these these oil droplets was acquired by collisions
with gaseous ions. The fall of these charged
originate.
oil droplets can be retarded, accelerated or
(iii) Some of the positively charged particles made stationary depending upon the charge
carry a multiple of the fundamental unit on the droplets and the polarity and strength
of electrical charge. of the voltage applied to the plate. By
(iv) The behaviour of these particles in the carefully measuring the effects of electrical
magnetic or electrical field is opposite field strength on the motion of oil droplets,
to that observed for electron or cathode Millikan concluded that the magnitude of
electrical charge, q, on the droplets is always
rays.
an integral multiple of the electrical charge,
The smallest and lightest positive ion e, that is, q = n e, where n = 1, 2, 3... .
was obtained from hydrogen and was called
proton. This positively charged particle was
characterised in 1919. Later, a need was felt
for the presence of electrically neutral particle
as one of the constituent of atom. These
particles were discovered by Chadwick (1932)
by bombarding a thin sheet of beryllium
by α-particles. When electrically neutral
particles having a mass slightly greater than
that of protons were emitted. He named
these particles as neutrons. The important
properties of all these fundamental particles
are given in Table 2.1.
Fig. 2.3 The Millikan oil drop apparatus for
2.2 Atomic Models measuring charge ‘e’. In chamber,
Observations obtained from the experiments the forces acting on oil drop are:
mentioned in the previous sections have gravitational, electrostatic due to
electrical field and a viscous drag
suggested that Dalton’s indivisible atom is
force when the oil drop is moving.
composed of sub-atomic particles carrying
positive and negative charges. The major
problems before the scientists after the • to explain the formation of different
discovery of sub-atomic particles were: kinds of molecules by the combination of
different atoms and,
• to account for the stability of atom,
• to compare the behaviour of elements • to understand the origin and nature of
the characteristics of electromagnetic
in terms of both physical and chemical
radiation absorbed or emitted by atoms.
properties,

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 32 9/9/2022 4:28:08 PM

 structure of atom 33

Table 2.1 Properties of Fundamental Particles

Name Symbol Absolute Relative Mass/kg Mass/u Approx.

charge/C charge mass/u

Electron e – 1.602176×10–19 –1 9.109382×10–31 0.00054 0

Proton p + 1.602176×10–19 +1 1.6726216×10–27 1.00727 1

Neutron n 0 0 1.674927×10–27 1.00867 1

Different atomic models were proposed

to explain the distributions of these charged In the later half of the nineteenth century
particles in an atom. Although some of these different kinds of rays were discovered,
models were not able to explain the stability besides those mentioned earlier. Wilhalm
of atoms, two of these models, one proposed Röentgen (1845-1923) in 1895 showed
by J.J. Thomson and the other proposed by that when electrons strike a material in
Ernest Rutherford are discussed below. the cathode ray tubes, produce rays which
can cause fluorescence in the fluorescent
2.2.1 Thomson Model of Atom
materials placed outside the cathode ray
J. J. Thomson, in 1898, proposed that an
tubes. Since Röentgen did not know the
atom possesses a spherical shape (radius
nature of the radiation, he named them
approximately 10–10 m) in which the positive
X-rays and the name is still carried on. It was
charge is uniformly distributed. The electrons
noticed that X-rays are produced effectively
are embedded into it in such a manner as to
give the most stable electrostatic arrangement when electrons strike the dense metal anode,
(Fig. 2.4). Many different names are given called targets. These are not deflected by the
to this model, for example, plum pudding, electric and magnetic fields and have a very
raisin pudding or watermelon. This model high penetrating power through the matter
and that is the reason that these rays are
used to study the interior of the objects.
These rays are of very short wavelengths
(∼0.1 nm) and possess electro-magnetic
character (Section 2.3.1).
Henri Becqueral (1852-1908) observed
that there are certain elements which emit
radiation on their own and named this
Fig.2.4 Thomson model of atom phenomenon as radioactivity and the
can be visualised as a pudding or watermelon elements known as radioactive elements.
of positive charge with plums or seeds This field was developed by Marie Curie,
(electrons) embedded into it. An important Piere Curie, Rutherford and Fredrick Soddy.
feature of this model is that the mass of the It was observed that three kinds of rays i.e.,
atom is assumed to be uniformly distributed α, β- and γ-rays are emitted. Rutherford
over the atom. Although this model was able found that α-rays consists of high energy
to explain the overall neutrality of the atom, particles carrying two units of positive charge
but was not consistent with the results of later and four unit of atomic mass. He concluded
experiments. Thomson was awarded Nobel that α- particles are helium nuclei as when α-
Prize for physics in 1906, for his theoretical particles combined with two electrons yielded
and experimental investigations on the helium gas. β-rays are negatively charged
conduction of electricity by gases.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 33 9/9/2022 4:28:08 PM

 34 chemistry

represented in Fig. 2.5. A stream of high

particles similar to electrons. The γ-rays energy α–particles from a radioactive source
are high energy radiations like X-rays, are was directed at a thin foil (thickness ∼ 100 nm)
neutral in nature and do not consist of of gold metal. The thin gold foil had a circular
particles. As regards penetrating power, fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around it.
α-particles are the least, followed by β-rays Whenever α–particles struck the screen, a
(100 times that of α–particles) and γ-rays tiny flash of light was produced at that point.
(1000 times of that α-particles).
The results of scattering experiment were
quite unexpected. According to Thomson
2.2.2 Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom model of atom, the mass of each gold atom
in the foil should have been spread evenly
Rutherford and his students (Hans Geiger over the entire atom, and α–particles had
and Ernest Marsden) bombarded very thin enough energy to pass directly through such a
gold foil with α–particles. Rutherford’s famous
uniform distribution of mass. It was expected
–particle scattering experiment is
that the particles would slow down and
change directions only by a small angles as
they passed through the foil. It was observed
that:
(i) most of the α–particles passed through
the gold foil undeflected.
(ii) a small fraction of the α–particles was
deflected by small angles.
(iii) a very few α–particles (∼1 in 20,000)
bounced back, that is, were deflected by
A. Rutherford’s scattering experiment nearly 180°.
On the basis of the observations,
Rutherford drew the following conclusions
regarding the structure of atom:
(i) Most of the space in the atom is empty as
most of the α–particles passed through
the foil undeflected.
(ii) A few positively charged α–particles were
deflected. The deflection must be due
to enormous repulsive force showing
that the positive charge of the atom
is not spread throughout the atom as
Thomson had presumed. The positive
charge has to be concentrated in a very
small volume that repelled and deflected
the positively charged α–particles.
B. Schematic molecular view of the gold foil
(iii) Calculations by Rutherford showed that
the volume occupied by the nucleus
Fig. 2.5 Schematic view of Rutherford’s
scattering experiment. When a beam
is negligibly small as compared to the
of alpha () particles is “shot” at a thin total volume of the atom. The radius of
gold foil, most of them pass through the atom is about 10–10 m, while that of
without much effect. Some, however, nucleus is 10–15 m. One can appreciate
are deflected. this difference in size by realising that if

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 34 9/9/2022 4:28:08 PM

 structure of atom 35

a cricket ball represents a nucleus, then The total number of nucleons is termed as
the radius of atom would be about 5 km. mass number (A) of the atom.
On the basis of above observations and mass number (A) = number of protons (Z )
conclusions, Rutherford proposed the nuclear + number of
model of atom. According to this model: neutrons (n) (2.4)
(i) The positive charge and most of the mass 2.2.4 Isobars and Isotopes
of the atom was densely concentrated in The composition of any atom can be
extremely small region. This very small represented by using the normal element
portion of the atom was called nucleus symbol (X) with super-script on the left hand
by Rutherford. side as the atomic mass number (A) and
(ii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons subscript (Z ) on the left hand side as the
that move around the nucleus with a atomic number (i.e., AZ X).
very high speed in circular paths called
orbits. Thus, Rutherford’s model of atom Isobars are the atoms with same mass
resembles the solar system in which the number but different atomic number for
nucleus plays the role of sun and the example, 146
C and 14 7
N. On the other hand,
electrons that of revolving planets. atoms with identical atomic number but
different atomic mass number are known
(iii) Electrons and the nucleus are held
as Isotopes. In other words (according to
together by electrostatic forces of
equation 2.4), it is evident that difference
attraction.
between the isotopes is due to the presence
2.2.3 Atomic Number and Mass Number of different number of neutrons present in
The presence of positive charge on the nucleus the nucleus. For example, considering of
is due to the protons in the nucleus. As hydrogen atom again, 99.985% of hydrogen
established earlier, the charge on the proton atoms contain only one proton. This isotope is
is equal but opposite to that of electron. The called protium (11H). Rest of the percentage of
number of protons present in the nucleus is hydrogen atom contains two other isotopes,
equal to atomic number (Z ). For example, the the one containing 1 proton and 1 neutron
number of protons in the hydrogen nucleus is called deuterium (12D, 0.015%) and the
is 1, in sodium atom it is 11, therefore their other one possessing 1 proton and 2 neutrons
atomic numbers are 1 and 11 respectively. is called tritium (13T ). The latter isotope is
In order to keep the electrical neutrality, found in trace amounts on the earth. Other
the number of electrons in an atom is equal examples of commonly occuring isotopes are:
to the number of protons (atomic number, carbon atoms containing 6, 7 and 8 neutrons
Z ). For example, number of electrons in besides 6 protons ( 12 13 14
); chlorine
6 C, 6 C, 6 C
hydrogen atom and sodium atom are 1 and
atoms containing 18 and 20 neutrons besides
11 respectively.
17 protons ( 17
35 37
Cl, 17 Cl ).
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in
Lastly an important point to mention
the nucleus of an atom
regarding isotopes is that chemical properties
= number of electrons
of atoms are controlled by the number of
in a nuetral atom (2.3) electrons, which are determined by the number
While the positive charge of the nucleus of protons in the nucleus. Number of neutrons
is due to protons, the mass of the nucleus, present in the nucleus have very little effect
due to protons and neutrons. As discussed on the chemical properties of an element.
earlier protons and neutrons present in the Therefore, all the isotopes of a given element
nucleus are collectively known as nucleons. show same chemical behaviour.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 35 9/9/2022 4:28:09 PM

 36 chemistry

of the massive sun and the electrons being

Problem 2.1
similar to the lighter planets. When classical
Calculate the number of protons, mechanics* is applied to the solar system, it
neutrons and electrons in 80
35 Br
. shows that the planets describe well-defined
Solution orbits around the sun. The gravitational force
between the planets is given by the expression
In this case, 80
35 Br
, Z = 35, A = 80, species
 m1m 2 
is neutral  G. 2  where m1 and m2 are the masses,
r
Number of protons = number of electrons
= Z = 35 r is the distance of separation of the masses
and G is the gravitational constant. The theory
Number of neutrons = 80 – 35 = 45,
can also calculate precisely the planetary
(equation 2.4)
orbits and these are in agreement with the
Problem 2.2 experimental measurements.
The number of electrons, protons and The similarity between the solar system
neutrons in a species are equal to 18, 16 and nuclear model suggests that electrons
and 16 respectively. Assign the proper should move around the nucleus in well
symbol to the species.
defined orbits. Further, the coulomb force
Solution (kq1q2/r2 where q1 and q2 are the charges, r
is the distance of separation of the charges
The atomic number is equal to
and k is the proportionality constant) between
number of protons = 16. The element is
sulphur (S). electron and the nucleus is mathematically
similar to the gravitational force. However,
Atomic mass number = number of
when a body is moving in an orbit, it
protons + number of neutrons
undergoes acceleration even if it is moving
= 16 + 16 = 32 with a constant speed in an orbit because
Species is not neutral as the number of of changing direction. So an electron in the
protons is not equal to electrons. It is nuclear model describing planet like orbits
anion (negatively charged) with charge is under acceleration. According to the
equal to excess electrons = 18 – 16 = 2.
electromagnetic theory of Maxwell, charged
Symbol is .
A
particles when accelerated should emit
Note : Before using the notation Z X, electromagnetic radiation (This feature does
find out whether the species is a neutral not exist for planets since they are uncharged).
atom, a cation or an anion. If it is a Therefore, an electron in an orbit will emit
neutral atom, equation (2.3) is valid, i.e.,
radiation, the energy carried by radiation
number of protons = number of electrons
comes from electronic motion. The orbit will
= atomic number. If the species is an
ion, determine whether the number of thus continue to shrink. Calculations show
protons are larger (cation, positive ion) that it should take an electron only 10–8 s
or smaller (anion, negative ion) than the to spiral into the nucleus. But this does
number of electrons. Number of neutrons not happen. Thus, the Rutherford model
is always given by A–Z, whether the cannot explain the stability of an atom.
species is neutral or ion. If the motion of an electron is described on
the basis of the classical mechanics and
2.2.5 Drawbacks of Rutherford Model electromagnetic theory, you may ask that
As you have learnt above, Rutherford nuclear since the motion of electrons in orbits is
model of an atom is like a small scale solar leading to the instability of the atom, then
system with the nucleus playing the role why not consider electrons as stationary

* Classical mechanics is a theoretical science based on Newton’s laws of motion. It specifies the laws of motion of macroscopic
objects.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 36 9/9/2022 4:28:09 PM

 structure of atom 37

around the nucleus. If the electrons were was developed in the early 1870’s by James
stationary, electrostatic attraction between Clerk Maxwell, which was experimentally
the dense nucleus and the electrons would confirmed later by Heinrich Hertz. Here, we
pull the electrons toward the nucleus to will learn some facts about electromagnetic
form a miniature version of Thomson’s model radiations.
of atom.
James Maxwell (1870) was the first to
Another serious drawback of the give a comprehensive explanation about the
Rutherford model is that it says nothing interaction between the charged bodies and
about distribution of the electrons around the the behaviour of electrical and magnetic
nucleus and the energies of these electrons. fields on macroscopic level. He suggested
2.3 Developments Leading to the that when electrically charged particle moves
Bohr’s Model of Atom under accelaration, alternating electrical and
magnetic fields are produced and transmitted.
Historically, results observed from the studies
These fields are transmitted in the forms
of interactions of radiations with matter have
of waves called electromagnetic waves or
provided immense information regarding
electromagnetic radiation.
the structure of atoms and molecules. Neils
Bohr utilised these results to improve upon Light is the form of radiation known from
the model proposed by Rutherford. Two early days and speculation about its nature
developments played a major role in the dates back to remote ancient times. In earlier
formulation of Bohr’s model of atom. These days (Newton) light was supposed to be made
were: of particles (corpuscules). It was only in the
19th century when wave nature of light was
(i) Dual character of the electromagnetic
established.
radiation which means that radiations
possess both wave like and particle like Maxwell was again the first to reveal that
properties, and light waves are associated with oscillating
electric and magnetic character (Fig. 2.6).
(ii) Experimental results regarding atomic
spectra.
First, we will discuss about the duel nature
of electromagnetic radiations. Experimental
results regarding atomic spectra will be
discussed in Section 2.4.
2.3.1 Wave Nature of Electromagnetic
Radiation
In the mid-nineteenth century, physicists
actively studied absorption and emission of
radiation by heated objects. These are called
Fig.2.6 The electric and magnetic field
thermal radiations. They tried to find out of components of an electromagnetic
what the thermal radiation is made. It is now wave. These components have the
a well-known fact that thermal radiations same wavelength, frequency, speed
consist of electromagnetic waves of various and amplitude, but they vibrate in two
frequencies or wavelengths. It is based on mutually perpendicular planes.
a number of modern concepts, which were
unknown in the mid-nineteenth century. Although electromagnetic wave motion is
First active study of thermal radiation laws complex in nature, we will consider here only
occured in the 1850’s and the theory of a few simple properties.
electromagnetic waves and the emission of (i) The oscillating electric and magnetic
such waves by accelerating charged particles fields produced by oscillating charged

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 37 9/9/2022 4:28:10 PM

 38 chemistry

particles are perpendicular to each (iv) Different kinds of units are used to
other and both are perpendicular to the represent electromagnetic radiation.
direction of propagation of the wave.
Simplified picture of electromagnetic These radiations are characterised by
wave is shown in Fig. 2.6. the properties, namely, frequency (ν ) and
(ii) Unlike sound waves or waves produced wavelength (λ).
in water, electromagnetic waves do The SI unit for frequency (ν) is hertz
not require medium and can move in (Hz, s–1), after Heinrich Hertz. It is defined as
vacuum. the number of waves that pass a given point
(iii) It is now well established that there in one second.
are many types of electromagnetic
radiations, which differ from one Wavelength should have the units of
another in wavelength (or frequency). length and as you know that the SI units of
These constitute what is called length is meter (m). Since electromagnetic
electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 2.7). radiation consists of different kinds of waves
Different regions of the spectrum are of much smaller wavelengths, smaller units
identified by different names. Some are used. Fig. 2.7 shows various types of
examples are: radio frequency region electro-magnetic radiations which differ from
around 106 Hz, used for broadcasting;
one another in wavelengths and frequencies.
microwave region around 1010 Hz used
for radar; infrared region around 1013 In vaccum all types of electromagnetic
Hz used for heating; ultraviolet region radiations, regardless of wavelength, travel at
around 1016Hz a component of sun’s the same speed, i.e., 3.0 × 108 m s–1 (2.997925
radiation. The small portion around 1015 × 108 ms–1, to be precise). This is called speed
Hz, is what is ordinarily called visible of light and is given the symbol ‘c’. The
light. It is only this part which our eyes
frequency (ν ), wavelength (λ) and velocity of
can see (or detect). Special instruments
are required to detect non-visible light (c) are related by the equation (2.5).
radiation. c = ν λ (2.5)

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2.7 (a) The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. (b) Visible spectrum. The visible region is only
a small part of the entire spectrum.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 38 9/9/2022 4:28:10 PM

 structure of atom 39

The other commonly used quantity Frequency of red light

specially in spectroscopy, is the wavenumber
( ). It is defined as the number of wavelengths
per unit length. Its units are reciprocal of ν= = 4.00 × 1014 Hz
wavelength unit, i.e., m–1. However commonly
The range of visible spectrum is from
used unit is cm–1 (not SI unit). 4.0 × 1014 to 7.5 × 1014 Hz in terms of
Problem 2.3 frequency units.
The Vividh Bharati station of All India Problem 2.5
Radio, Delhi, broadcasts on a frequency Calculate (a) wavenumber and (b)
of 1,368 kHz (kilo hertz). Calculate frequency of yellow radiation having
the wavelength of the electromagnetic wavelength 5800 Å.
radiation emitted by transmitter. Which
part of the electromagnetic spectrum Solution
does it belong to? (a) Calculation of wavenumber ( )
Solution λ=5800Å = 5800 × 10–8 cm
= 5800 × 10–10 m
The wavelength, λ, is equal to c/ν, where
c is the speed of electromagnetic radiation
in vacuum and ν is the frequency.
Substituting the given values, we have
c

v
(b) Calculation of the frequency (ν )

2.3.2 Particle Nature of Electromagnetic

Radiation: Planck’s Quantum
This is a characteristic radiowave Theory
wavelength. Some of the experimental phenomenon
such as diffraction* and interference** can
Problem 2.4
be explained by the wave nature of the
The wavelength range of the visible electromagnetic radiation. However, following
spectrum extends from violet (400 nm) to are some of the observations which could
red (750 nm). Express these wavelengths not be explained with the help of even the
in frequencies (Hz). (1nm = 10–9 m) electromagentic theory of 19th century
Solution physics (known as classical physics):
Using equation 2.5, frequency of violet (i) the nature of emission of radiation from
light hot bodies (black-body radiation)
(ii) ejection of electrons from metal surface
when radiation strikes it (photoelectric
effect)
= 7.50 × 1014 Hz
(iii) variation of heat capacity of solids as a
function of temperature

* Diffraction is the bending of wave around an obstacle.

** Interference is the combination of two waves of the same or different frequencies to give a wave whose distribution at each
point in space is the algebraic or vector sum of disturbances at that point resulting from each interfering wave.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 39 9/9/2022 4:28:10 PM

 40 chemistry

(iv) Line spectra of atoms with special entering the hole will be reflected by the cavity
reference to hydrogen. walls and will be eventually absorbed by the
These phenomena indicate that the system walls. A black body is also a perfect radiator of
can take energy only in discrete amounts. radiant energy. Furthermore, a black body is
All possible energies cannot be taken up or in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
radiated. It radiates same amount of energy per unit
area as it absorbs from its surrounding in
It is noteworthy that the first concrete
any given time. The amount of light emitted
explanation for the phenomenon of the black
(intensity of radiation) from a black body
body radiation mentioned above was given
and its spectral distribution depends only
by Max Planck in 1900. Let us first try to
on its temperature. At a given temperature,
understand this phenomenon, which is given
intensity of radiation emitted increases
below: with the increase of wavelength, reaches a
Ho t o b j e c t s e m i t e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c maximum value at a given wavelength and
radiations over a wide range of wavelengths. then starts decreasing with further increase of
At high temperatures, an appreciable wavelength, as shown in Fig. 2.8. Also, as the
proportion of radiation is in the visible temperature increases, maxima of the curve
region of the spectrum. As the temperature shifts to short wavelength. Several attempts
is raised, a higher proportion of short were made to predict the intensity of radiation
wavelength (blue light) is generated. For as a function of wavelength.
example, when an iron rod is heated in a But the results of the above experiment
furnace, it first turns to dull red and then could not be explained satisfactorily on
progressively becomes more and more red the basis of the wave theory of light. Max
as the temperature increases. As this is Planck arrived at a satisfactory relationship
heated further, the radiation emitted becomes
white and then becomes blue as the
temperature becomes very high. This means
that red radiation is most intense at a
particular temperature and the blue radiation
is more intense at another temperature. This
means intensities of radiations of different
wavelengths emitted by hot body depend
upon its temperature. By late 1850’s it was
known that objects made of different material
and kept at different temperatures emit
different amount of radiation. Also, when the
surface of an object is irradiated with light
(electromagnetic radiation), a part of radiant
energy is generally reflected as such, a part Fig. 2.8 Wavelength-intensity relationship
is absorbed and a part of it is transmitted.
The reason for incomplete absorption is
that ordinary objects are as a rule imperfect
absorbers of radiation. An ideal body, which
emits and absorbs radiations of all frequencies
uniformly, is called a black body and the
radiation emitted by such a body is called
black body radiation. In practice, no such
body exists. Carbon black approximates
fairly closely to black body. A good physical
approximation to a black body is a cavity with a
tiny hole, which has no other opening. Any ray Fig. 2.8(a) Black body

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 40 9/9/2022 4:28:10 PM

 structure of atom 41

by making an assumption that absorption

and emmission of radiation arises from Max Planck
(1858–1947)
oscillator i.e., atoms in the wall of black
Max Planck, a German physicist,
body. Their frequency of oscillation is
received his Ph.D in theoretical
changed by interaction with oscilators of
physics from the University of
electromagnetic radiation. Planck assumed
Munich in 1879. In 1888, he
that radiation could be sub-divided into was appointed Director of the
discrete chunks of energy. He suggested that Institute of Theoretical Physics
atoms and molecules could emit or absorb at the University of Berlin.
energy only in discrete quantities and not Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
in a continuous manner. He gave the name in 1918 for his quantum theory. Planck also made
quantum to the smallest quantity of energy significant contributions in thermodynamics and
that can be emitted or absorbed in the form other areas of physics.
of electromagnetic radiation. The energy (E)
of a quantum of radiation is proportional Photoelectric Effect
to its frequency (ν) and is expressed by In 1887, H. Hertz performed a very interesting
equation (2.6). experiment in which electrons (or electric
E = hυ (2.6) current) were ejected when certain metals
The proportionality constant, ‘h’ is known (for example potassium, rubidium, caesium
as Planck’s constant and has the value etc.) were exposed to a beam of light as shown
6.626×10–34 J s. in Fig. 2.9. The phenomenon is called
Photoelectric effect. The results observed
With this theory, Planck was able to explain in this experiment were:
the distribution of intensity in the radiation
from black body as a function of frequency or (i) The electrons are ejected from the metal
wavelength at different temperatures. surface as soon as the beam of light
strikes the surface, i.e., there is no time
Quantisation has been compared to
lag between the striking of light beam and
standing on a staircase. A person can stand
the ejection of electrons from the metal
on any step of a staircase, but it is not possible
surface.
for him/her to stand in between the two steps.
The energy can take any one of the values (ii) The number of electrons ejected is
from the following set, but cannot take on any proportional to the intensity or brightness
values between them. of light.
E = 0, hυ, 2hυ , 3hυ....nhυ..... (iii) For each metal, there is a characteristic
minimum frequency, ν 0 (also known
as threshold frequency) below which
photoelectric effect is not observed. At
a frequency ν >ν0, the ejected electrons
come out with certain kinetic energy.
The kinetic energies of these electrons
increase with the increase of frequency
of the light used.
All the above results could not be explained
on the basis of laws of classical physics.
Fig.2.9 Equipment for studying the photoelectric According to latter, the energy content of the
effect. Light of a particular frequency beam of light depends upon the brightness of
strikes a clean metal surface inside a the light. In other words, number of electrons
vacuum chamber. Electrons are ejected
from the metal and are counted by a
ejected and kinetic energy associated with
detector that measures their kinetic them should depend on the brightness of light.
energy. It has been observed that though the number

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 41 9/9/2022 4:28:11 PM

 42 chemistry

Table 2.2 Values of Work Function (W0) for a Few Metals

Metal Li Na K Mg Cu Ag

W0 /eV 2.42 2.3 2.25 3.7 4.8 4.3

of electrons ejected does depend upon the the minimum energy required to eject the
brightness of light, the kinetic energy of the electron is hν0 (also called work function,
ejected electrons does not. For example, red W0 ; Table 2.2), then the difference in energy
light [ν = (4.3 to 4.6) × 1014 Hz] of any brightness (hν – hν0 ) is transferred as the kinetic energy of
(intensity) may shine on a piece of potassium the photoelectron. Following the conservation
metal for hours but no photoelectrons are of energy principle, the kinetic energy of the
ejected. But, as soon as even a very weak ejected electron is given by the equation 2.7.
yellow light (ν = 5.1–5.2 × 1014 Hz) shines on
the potassium metal, the photoelectric effect (2.7)
is observed. The threshold frequency (ν0) for where me is the mass of the electron and v is the
potassium metal is 5.0×1014 Hz. velocity associated with the ejected electron.
Einstein (1905) was able to explain the Lastly, a more intense beam of light consists
photoelectric effect using Planck’s quantum of larger number of photons, consequently the
theory of electromagnetic radiation as a number of electrons ejected is also larger as
starting point. compared to that in an experiment in which a
beam of weaker intensity of light is employed.
Albert Einstein, a German born
American physicist, is regarded Dual Behaviour of Electromagnetic
by many as one of the two great Radiation
physicists the world has known
(the other is Isaac Newton). His The particle nature of light posed a dilemma for
three research papers (on special scientists. On the one hand, it could explain
relativity, Brownian motion and the black body radiation and photoelectric
the photoelectric effect) which Albert Einstein
effect satisfactorily but on the other hand,
he published in 1905, while he (1879–1955)
was employed as a technical it was not consistent with the known wave
assistant in a Swiss patent office in Berne have behaviour of light which could account for the
profoundly influenced the development of physics. phenomena of interference and diffraction.
He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for The only way to resolve the dilemma was
his explanation of the photoelectric effect.
to accept the idea that light possesses
both particle and wave-like properties, i.e.,
Shining a beam of light on to a metal
surface can, therefore, be viewed as shooting light has dual behaviour. Depending on
a beam of particles, the photons. When a the experiment, we find that light behaves
photon of sufficient energy strikes an electron either as a wave or as a stream of particles.
in the atom of the metal, it transfers its energy Whenever radiation interacts with matter, it
instantaneously to the electron during the displays particle like properties in contrast
collision and the electron is ejected without to the wavelike properties (interference
any time lag or delay. Greater the energy and diffraction), which it exhibits when it
possessed by the photon, greater will be propagates. This concept was totally alien to
transfer of energy to the electron and greater the way the scientists thought about matter
the kinetic energy of the ejected electron. In and radiation and it took them a long time to
other words, kinetic energy of the ejected become convinced of its validity. It turns out,
electron is proportional to the frequency as you shall see later, that some microscopic
of the electromagnetic radiation. Since the particles like electrons also exhibit this wave-
striking photon has energy equal to hν and particle duality.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 42 9/9/2022 4:28:11 PM

 structure of atom 43

Problem 2.6 Solution

Calculate energy of one mole of photons The energy (E) of a 300 nm photon is
of radiation whose frequency is 5 ×1014 given by
Hz.
Solution
Energy (E) of one photon is given by the
expression = 6.626 × 10–19 J
E = hν The energy of one mole of photons
h = 6.626 ×10–34 J s
= 6.626 ×10–19 J × 6.022 × 1023 mol–1
ν = 5×10 14
s (given)
–1
= 3.99 × 105 J mol–1
E = (6.626 ×10 –34
J s) × (5 ×10
14
s )
–1
The minimum energy needed to remove
= 3.313 ×10 –19
J one mole of electrons from sodium
Energy of one mole of photons = (3.99 –1.68) 105 J mol–1
= (3.313 ×10–19 J) × (6.022 × 1023 mol–1) = 2.31 × 105 J mol–1
= 199.51 kJ mol–1 The minimum energy for one electron

Problem 2.7
A 100 watt bulb emits monochromatic
light of wavelength 400 nm. Calculate the
number of photons emitted per second This corresponds to the wavelength
by the bulb. hc
=
Solution E
6.626 10 34 J s 3.0 108 m s 1

Power of the bulb = 100 watt =

3.84 10 19 J
= 100 J s–1
= 517 nm
Energy of one photon E = hν = hc/λ (This corresponds to green light)
6.626  10 34 J s  3  108 m s 1 Problem 2.9
=
400  10 9 m The threshold frequency ν0 for a metal is
= 4.969 × 10 –19
J 7.0 ×1014 s–1. Calculate the kinetic energy
of an electron emitted when radiation of
Number of photons emitted frequency ν =1.0 ×1015 s–1 hits the metal.
100 J s 1 Solution
 2.012  1020 s 1
4.969  10 19 J According to Einstein’s equation
Problem 2.8 Kinetic energy = ½ mev2=h(ν – ν0 )
When electromagnetic radiation of = (6.626 × 10–34 J s) (1.0 × 1015 s–1 – 7.0
wavelength 300 nm falls on the surface ×1014 s–1)
of sodium, electrons are emitted with a = (6.626 × 10–34 J s) (10.0 × 1014 s–1 – 7.0
kinetic energy of 1.68 ×105 J mol–1. What ×1014 s–1)
is the minimum energy needed to remove
= (6.626 × 10–34 J s) × (3.0 × 1014 s–1)
an electron from sodium? What is the
maximum wavelength that will cause a = 1.988 × 10–19 J
photoelectron to be emitted?

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 43 9/9/2022 4:28:11 PM

 44 chemistry

2.3.3 Evidence for the quantized* spectrum. A continuum of radiation is passed

Electronic Energy Levels: Atomic through a sample which absorbs radiation of
spectra certain wavelengths. The missing wavelength
The speed of light depends upon the nature which corresponds to the radiation absorbed
of the medium through which it passes. As a by the matter, leave dark spaces in the bright
result, the beam of light is deviated or refracted continuous spectrum.
from its original path as it passes from one The study of emission or absorption
medium to another. It is observed that when spectra is referred to as spectroscopy. The
a ray of white light is passed through a prism, spectrum of the visible light, as discussed
the wave with shorter wavelength bends more above, was continuous as all wavelengths (red
than the one with a longer wavelength. Since to violet) of the visible light are represented in
ordinary white light consists of waves with the spectra. The emission spectra of atoms in
all the wavelengths in the visible range, a ray the gas phase, on the other hand, do not show
of white light is spread out into a series of a continuous spread of wavelength from red
coloured bands called spectrum. The light of to violet, rather they emit light only at specific
red colour which has longest wavelength is wavelengths with dark spaces between them.
deviated the least while the violet light, which Such spectra are called line spectra or
has shortest wavelength is deviated the most. atomic spectra because the emitted radiation
The spectrum of white light, that we can is identified by the appearance of bright lines
see, ranges from violet at 7.50 × 1014 Hz to in the spectra (Fig. 2.10 page 45).
red at 4×1014 Hz. Such a spectrum is called Line emission spectra are of great
continuous spectrum. Continuous because interest in the study of electronic structure.
violet merges into blue, blue into green and Each element has a unique line emission
so on. A similar spectrum is produced when spectrum. The characteristic lines in atomic
a rainbow forms in the sky. Remember that spectra can be used in chemical analysis to
visible light is just a small portion of the identify unknown atoms in the same way
electromagnetic radiation (Fig.2.7). When as fingerprints are used to identify people.
electromagnetic radiation interacts with The exact matching of lines of the emission
matter, atoms and molecules may absorb spectrum of the atoms of a known element
energy and reach to a higher energy state. With with the lines from an unknown sample
higher energy, these are in an unstable state. quickly establishes the identity of the latter,
For returning to their normal (more stable, German chemist, Robert Bunsen (1811-1899)
lower energy states) energy state, the atoms was one of the first investigators to use line
and molecules emit radiations in various spectra to identify elements.
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Elements like rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs)
thallium (Tl), indium (In), gallium (Ga) and
Emission and Absorption Spectra scandium (Sc) were discovered when their
The spectrum of radiation emitted by a minerals were analysed by spectroscopic
substance that has absorbed energy is called methods. The element helium (He) was
an emission spectrum. Atoms, molecules or discovered in the sun by spectroscopic method.
ions that have absorbed radiation are said Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
to be “excited”. To produce an emission When an electric discharge is passed through
spectrum, energy is supplied to a sample by gaseous hydrogen, the H2 molecules dissociate
heating it or irradiating it and the wavelength and the energetically excited hydrogen atoms
(or frequency) of the radiation emitted, as produced emit electromagnetic radiation of
the sample gives up the absorbed energy, is discrete frequencies. The hydrogen spectrum
recorded. consists of several series of lines named after
An absorption spectrum is like the their discoverers. Balmer showed in 1885
photographic negative of an emission on the basis of experimental observations
* The restriction of any property to discrete values is called quantization.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 44 9/9/2022 4:28:11 PM

 structure of atom 45

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2.10 (a) Atomic emission. The light emitted by a sample of excited hydrogen atoms (or any other
element) can be passed through a prism and separated into certain discrete wavelengths. Thus an emission
spectrum, which is a photographic recording of the separated wavelengths is called as line spectrum. Any
sample of reasonable size contains an enormous number of atoms. Although a single atom can be in only
one excited state at a time, the collection of atoms contains all possible excited states. The light emitted as
these atoms fall to lower energy states is responsible for the spectrum. (b) Atomic absorption. When white
light is passed through unexcited atomic hydrogen and then through a slit and prism, the transmitted light
is lacking in intensity at the same wavelengths as are emitted in (a) The recorded absorption spectrum is
also a line spectrum and the photographic negative of the emission spectrum.

that if spectral lines are expressed in terms The value 109,677 cm –1 is called the
of wavenumber ( ), then the visible lines of Rydberg constant for hydrogen. The first five
the hydrogen spectrum obey the following series of lines that correspond to n1 = 1, 2, 3,
formula: 4, 5 are known as Lyman, Balmer, Paschen,
Bracket and Pfund series, respectively,
(2.8) Table 2.3 shows these series of transitions in
where n is an integer equal to or greater than the hydrogen spectrum. Fig. 2.11 (page, 46)
3 (i.e., n = 3,4,5,....) shows the Lyman, Balmer and Paschen series
of transitions for hydrogen atom.
The series of lines described by this formula
Of all the elements, hydrogen atom has
are called the Balmer series. The Balmer
the simplest line spectrum. Line spectrum
series of lines are the only lines in the hydrogen
spectrum which appear in the visible region
of the electromagnetic spectrum. The Swedish Table 2.3 The Spectral Lines for Atomic
spectroscopist, Johannes Rydberg, noted Hydrogen
that all series of lines in the hydrogen
Series n1 n2 Spectral Region
spectrum could be described by the following
expression : Lyman 1 2,3.... Ultraviolet

(2.9) Balmer 2 3,4.... Visible

Paschen 3 4,5.... Infrared
where n1=1,2........ Brackett 4 5,6.... Infrared
n2 = n1 + 1, n1 + 2...... Pfund 5 6,7.... Infrared

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 45 9/9/2022 4:28:12 PM

 46 chemistry

atomic structure and spectra. Bohr’s model

for hydrogen atom is based on the following
postulates:
i) The electron in the hydrogen atom can
move around the nucleus in a circular
path of fixed radius and energy. These
paths are called orbits, stationary states
or allowed energy states. These orbits
are arranged concentrically around the
nucleus.
ii) The energy of an electron in the orbit
does not change with time. However,
the electron will move from a lower
stationary state to a higher stationary
state when required amount of energy
is absorbed by the electron or energy is
emitted when electron moves from higher
stationary state to lower stationary state
(equation 2.16). The energy change does
not take place in a continuous manner.

Angular Momentum

Fig. 2.11 Transitions of the electron in the Just as linear momentum is the product
hydrogen atom (The diagram shows the of mass (m) and linear velocity (v), angular
Lyman, Balmer and Paschen series of momentum is the product of moment of
transitions) inertia (I) and angular velocity (ω). For an
electron of mass me, moving in a circular
becomes more and more complex for heavier path of radius r around the nucleus,
atom. There are, however, certain features angular momentum = I × ω
which are common to all line spectra, i.e.,
Since I = mer2, and ω = v/r where v is the
(i) line spectrum of element is unique and linear velocity,
(ii) there is regularity in the line spectrum of
∴angular momentum = mer2 × v/r = mevr
each element. The questions which arise are:
What are the reasons for these similarities?
Is it something to do with the electronic iii) The frequency of radiation absorbed or
emitted when transition occurs between
structure of atoms? These are the questions
two stationary states that differ in
need to be answered. We shall find later that
energy by ∆E, is given by:
the answers to these questions provide the
key in understanding electronic structure of (2.10)
these elements.
Where E1 and E2 are the energies of the
2.4 Bohr’s Model for Hydrogen
lower and higher allowed energy states
Atom
respectively. This expression is commonly
Neils Bohr (1913) was the first to explain known as Bohr’s frequency rule.
quantitatively the general features of the
iv) The angular momentum of an electron
structure of hydrogen atom and its spectrum.
is quantised. In a given stationary state
He used Planck’s concept of quantisation
it can be expressed as in equation (2.11)
of energy. Though the theory is not the
modern quantum mechanics, it can still h
m e v r  n. n = 1,2,3..... (2.11)
be used to rationalize many points in the 2

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 46 9/9/2022 4:28:13 PM

 structure of atom 47

Where me is the mass of electron, v is the

velocity and r is the radius of the orbit in Niels Bohr
(1885–1962)
which electron is moving.
Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist
Thus an electron can move only in those received his Ph.D. from the
orbits for which its angular momentum is University of Copenhagen in
integral multiple of h/2π. That means angular 1911. He then spent a year
momentum is quantised. Radiation is emitted with J.J. Thomson and Ernest
or obsorbed only when transition of electron Rutherford in England. In 1913,
takes place from one quantised value of he returned to Copenhagen where he remained for
angular momentum to another. Therefore, the rest of his life. In 1920 he was named Director
Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory does not of the Institute of theoretical Physics. After first
World War, Bohr worked energetically for peaceful
apply here that is why only certain fixed orbits
uses of atomic energy. He received the first Atoms
are allowed.
for Peace award in 1957. Bohr was awarded the
The details regarding the derivation of Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922.
energies of the stationary states used by Bohr,
are quite complicated and will be discussed in
higher classes. However, according to Bohr’s Fig. 2.11 depicts the energies of different
theory for hydrogen atom: stationary states or energy levels of hydrogen
a) The stationary states for electron are atom. This representation is called an energy
numbered n = 1,2,3.......... These integral level diagram.
numbers (Section 2.6.2) are known as When the electron is free from the influence
Principal quantum numbers. of nucleus, the energy is taken as zero. The
b) The radii of the stationary states are electron in this situation is associated with the
expressed as: stationary state of Principal Quantum number
= n = ∞ and is called as ionized hydrogen atom.
rn = n2 a0 (2.12)
When the electron is attracted by the nucleus
where a0 = 52.9 pm. Thus the radius of and is present in orbit n, the energy is emitted
the first stationary state, called the Bohr and its energy is lowered. That is the reason
orbit, is 52.9 pm. Normally the electron
in the hydrogen atom is found in this
orbit (that is n=1). As n increases the What does the negative electronic
value of r will increase. In other words energy (En) for hydrogen atom mean?
the electron will be present away from The energy of the electron in a hydrogen
the nucleus. atom has a negative sign for all possible
c) The most important property associated orbits (eq. 2.13). What does this negative
sign convey? This negative sign means
with the electron, is the energy of its
that the energy of the electron in the
stationary state. It is given by the
atom is lower than the energy of a free
expression. electron at rest. A free electron at rest
 1 is an electron that is infinitely far away
En   R H  2  n = 1,2,3.... (2.13) from the nucleus and is assigned the
n 
energy value of zero. Mathematically, this
where RH is called Rydberg constant and
corresponds to setting n equal to infinity
its value is 2.18×10–18 J. The energy of the
in the equation (2.13) so that E∞=0. As the
lowest state, also called as the ground state, is electron gets closer to the nucleus (as n
1 decreases), En becomes larger in absolute
E1 = –2.18×10–18 ( 2 ) = –2.18×10–18 J. The
1 value and more and more negative. The
energy of the stationary state for n = 2, will most negative energy value is given by
n=1 which corresponds to the most stable
1
be : E2 = –2.18×10–18J ( 2 ) = –0.545×10–18 J. orbit. We call this the ground state.
2

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 47 9/9/2022 4:28:13 PM

 48 chemistry

for the presence of negative sign in equation

 R   R 
(2.13) and depicts its stability relative to the  E    2H     2H  (where n and n
reference state of zero energy and n = ∞.  nf   ni  i f

d) Bohr’s theory can also be applied to stand for initial orbit and final orbits)
the ions containing only one electron,  1 1  1 1
18
similar to that present in hydrogen ∆E  R H  2  2   2.18  10 J  2  2 
atom. For example, He+ Li2+, Be3+ and so  ni nf   ni nf 
on. The energies of the stationary states
associated with these kinds of ions (also (2.17)
known as hydrogen like species) are The frequency (ν) associated with the
given by the expression. absorption and emission of the photon can
 Z2 be evaluated by using equation (2.18)
E n   2.18  10 18  2  J (2.14)
n 
and radii by the expression
52.9 (n 2 ) (2.15)
rn = pm 2.18  10 18 J  1 1 (2.18)
Z  34   2
6.626  10 J s  n i n f 
2
where Z is the atomic number and has
values 2,3 for the helium and lithium atoms
 1 1
respectively. From the above equations, it is  3.29  1015  2  2  Hz (2.19)
evident that the value of energy becomes more  ni nf 
negative and that of radius becomes smaller
and in terms of wavenumbers ( )
with increase of Z. This means that electron
will be tightly bound to the nucleus.
(2.20)
e) It is also possible to calculate the
velocities of electrons moving in these
orbits. Although the precise equation 3.29  1015 s 1  1 1
is not given here, qualitatively the = s  2
 2
3  10 m s  n i n f 
8
magnitude of velocity of electron
increases with increase of positive  1 1
charge on the nucleus and decreases = 1.09677  107  2  2  m 1 (2.21)
with increase of principal quantum  ni nf 
number. In case of absorption spectrum, nf > ni and
the term in the parenthesis is positive and
2.4.1 Explanation of Line Spectrum of energy is absorbed. On the other hand in case
Hydrogen of emission spectrum ni > nf , ∆ E is negative
Line spectrum observed in case of hydrogen and energy is released.
atom, as mentioned in section 2.3.3, can be The expression (2.17) is similar to that
explained quantitatively using Bohr’s model. used by Rydberg (2.9) derived empirically
According to assumption 2, radiation (energy) using the experimental data available at that
is absorbed if the electron moves from the time. Further, each spectral line, whether
orbit of smaller Principal quantum number to in absorption or emission spectrum, can
the orbit of higher Principal quantum number, be associated to the particular transition in
whereas the radiation (energy) is emitted if hydrogen atom. In case of large number of
the electron moves from higher orbit to lower hydrogen atoms, different possible transitions
orbit. The energy gap between the two orbits can be observed and thus leading to large
is given by equation (2.16) number of spectral lines. The brightness or
∆E = Ef – Ei (2.16) intensity of spectral lines depends upon the
number of photons of same wavelength or
Combining equations (2.13) and (2.16)
frequency absorbed or emitted.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 48 9/9/2022 4:28:14 PM

 structure of atom 49

2.4.2 Limitations of Bohr’s Model

Problem 2.10
Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom was no
What are the frequency and wavelength doubt an improvement over Rutherford’s
of a photon emitted during a transition nuclear model, as it could account for the
from n = 5 state to the n = 2 state in the stability and line spectra of hydrogen atom
hydrogen atom? and hydrogen like ions (for example, He+, Li2+,
Solution Be3+, and so on). However, Bohr’s model was
too simple to account for the following points.
Since ni = 5 and nf = 2, this transition
gives rise to a spectral line in the visible i) It fails to account for the finer details
region of the Balmer series. From (doublet, that is two closely spaced lines)
equation (2.17) of the hydrogen atom spectrum observed
by using sophisticated spectroscopic
1 1 techniques. This model is also unable
E = 2.18  10 18 J  2  2  to explain the spectrum of atoms
5 2 
19 other than hydrogen, for example,
=  4.58  10 J helium atom which possesses only two
It is an emission energy electrons. Further, Bohr’s theory was
The frequency of the photon (taking also unable to explain the splitting
energy in terms of magnitude) is given by of spectral lines in the presence of
magnetic field (Zeeman effect) or an
electric field (Stark effect).
ii) It could not explain the ability of atoms
to form molecules by chemical bonds.
In other words, taking into account the
points mentioned above, one needs a better
= 6.91×1014 Hz theory which can explain the salient features
of the structure of complex atoms.
2.5 Towards Quantum Mechanical
Problem 2.11 Model of the Atom
Calculate the energy associated with the In view of the shortcoming of the Bohr’s
first orbit of He+. What is the radius of model, attempts were made to develop a more
this orbit? suitable and general model for atoms. Two
important developments which contributed
Solution significantly in the formulation of such a
(2.18  10 18 J)Z 2 model were:
En   atom–1
n2 1. Dual behaviour of matter,
For He+, n = 1, Z = 2 2. Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
(2.18  10 18 J)(22 )
E1    8.72  10 18 J 2.5.1 Dual Behaviour of Matter
12
The French physicist, de Broglie, in 1924
The radius of the orbit is given by proposed that matter, like radiation, should
equation (2.15) also exhibit dual behaviour i.e., both particle
(0.0529 nm )n 2 and wavelike properties. This means that
rn = just as the photon has momentum as well
Z
as wavelength, electrons should also have
Since n = 1, and Z = 2
momentum as well as wavelength, de Broglie,
(0.0529 nm )12 from this analogy, gave the following relation
=rn = 0.02645 nm between wavelength (λ) and momentum (p) of
2
a material particle.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 49 9/9/2022 4:28:15 PM

 50 chemistry

Louis de Broglie Solution

(1892 – 1987)
Louis de Broglie, a French According to de Brogile equation (2.22)
physicist, studied history
as an undergraduate in the h (6.626  10 34 Js)
 
early 1910’s. His interest mv (0.1 kg )(10 m s 1 )
turned to science as a result
of his assignment to radio = 6.626 × 10–34 m (J = kg m2 s–2)
communications in World
Problem 2.13
War I. He received his
Dr. Sc. from the University of Paris in 1924. The mass of an electron is 9.1×10–31 kg.
He was professor of theoretical physics at If its K.E. is 3.0×10–25 J, calculate its
the University of Paris from 1932 untill his wavelength.
retirement in 1962. He was awarded the
Solution
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1929.
Since K.E. = ½ mv2
1/ 2 1/ 2
h h  2K.E.  2  3.0  10 25 kg m 2 s 2 
  (2.22) v = =
mv p  m   9.1  10 31 kg 
where m is the mass of the particle, v its
= 812 m s–1
velocity and p its momentum. de Broglie’s 34
prediction was confirmed experimentally when h 6 .626 10 Js
it was found that an electron beam undergoes m v ( 9. 1 10
31
kg )(812 m s )
1

diffraction, a phenomenon characteristic of

waves. This fact has been put to use in making = 8967 × 10–10 m = 896.7 nm
an electron microscope, which is based on Problem 2.14
the wavelike behaviour of electrons just as an
ordinary microscope utilises the wave nature Calculate the mass of a photon with
of light. An electron microscope is a powerful wavelength 3.6 Å.
tool in modern scientific research because it Solution
achieves a magnification of about 15 million λ = 3.6 Å = 3.6 × 10–10 m
times. Velocity of photon = velocity of light
It needs to be noted that according to de 34
Broglie, every object in motion has a wave
10 8
character. The wavelengths associated with 1

ordinary objects are so short (because of their

large masses) that their wave properties cannot = 6.135 × 10–29 kg
be detected. The wavelengths associated with
electrons and other subatomic particles (with
very small mass) can however be detected 2.5.2 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
experimentally. Results obtained from Werner Heisenberg a German physicist in
the following problems prove these points 1927, stated uncertainty principle which is
qualitatively. the consequence of dual behaviour of matter
and radiation. It states that it is impossible
to determine simultaneously, the exact
Problem 2.12 position and exact momentum (or velocity)
What will be the wavelength of a ball of of an electron.
mass 0.1 kg moving with a velocity of
Mathematically, it can be given as in
10 m s–1 ?
equation (2.23).

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 50 9/9/2022 4:28:16 PM

 structure of atom 51

(2.23)  h
momentum photons of such light  p = 
 
would change the energy of electrons by
collisions. In this process we, no doubt,
would be able to calculate the position of the
electron, but we would know very little about
where ∆x is the uncertainty in position and the velocity of the electron after the collision.
∆px (or ∆vx ) is the uncertainty in momentum Significance of Uncertainty Principle
(or velocity) of the particle. If the position of
One of the important implications of the
the electron is known with high degree of
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is that it
accuracy (∆x is small), then the velocity of the
rules out existence of definite paths or
electron will be uncertain [∆(vx) is large]. On
trajectories of electrons and other similar
the other hand, if the velocity of the electron particles. The trajectory of an object is
is known precisely (∆(vx ) is small), then the determined by its location and velocity at
position of the electron will be uncertain various moments. If we know where a body
(∆x will be large). Thus, if we carry out some is at a particular instant and if we also know
physical measurements on the electron’s its velocity and the forces acting on it at that
position or velocity, the outcome will always instant, we can tell where the body would
depict a fuzzy or blur picture. be sometime later. We, therefore, conclude
The uncertainty principle can be best that the position of an object and its velocity
fix its trajectory. Since for a sub-atomic
understood with the help of an example.
object such as an electron, it is not possible
Suppose you are asked to measure the
simultaneously to determine the position and
thickness of a sheet of paper with an
velocity at any given instant to an arbitrary
unmarked metrestick. Obviously, the results degree of precision, it is not possible to talk
obtained would be extremely inaccurate of the trajectory of an electron.
and meaningless. In order to obtain any
accuracy, you should use an instrument The effect of Heisenberg Uncertainty
graduated in units smaller than the thickness Principle is significant only for motion of
microscopic objects and is negligible for
of a sheet of the paper. Analogously, in order
that of macroscopic objects. This can be
to determine the position of an electron, we
seen from the following examples.
must use a meterstick calibrated in units of
smaller than the dimensions of electron (keep If uncertainty principle is applied to an
object of mass, say about a milligram (10–6 kg),
in mind that an electron is considered as a
then
point charge and is therefore, dimensionless).
To observe an electron, we can illuminate it
with “light” or electromagnetic radiation. The
“light” used must have a wavelength smaller
than the dimensions of an electron. The high

Werner Heisenberg (1901 – 1976) Werner Heisenberg (1901 – 1976) received his Ph.D. in
physics from the University of Munich in 1923. He then spent a year working with Max
Born at Gottingen and three years with Niels Bohr in Copenhagen. He was professor of
physics at the University of Leipzig from 1927 to 1941. During World War II, Heisenberg
was in charge of German research on the atomic bomb. After the war he was named
director of Max Planck Institute for physics in Gottingen. He was also accomplished
mountain climber. Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 51 9/9/2022 4:28:16 PM

 52 chemistry

The value of ∆v∆x obtained is extremely

small and is insignificant. Therefore, one
may say that in dealing with milligram-
sized or heavier objects, the associated
uncertainties are hardly of any real
consequence.
In the case of a microscopic object like an = 0.579×107 m s–1 (1J = 1 kg m2 s–2)
electron on the other hand. ∆v.∆x obtained is = 5.79×106 m s–1
much larger and such uncertainties are of real
consequence. For example, for an electron Problem 2.16
whose mass is 9.11×10–31 kg., according to A golf ball has a mass of 40g, and a speed
Heisenberg uncertainty principle of 45 m/s. If the speed can be measured
within accuracy of 2%, calculate the
uncertainty in the position.
Solution
The uncertainty in the speed is 2%, i.e.,

Using the equation (2.22)

It, therefore, means that if one tries to
find the exact location of the electron, say
to an uncertainty of only 10–8 m, then the
uncertainty ∆v in velocity would be
10 4 m 2 s 1
8
 104 ms 1 = 1.46×10–33 m
10 m
This is nearly ~ 10 18 times smaller
which is so large that the classical picture than the diameter of a typical atomic
of electrons moving in Bohr’s orbits (fixed) nucleus. As mentioned earlier for large
cannot hold good. It, therefore, means that particles, the uncertainty principle sets
the precise statements of the position no meaningful limit to the precision of
and momentum of electrons have to be measurements.
replaced by the statements of probability,
that the electron has at a given position
and momentum. This is what happens in Reasons for the Failure of the Bohr Model
the quantum mechanical model of atom. One can now understand the reasons for the
failure of the Bohr model. In Bohr model,
an electron is regarded as a charged particle
Problem 2.15 moving in well defined circular orbits about
A microscope using suitable photons is the nucleus. The wave character of the
employed to locate an electron in an atom electron is not considered in Bohr model.
within a distance of 0.1 Å. What is the Further, an orbit is a clearly defined path
uncertainty involved in the measurement and this path can completely be defined
of its velocity? only if both the position and the velocity of
the electron are known exactly at the same
Solution
time. This is not possible according to the
∆ x ∆p = or ∆ x m ∆ v Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Bohr model
of the hydrogen atom, therefore, not only
ignores dual behaviour of matter but also
contradicts Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 52 9/9/2022 4:28:16 PM

 structure of atom 53

these objects obey. When quantum mechanics

Erwin Schrödinger, an is applied to macroscopic objects (for which
Austrian physicist received
wave like properties are insignificant) the
his Ph.D. in theoretical
results are the same as those from the
physics from the University
classical mechanics.
of Vienna in 1910. In 1927
Schrödinger succeeded Max Quantum mechanics was developed
Planck at the University of independently in 1926 by Werner Heisenberg
Berlin at Planck’s request. and Erwin Schrödinger. Here, however, we
In 1933, Schrödinger left shall be discussing the quantum mechanics
B e r l i n b e c a u s e o f h i s Erwin Schrödinger which is based on the ideas of wave motion.
opposition to Hitler and (1887–1961) The fundamental equation of quantum
Nazi policies and returned mechanics was developed by Schrödinger
to Austria in 1936. After the invasion of Austria and it won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in
by Germany, Schrödinger was forcibly removed 1933. This equation which incorporates wave-
from his professorship. He then moved to Dublin, particle duality of matter as proposed by de
Ireland where he remained for seventeen years.
Broglie is quite complex and knowledge of
Schrödinger shared the Nobel Prize for Physics
higher mathematics is needed to solve it. You
with P.A.M. Dirac in 1933.
will learn its solutions for different systems
in higher classes.
In view of these inherent weaknesses in the For a system (such as an atom or a
Bohr model, there was no point in extending molecule whose energy does not change with
Bohr model to other atoms. In fact an insight time) the Schrödinger equation is written
into the structure of the atom was needed as where is a mathematical
which could account for wave-particle duality operator called Hamiltonian. Schrödinger
of matter and be consistent with Heisenberg gave a recipe of constructing this operator
uncertainty principle. This came with the from the expression for the total energy of
advent of quantum mechanics. the system. The total energy of the system
takes into account the kinetic energies of all
2.6 Quantum Mechanical Model of the sub-atomic particles (electrons, nuclei),
Atom attractive potential between the electrons
Classical mechanics, based on Newton’s and nuclei and repulsive potential among the
laws of motion, successfully describes the electrons and nuclei individually. Solution of
motion of all macroscopic objects such as a this equation gives E and ψ.
falling stone, orbiting planets etc., which have
Hydrogen Atom and the Schrödinger
essentially a particle-like behaviour as shown
Equation
in the previous section. However it fails when
applied to microscopic objects like electrons, When Schrödinger equation is solved for
atoms, molecules etc. This is mainly because hydrogen atom, the solution gives the possible
of the fact that classical mechanics ignores energy levels the electron can occupy and
the concept of dual behaviour of matter the corresponding wave function(s) (ψ) of
especially for sub-atomic particles and the the electron associated with each energy
uncertainty principle. The branch of science level. These quantized energy states and
that takes into account this dual behaviour corresponding wave functions which are
characterized by a set of three quantum
of matter is called quantum mechanics.
numbers (principal quantum number
Quantum mechanics is a theoretical n, azimuthal quantum number l and
science that deals with the study of the magnetic quantum number m l ) arise as a
motions of the microscopic objects that have natural consequence in the solution of the
both observable wave like and particle like Schrödinger equation. When an electron
properties. It specifies the laws of motion that is in any energy state, the wave function

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 53 9/9/2022 4:28:17 PM

 54 chemistry

corresponding to that energy state contains

all information about the electron. The wave 2. The existence of quantised electronic
energy levels is a direct result of the
function is a mathematical function whose
wave like properties of electrons and
value depends upon the coordinates of the are allowed solutions of Schrödinger
electron in the atom and does not carry any wave equation.
physical meaning. Such wave functions of 3. Both the exact position and exact
hydrogen or hydrogen like species with one velocity of an electron in an atom
electron are called atomic orbitals. Such cannot be determined simultaneously
wave functions pertaining to one-electron (Heisenberg uncertainty principle). The
species are called one-electron systems. The path of an electron in an atom therefore,
probability of finding an electron at a point can never be determined or known
within an atom is proportional to the |ψ|2 at accurately. That is why, as you shall see
later on, one talks of only probability of
that point. The quantum mechanical results
finding the electron at different points in
of the hydrogen atom successfully predict
an atom.
all aspects of the hydrogen atom spectrum 4. An atomic orbital is the wave
including some phenomena that could not be function ψ for an electron in an atom.
explained by the Bohr model. Whenever an electron is described
by a wave function, we say that the
Application of Schrödinger equation to
electron occupies that orbital. Since
multi-electron atoms presents a difficulty: the
many such wave functions are possible
Schrödinger equation cannot be solved exactly for an electron, there are many atomic
for a multi-electron atom. This difficulty can orbitals in an atom. These “one electron
be overcome by using approximate methods. orbital wave functions” or orbitals form
Such calculations with the aid of modern the basis of the electronic structure
computers show that orbitals in atoms other of atoms. In each orbital, the electron
than hydrogen do not differ in any radical has a definite energy. An orbital cannot
way from the hydrogen orbitals discussed contain more than two electrons. In a
above. The principal difference lies in the multi-electron atom, the electrons are
consequence of increased nuclear charge. filled in various orbitals in the order of
increasing energy. For each electron
Because of this all the orbitals are somewhat
of a multi-electron atom, there shall,
contracted. Further, as you shall see later (in therefore, be an orbital wave function
subsections 2.6.3 and 2.6.4), unlike orbitals characteristic of the orbital it occupies.
of hydrogen or hydrogen like species, whose All the information about the electron
energies depend only on the quantum number in an atom is stored in its orbital wave
n, the energies of the orbitals in multi-electron function ψ and quantum mechanics
atoms depend on quantum numbers n and l. makes it possible to extract this
information out of ψ.
Important Features of the Quantum 5. The probability of finding an electron at
Mechanical Model of Atom a point within an atom is proportional to
the square of the orbital wave function
Quantum mechanical model of atom is i.e., |ψ|2 at that point. |ψ|2 is known
the picture of the structure of the atom, as probability density and is always
which emerges from the application of positive. From the value of |ψ|2 at
the Schrödinger equation to atoms. The different points within an atom,
following are the important features of the it is possible to predict the region
quantum-mechanical model of atom: around the nucleus where electron
1. The energy of electrons in atoms is will most probably be found.
quantized (i.e., can only have certain
specific values), for example when 2.6.1 Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
electrons are bound to the nucleus in
atoms.
A large number of orbitals are possible in
an atom. Qualitatively these orbitals can

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 54 9/9/2022 4:28:17 PM

 structure of atom 55

be distinguished by their size, shape and sub-shells in a principal shell is equal to the
orientation. An orbital of smaller size means value of n. For example in the first shell (n = 1),
there is more chance of finding the electron there is only one sub-shell which corresponds
near the nucleus. Similarly shape and to l = 0. There are two sub-shells (l = 0, 1) in
orientation mean that there is more probability the second shell (n = 2), three (l = 0, 1, 2) in
of finding the electron along certain directions third shell (n = 3) and so on. Each sub-shell is
than along others. Atomic orbitals are precisely assigned an azimuthal quantum number (l).
distinguished by what are known as quantum Sub-shells corresponding to different values
numbers. Each orbital is designated by three of l are represented by the following symbols.
quantum numbers labelled as n, l and m l. Value for l : 0 1 2 3 4 5 ............
The principal quantum number ‘n’ is a notation for s p d f g h ............
positive integer with value of n = 1,2,3....... sub-shell
The principal quantum number determines Table 2.4 shows the permissible values of
the size and to large extent the energy of the ‘l ’ for a given principal quantum number and
orbital. For hydrogen atom and hydrogen like the corresponding sub-shell notation.
species (He+, Li2+, .... etc.) energy and size of
the orbital depends only on ‘n’. Table 2.4 Subshell Notations
The principal quantum number also n l Subshell notation
identifies the shell. With the increase in the
value of ‘n’, the number of allowed orbital 1 0 1s
increases and are given by ‘n 2’ All the
2 0 2s
orbitals of a given value of ‘n’ constitute
a single shell of atom and are represented 2 1 2p
by the following letters 3 0 3s
n = 1 2 3 4 ............
3 1 3p
Shell = K L M N ............
3 2 3d
Size of an orbital increases with increase of
principal quantum number ‘n’. In other words 4 0 4s
the electron will be located away from the
4 1 4p
nucleus. Since energy is required in shifting
away the negatively charged electron from the 4 2 4d
positively charged nucleus, the energy of the 4 3 4f
orbital will increase with increase of n.
Azimuthal quantum number. ‘l’ is also Magnetic orbital quantum number.
known as orbital angular momentum or ‘m l’ gives information about the spatial
subsidiary quantum number. It defines the orientation of the orbital with respect to
three-dimensional shape of the orbital. For a standard set of co-ordinate axis. For any
given value of n, l can have n values ranging sub-shell (defined by ‘l’ value) 2l+1 values of
from 0 to n – 1, that is, for a given value of n, ml are possible and these values are given by :
the possible value of l are : l = 0, 1, 2, .......... ml = – l, – (l –1), – (l – 2)... 0,1... (l – 2), (l–1), l
(n–1)
Thus for l = 0, the only permitted value
For example, when n = 1, value of l is only of ml = 0, [2(0)+1 = 1, one s orbital]. For l =
0. For n = 2, the possible value of l can be 0 1, ml can be –1, 0 and +1 [2(1)+1 = 3, three p
and 1. For n = 3, the possible l values are 0, orbitals]. For l = 2, ml = –2, –1, 0, +1 and +2,
1 and 2. [2(2)+1 = 5, five d orbitals]. It should be noted
Each shell consists of one or more that the values of ml are derived from l and
sub-shells or sub-levels. The number of that the value of l are derived from n.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 55 9/9/2022 4:28:17 PM

 56 chemistry

Each orbital in an atom, therefore, is angular momentum of the electron — a vector

defined by a set of values for n, l and ml. An quantity, can have two orientations relative to
orbital described by the quantum numbers the chosen axis. These two orientations are
n = 2, l = 1, ml = 0 is an orbital in the p sub- distinguished by the spin quantum numbers
shell of the second shell. The following chart ms which can take the values of +½ or –½.
gives the relation between the subshell and These are called the two spin states of the
the number of orbitals associated with it. electron and are normally represented by
Value of l 0 1 2 3 4 5 two arrows, ↑ (spin up) and ↓ (spin down). Two
Subshell notation s p d f g h electrons that have different ms values (one +½
and the other –½) are said to have opposite
number of orbitals 1 3 5 7 9 11 spins. An orbital cannot hold more than two
Electron spin ‘s’ : The three quantum electrons and these two electrons should have
numbers labelling an atomic orbital can be opposite spins.
used equally well to define its energy, shape To sum up, the four quantum numbers
and orientation. But all these quantum provide the following information :
numbers are not enough to explain the line i) n defines the shell, determines the size
spectra observed in the case of multi-electron of the orbital and also to a large extent
atoms, that is, some of the lines actually occur the energy of the orbital.
in doublets (two lines closely spaced), triplets
ii) There are n subshells in the nth shell. l
(three lines, closely spaced) etc. This suggests
identifies the subshell and determines
the presence of a few more energy levels than
the shape of the orbital (see section
predicted by the three quantum numbers.
2.6.2). There are (2l+1) orbitals of each
In 1925, George Uhlenbeck and Samuel type in a subshell, that is, one s orbital
Goudsmit proposed the presence of the fourth (l = 0), three p orbitals (l = 1) and five
quantum number known as the electron d orbitals (l = 2) per subshell. To some
spin quantum number (ms ). An electron extent l also determines the energy of
spins around its own axis, much in a similar the orbital in a multi-electron atom.
way as earth spins around its own axis while iii) ml designates the orientation of the
revolving around the sun. In other words, orbital. For a given value of l, ml has
an electron has, besides charge and mass, (2l+1) values, the same as the number
intrinsic spin angular quantum number. Spin of orbitals per subshell. It means that

Orbit, orbital and its importance

Orbit and orbital are not synonymous. An orbit, as proposed by Bohr, is a circular path around the
nucleus in which an electron moves. A precise description of this path of the electron is impossible
according to Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Bohr orbits, therefore, have no real meaning and
their existence can never be demonstrated experimentally. An atomic orbital, on the other hand,
is a quantum mechanical concept and refers to the one electron wave function ψ in an atom. It is
characterized by three quantum numbers (n, l and ml) and its value depends upon the coordinates
of the electron. ψ has, by itself, no physical meaning. It is the square of the wave function i.e., |ψ|2
which has a physical meaning. |ψ|2 at any point in an atom gives the value of probability density
at that point. Probability density (|ψ|2) is the probability per unit volume and the product of |ψ|2
and a small volume (called a volume element) yields the probability of finding the electron in that
volume (the reason for specifying a small volume element is that |ψ|2 varies from one region to
another in space but its value can be assumed to be constant within a small volume element).
The total probability of finding the electron in a given volume can then be calculated by the sum
of all the products of |ψ|2 and the corresponding volume elements. It is thus possible to get the
probable distribution of an electron in an orbital.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 56 9/9/2022 4:28:17 PM

 structure of atom 57

the number of orbitals is equal to the

number of ways in which they are
oriented.
iv) ms refers to orientation of the spin of the
electron.

Problem 2.17
What is the total number of orbitals
associated with the principal quantum
number n = 3 ?
Solution
For n = 3, the possible values of l are
0, 1 and 2. Thus there is one 3s orbital
(n = 3, l = 0 and ml = 0); there are three
3p orbitals (n = 3, l = 1 and ml = –1, 0,
+1); there are five 3d orbitals (n = 3, l =
2 and ml = –2, –1, 0, +1+, +2). Fig. 2.12 The plots of (a) the orbital wave
Therefore, the total number of orbitals function ψ(r); (b) the variation of
is 1+3+5 = 9 probability density ψ2(r) as a function
of distance r of the electron from the
The same value can also be obtained by
nucleus for 1s and 2s orbitals.
using the relation; number of orbitals
= n2, i.e. 32 = 9.
According to the German physicist,
Problem 2.18 Max Born, the square of the wave function
(i.e.,ψ 2) at a point gives the probability density
Using s, p, d, f notations, describe the
of the electron at that point. The variation
orbital with the following quantum
numbers of ψ 2 as a function of r for 1s and 2s orbitals
is given in Fig. 2.12(b). Here again, you may
(a) n = 2, l = 1, (b) n = 4, l = 0, (c) n = 5,
note that the curves for 1s and 2s orbitals
l = 3, (d) n = 3, l = 2
are different.
Solution It may be noted that for 1s orbital the
n l orbital probability density is maximum at the
a) 2 1 2p nucleus and it decreases sharply as we move
away from it. On the other hand, for 2s
b) 4 0 4s
orbital the probability density first decreases
c) 5 3 5f sharply to zero and again starts increasing.
d) 3 2 3d After reaching a small maxima it decreases
again and approaches zero as the value of
r increases further. The region where this
2.6.2 Shapes of Atomic Orbitals probability density function reduces to zero
The orbital wave function or ψ for an electron is called nodal surfaces or simply nodes.
in an atom has no physical meaning. It In general, it has been found that ns-orbital
is simply a mathematical function of the has (n – 1) nodes, that is, number of nodes
coordinates of the electron. However, for increases with increase of principal quantum
different orbitals the plots of corresponding number n. In other words, number of nodes
wave functions as a function of r (the distance for 2s orbital is one, two for 3s and so on.
from the nucleus) are different. Fig. 2.12(a), These probability density variation can be
gives such plots for 1s (n = 1, l = 0) and 2s visualised in terms of charge cloud diagrams
(n = 2, l = 0) orbitals. [Fig. 2.13(a)]. In these diagrams, the density

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 57 9/9/2022 4:28:17 PM

 58 chemistry

of the dots in a region represents electron

probability density in that region.
Boundary surface diagrams of constant
probability density for different orbitals give
a fairly good representation of the shapes
of the orbitals. In this representation, a
boundary surface or contour surface is
drawn in space for an orbital on which the
value of probability density |ψ|2 is constant.
In principle many such boundary surfaces
may be possible. However, for a given
orbital, only that boundary surface diagram
of constant probability density* is taken to
be good representation of the shape of the
orbital which encloses a region or volume in Fig. 2.13 (a) Probability density plots of 1s and
which the probability of finding the electron 2s atomic orbitals. The density of the
is very high, say, 90%. The boundary surface dots represents the probability density
diagram for 1s and 2s orbitals are given in of finding the electron in that region.
Fig. 2.13(b). One may ask a question : Why (b) Boundary surface diagram for 1s
do we not draw a boundary surface diagram, and 2s orbitals.
which bounds a region in which the probability
of finding the electron is, 100 %? The answer
to this question is that the probability density
| ψ | 2 has always some value, howsoever
small it may be, at any finite distance from
the nucleus. It is therefore, not possible to
draw a boundary surface diagram of a rigid
size in which the probability of finding the
electron is 100%. Boundary surface diagram
for a s orbital is actually a sphere centred on
the nucleus. In two dimensions, this sphere
looks like a circle. It encloses a region in
which probability of finding the electron is
about 90%.
Thus, we see that 1s and 2s orbitals are
spherical in shape. In reality all the s-orbitals
are spherically symmetric, that is, the
probability of finding the electron at a given Fig. 2.14 Boundary surface diagrams of the
distance is equal in all the directions. It is also three 2p orbitals.
observed that the size of the s orbital increases
with increase in n, that is, 4s > 3s > 2s > 1s these diagrams, the nucleus is at the origin.
and the electron is located further away from Here, unlike s-orbitals, the boundary surface
the nucleus as the principal quantum number diagrams are not spherical. Instead each
increases. p orbital consists of two sections called lobes
Boundary surface diagrams for three that are on either side of the plane that passes
2p orbitals (l = 1) are shown in Fig. 2.14. In through the nucleus. The probability density

* If probability density |ψ| is constant on a given surface, |ψ| is also constant over the surface. The boundary surface
2

for |ψ| and |ψ| are identical.

2

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 58 9/9/2022 4:28:19 PM

 structure of atom 59

function is zero on the plane where the two it is sufficient to remember that, because
lobes touch each other. The size, shape and there are three possible values of m l, there
energy of the three orbitals are identical. are, therefore, three p orbitals whose axes
They differ however, in the way the lobes are are mutually perpendicular. Like s orbitals,
oriented. Since the lobes may be considered to p orbitals increase in size and energy with
lie along the x, y or z axis, they are given the increase in the principal quantum number
designations 2px, 2py, and 2pz. It should be and hence the order of the energy and size of
understood, however, that there is no simple various p orbitals is 4p > 3p > 2p. Further, like
relation between the values of ml (–1, 0 and +1) s orbitals, the probability density functions for
and the x, y and z directions. For our purpose, p-orbital also pass through value zero, besides
at zero and infinite distance, as the distance
from the nucleus increases. The number of
nodes are given by the n –2, that is number
of radial node is 1 for 3p orbital, two for 4p
orbital and so on.
For l = 2, the orbital is known as d-orbital
and the minimum value of principal quantum
number (n) has to be 3. as the value of l cannot
be greater than n–1. There are five ml values
(–2, –1, 0, +1 and +2) for l = 2 and thus there
are five d orbitals. The boundary surface
diagram of d orbitals are shown in Fig. 2.15.
The five d-orbitals are designated as dxy,
dyz, dxz, dx2–y2 and dz2. The shapes of the first
four d-orbitals are similar to each other, where
as that of the fifth one, dz2, is different from
others, but all five 3d orbitals are equivalent
in energy. The d orbitals for which n is greater
than 3 (4d, 5d...) also have shapes similar to
3d orbital, but differ in energy and size.
Besides the radial nodes (i.e., probability
density function is zero), the probability
density functions for the np and nd orbitals
are zero at the plane (s), passing through the
nucleus (origin). For example, in case of pz
orbital, xy-plane is a nodal plane, in case of
dxy orbital, there are two nodal planes passing
through the origin and bisecting the xy plane
containing z-axis. These are called angular
nodes and number of angular nodes are given
by ‘l’, i.e., one angular node for p orbitals, two
angular nodes for ‘d’ orbitals and so on. The
total number of nodes are given by (n–1),
i.e., sum of l angular nodes and (n – l – 1)
radial nodes.
2.6.3 Energies of Orbitals
Fig. 2.15 Boundary surface diagrams of the five The energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom
3d orbitals. is determined solely by the principal quantum

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 59 9/9/2022 4:28:20 PM

 60 chemistry

number. Thus the energy of the orbitals in The energy of an electron in a multi-
hydrogen atom increases as follows : electron atom, unlike that of the hydrogen
1s < 2s = 2p < 3s = 3p = 3d <4s = 4p = 4d atom, depends not only on its principal
= 4f < (2.23) quantum number (shell), but also on its
and is depicted in Fig. 2.16. Although the azimuthal quantum number (subshell). That
shapes of 2s and 2p orbitals are different, is, for a given principal quantum number, s,
an electron has the same energy when it is p, d, f ... all have different energies. Within
in the 2s orbital as when it is present in 2p a given principal quantum number, the
orbital. The orbitals having the same energy energy of orbitals increases in the order
are called degenerate. The 1s orbital in a s<p<d<f. For higher energy levels, these
differences are sufficiently pronounced and
hydrogen atom, as said earlier, corresponds
straggering of orbital energy may result,
to the most stable condition and is called the
e.g., 4s<3d and 6s<5d; 4f<6p. The main
ground state and an electron residing in this
reason for having different energies of the
orbital is most strongly held by the nucleus.
subshells is the mutual repulsion among the
An electron in the 2s, 2p or higher orbitals in
electrons in multi-electron atoms. The only
a hydrogen atom is in excited state.
electrical interaction present in hydrogen
atom is the attraction between the negatively
charged electron and the positively charged
nucleus. In multi-electron atoms, besides the
presence of attraction between the electron
and nucleus, there are repulsion terms
between every electron and other electrons
present in the atom. Thus the stability of an
electron in a multi-electron atom is because
total attractive interactions are more than
the repulsive interactions. In general, the
repulsive interaction of the electrons in the
outer shell with the electrons in the inner shell
are more important. On the other hand, the
attractive interactions of an electron increases
with increase of positive charge (Ze) on the
nucleus. Due to the presence of electrons in
the inner shells, the electron in the outer shell
will not experience the full positive charge of
the nucleus (Ze). The effect will be lowered
due to the partial screening of positive charge
on the nucleus by the inner shell electrons.
This is known as the shielding of the outer
Fig. 2.16 Energy level diagrams for the few shell electrons from the nucleus by the
electronic shells of (a) hydrogen atom inner shell electrons, and the net positive
and (b) multi-electronic atoms. Note that
charge experienced by the outer electrons is
orbitals for the same value of principal
quantum number, have the same known as effective nuclear charge (Zeff e).
energies even for different azimuthal Despite the shielding of the outer electrons
quantum number for hydrogen atom. from the nucleus by the inner shell electrons,
In case of multi-electron atoms, orbitals the attractive force experienced by the outer
with same principal quantum number shell electrons increases with increase of
possess different energies for different nuclear charge. In other words, the energy of
azimuthal quantum numbers.
interaction between, the nucleus and electron

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 60 9/9/2022 4:28:20 PM

 structure of atom 61

(that is orbital energy) decreases (that is Table 2.5 Arrangement of Orbitals with
more negative) with the increase of atomic Increasing Energy on the Basis
number (Z ). of (n+l ) Rule
Both the attractive and repulsive
interactions depend upon the shell and shape
of the orbital in which the electron is present.
For example electrons present in spherical
shaped, s orbital shields the outer electrons
from the nucleus more effectively as compared
to electrons present in p orbital. Similarly
electrons present in p orbitals shield the outer
electrons from the nucleus more than the
electrons present in d orbitals, even though all
these orbitals are present in the same shell.
Further within a shell, due to spherical shape
of s orbital, the s orbital electron spends more
time close to the nucleus in comparison to p
orbital electron which spends more time in
the vicinity of nucleus in comparison to d
orbital electron. In other words, for a given
shell (principal quantum number), the Zeff
experienced by the electron decreases with
increase of azimuthal quantum number (l),
that is, the s orbital electron will be more
tightly bound to the nucleus than p orbital
electron which in turn will be better tightly
bound than the d orbital electron. The energy
of electrons in s orbital will be lower (more
negative) than that of p orbital electron
which will have less energy than that of d
orbital electron and so on. Since the extent same energy. Lastly it may be mentioned here
of shielding from the nucleus is different for that energies of the orbitals in the same
electrons in different orbitals, it leads to the subshell decrease with increase in the
splitting of energy levels within the same atomic number (Zeff). For example, energy of
shell (or same principal quantum number), 2s orbital of hydrogen atom is greater than
that is, energy of electron in an orbital, as that of 2s orbital of lithium and that of lithium
mentioned earlier, depends upon the values is greater than that of sodium and so on, that
of n and l. Mathematically, the dependence is, E2s(H) > E2s(Li) > E2s(Na) > E2s(K).
of energies of the orbitals on n and l are quite
complicated but one simple rule is that, the 2.6.4 Filling of Orbitals in Atom
lower the value of (n + l) for an orbital, the The filling of electrons into the orbitals of
lower is its energy. If two orbitals have different atoms takes place according to
the same value of (n + l), the orbital with the aufbau principle which is based on the
lower value of n will have the lower energy. Pauli’s exclusion principle, the Hund’s rule
The Table 2.5 illustrates the (n + l ) rule and of maximum multiplicity and the relative
Fig. 2.16 depicts the energy levels of multi- energies of the orbitals.
electrons atoms. It may be noted that different
subshells of a particular shell have different Aufbau Principle
energies in case of multi-electrons atoms. The word ‘aufbau’ in German means ‘building
However, in hydrogen atom, these have the up’. The building up of orbitals means the

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 61 9/9/2022 4:28:20 PM

 62 chemistry

filling up of orbitals with electrons. The the top, the direction of the arrows gives the
principle states : In the ground state of the order of filling of orbitals, that is starting
atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of from right top to bottom left. With respect to
their increasing energies. In other words, placement of outermost valence electrons,
electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital it is remarkably accurate for all atoms. for
available to them and enter into higher energy example, valence electron in potassium
orbitals only after the lower energy orbitals must choose between 3d and 4s orbitals and
are filled. As you have learnt above, energy as predicted by this sequence, it is found
of a given orbital depends upon effective in 4s orbital. The above order should be
nuclear charge and different type of orbitals assumed to be a rough guide to the filling
are affected to different extent. Thus, there of energy levels. In many cases, the orbitals
is no single ordering of energies of orbitals are similar in energy and small changes in
which will be universally correct for all atoms. atomic structure may bring about a change
in the order of filling. Even then, the above
However, following order of energies of
series is a useful guide to the building of the
the orbitals is extremely useful:
electronic structure of an atom provided that
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 4f,
it is remembered that exceptions may occur.
5d, 6p, 7s...
Pauli Exclusion Principle
The order may be remembered by using
the method given in Fig. 2.17. Starting from The number of electrons to be filled in various
orbitals is restricted by the exclusion principle,
given by the Austrian scientist Wolfgang Pauli
(1926). According to this principle : No two
electrons in an atom can have the same set
of four quantum numbers. Pauli exclusion
principle can also be stated as : “Only two
electrons may exist in the same orbital and
these electrons must have opposite spin.”
This means that the two electrons can have
the same value of three quantum numbers
n, l and ml, but must have the opposite spin
quantum number. The restriction imposed
by Pauli’s exclusion principle on the number
of electrons in an orbital helps in calculating
the capacity of electrons to be present in any
subshell. For example, subshell 1s comprises
one orbital and thus the maximum number of
electrons present in 1s subshell can be two, in
p and d subshells, the maximum number of
electrons can be 6 and 10 and so on. This can
be summed up as : the maximum number
of electrons in the shell with principal
quantum number n is equal to 2n2.
Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
This rule deals with the filling of electrons into
the orbitals belonging to the same subshell
(that is, orbitals of equal energy, called
Fig.2.17 Order of filling of orbitals degenerate orbitals). It states : pairing of

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 62 9/9/2022 4:28:20 PM

 structure of atom 63

electrons in the orbitals belonging to the 1s orbital. Its configuration is, therefore, 1s2.
same subshell (p, d or f) does not take As mentioned above, the two electrons differ
place until each orbital belonging to that from each other with opposite spin, as can be
subshell has got one electron each i.e., it seen from the orbital diagram.
is singly occupied.
Since there are three p, five d and seven f
orbitals, therefore, the pairing of electrons will The third electron of lithium (Li) is not
start in the p, d and f orbitals with the entry allowed in the 1s orbital because of Pauli
of 4th, 6th and 8th electron, respectively. It exclusion principle. It, therefore, takes the
has been observed that half filled and fully next available choice, namely the 2s orbital.
filled degenerate set of orbitals acquire extra The electronic configuration of Li is 1s22s1.
stability due to their symmetry (see Section, The 2s orbital can accommodate one more
2.6.7). electron. The configuration of beryllium (Be)
2.6.5 Electronic Configuration of Atoms atom is, therefore, 1s2 2s2 (see Table 2.6,
page 66 for the electronic configurations of
The distribution of electrons into orbitals of an
elements).
atom is called its electronic configuration.
If one keeps in mind the basic rules which In the next six elements—boron
govern the filling of different atomic orbitals, (B, 1s22s22p1), carbon (C, 1s22s22p2), nitrogen
the electronic configurations of different (N, 1s22s22p3), oxygen (O, 1s22s22p4), fluorine
atoms can be written very easily. (F, 1s22s22p5) and neon (Ne, 1s22s22p6), the 2p
orbitals get progressively filled. This process
The electronic configuration of different is completed with the neon atom. The orbital
atoms can be represented in two ways. For picture of these elements can be represented
example : as follows :
(i) sa pbdc ...... notation
(ii) Orbital diagram

s p d
In the first notation, the subshell is
represented by the respective letter symbol
and the number of electrons present in the
subshell is depicted, as the super script, like
a, b, c, ... etc. The similar subshell represented
for different shells is differentiated by writing
the principal quantum number before the
respective subshell. In the second notation
each orbital of the subshell is represented
by a box and the electron is represented by
an arrow (↑) a positive spin or an arrow (↓) The electronic configuration of the
a negative spin. The advantage of second elements sodium (Na, 1s22s22p63s1) to argon
notation over the first is that it represents all (Ar,1s22s22p63s23p6), follow exactly the same
the four quantum numbers. pattern as the elements from lithium to neon
The hydrogen atom has only one electron with the difference that the 3s and 3p orbitals
which goes in the orbital with the lowest energy, are getting filled now. This process can be
namely 1s. The electronic configuration of the simplified if we represent the total number
hydrogen atom is 1s1 meaning that it has of electrons in the first two shells by the
one electron in the 1s orbital. The second name of element neon (Ne). The electronic
electron in helium (He) can also occupy the configuration of the elements from sodium to

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 63 9/9/2022 4:28:21 PM

 64 chemistry

argon can be written as (Na, [Ne]3s1) to (Ar, After this, filling of 6p, then 7s and finally 5f
[Ne] 3s23p6). The electrons in the completely and 6d orbitals takes place. The elements
filled shells are known as core electrons and after uranium (U) are all short-lived and all of
the electrons that are added to the electronic them are produced artificially. The electronic
shell with the highest principal quantum configurations of the known elements (as
number are called valence electrons. For determined by spectroscopic methods) are
example, the electrons in Ne are the core tabulated in Table 2.6 (page 66).
electrons and the electrons from Na to Ar are One may ask what is the utility of knowing
the valence electrons. In potassium (K) and the electron configuration? The modern
calcium (Ca), the 4s orbital, being lower in approach to the chemistry, infact, depends
energy than the 3d orbitals, is occupied by almost entirely on electronic distribution to
one and two electrons respectively.
understand and explain chemical behaviour.
A new pattern is followed beginning with For example, questions like why two or more
scandium (Sc). The 3d orbital, being lower atoms combine to form molecules, why some
in energy than the 4p orbital, is filled first. elements are metals while others are non-
Consequently, in the next ten elements, metals, why elements like helium and argon
scandium (Sc), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), are not reactive but elements like the halogens
chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), are reactive, find simple explanation from the
cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu) and zinc electronic configuration. These questions have
(Zn), the five 3d orbitals are progressively no answer in the Daltonian model of atom.
occupied. We may be puzzled by the fact A detailed understanding of the electronic
that chromium and copper have five and ten
structure of atom is, therefore, very essential
electrons in 3d orbitals rather than four and
for getting an insight into the various aspects
nine as their position would have indicated
of modern chemical knowledge.
with two-electrons in the 4s orbital. The
reason is that fully filled orbitals and half- 2.6.6 Stability of Completely Filled and
filled orbitals have extra stability (that is, Half Filled Subshells
lower energy). Thus p3, p6, d5, d10,f 7, f14 etc. The ground state electronic configuration of
configurations, which are either half-filled the atom of an element always corresponds to
or fully filled, are more stable. Chromium the state of the lowest total electronic energy.
and copper therefore adopt the d 5 and The electronic configurations of most of the
d 10 configuration (Section 2.6.7)[caution: atoms follow the basic rules given in Section
exceptions do exist] 2.6.5. However, in certain elements such as
With the saturation of the 3d orbitals, Cu, or Cr, where the two subshells (4s and
the filling of the 4p orbital starts at gallium 3d) differ slightly in their energies, an electron
(Ga) and is complete at krypton (Kr). In the shifts from a subshell of lower energy (4s) to a
next eighteen elements from rubidium (Rb) subshell of higher energy (3d), provided such
to xenon (Xe), the pattern of filling the 5s, a shift results in all orbitals of the subshell
4d and 5p orbitals are similar to that of 4s, of higher energy getting either completely
3d and 4p orbitals as discussed above. Then filled or half filled. The valence electronic
comes the turn of the 6s orbital. In caesium configurations of Cr and Cu, therefore, are
(Cs) and the barium (Ba), this orbital contains 3d5 4s1 and 3d10 4s1 respectively and not 3d4
one and two electrons, respectively. Then from 4s2 and 3d9 4s2. It has been found that there is
lanthanum (La) to mercury (Hg), the filling up extra stability associated with these electronic
of electrons takes place in 4f and 5d orbitals. configurations.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 64 9/9/2022 4:28:21 PM

 structure of atom 65

Causes of Stability of Completely Filled and Half-filled Subshells

The completely filled and completely

half-filled subshells are stable due to the
following reasons:
1. Symmetrical distribution of
electrons: It is well known that symmetry
leads to stability. The completely filled
or half filled subshells have symmetrical
distribution of electrons in them and
are therefore more stable. Electrons in
the same subshell (here 3d) have equal
energy but different spatial distribution.
Consequently, their shielding of one-
another is relatively small and the
electrons are more strongly attracted by
the nucleus.
2. Exchange Energy : The stabilizing
effect arises whenever two or more
electrons with the same spin are present
in the degenerate orbitals of a subshell.
These electrons tend to exchange their
positions and the energy released due to
this exchange is called exchange energy.
The number of exchanges that can take
place is maximum when the subshell
is either half filled or completely filled
(Fig. 2.18). As a result the exchange
energy is maximum and so is the stability.
You may note that the exchange
energy is at the basis of Hund’s rule
that electrons which enter orbitals of
equal energy have parallel spins as far
as possible. In other words, the extra
stability of half-filled and completely filled
subshell is due to: (i) relatively small
shielding, (ii) smaller coulombic repulsion
energy, and (iii) larger exchange energy.
Details about the exchange energy will be Fig. 2.18 Possible exchange for a d5
dealt with in higher classes. configuration

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 65 9/9/2022 4:28:21 PM

 66 chemistry

Table 2.6 Electronic Configurations of the Elements

* Elements with exceptional electronic configurations

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 66 9/9/2022 4:28:22 PM

 structure of atom 67

** Elements with atomic number 112 and above have been reported but not yet fully authenticated and named.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 67 9/9/2022 4:28:23 PM

 68 chemistry

Summary

Atoms are the building blocks of elements. They are the smallest parts of an element that
chemically react. The first atomic theory, proposed by John Dalton in 1808, regarded atom as
the ultimate indivisible particle of matter. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, it was
proved experimentally that atoms are divisible and consist of three fundamental particles:
electrons, protons and neutrons. The discovery of sub-atomic particles led to the proposal
of various atomic models to explain the structure of atom.
Thomson in 1898 proposed that an atom consists of uniform sphere of positive electricity
with electrons embedded into it. This model in which mass of the atom is considered to
be evenly spread over the atom was proved wrong by Rutherford’s famous alpha-particle
scattering experiment in 1909. Rutherford concluded that atom is made of a tiny positively
charged nucleus, at its centre with electrons revolving around it in circular orbits.
Rutherford model, which resembles the solar system, was no doubt an improvement over
Thomson model but it could not account for the stability of the atom i.e., why the electron
does not fall into the nucleus. Further, it was also silent about the electronic structure of
atoms i.e., about the distribution and relative energies of electrons around the nucleus. The
difficulties of the Rutherford model were overcome by Niels Bohr in 1913 in his model of the
hydrogen atom. Bohr postulated that electron moves around the nucleus in circular orbits.
Only certain orbits can exist and each orbit corresponds to a specific energy. Bohr calculated
the energy of electron in various orbits and for each orbit predicted the distance between the
electron and nucleus. Bohr model, though offering a satisfactory model for explaining the
spectra of the hydrogen atom, could not explain the spectra of multi-electron atoms. The
reason for this was soon discovered. In Bohr model, an electron is regarded as a charged
particle moving in a well defined circular orbit about the nucleus. The wave character of
the electron is ignored in Bohr’s theory. An orbit is a clearly defined path and this path can
completely be defined only if both the exact position and the exact velocity of the electron
at the same time are known. This is not possible according to the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle. Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, therefore, not only ignores the dual behaviour
of electron but also contradicts Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
Erwin Schrödinger, in 1926, proposed an equation called Schrödinger equation to
describe the electron distributions in space and the allowed energy levels in atoms. This
equation incorporates de Broglie’s concept of wave-particle duality and is consistent with
Heisenberg uncertainty principle. When Schrödinger equation is solved for the electron in a
hydrogen atom, the solution gives the possible energy states the electron can occupy [and
the corresponding wave function(s) (ψ) (which in fact are the mathematical functions) of the
electron associated with each energy state]. These quantized energy states and corresponding
wave functions which are characterized by a set of three quantum numbers (principal
quantum number n, azimuthal quantum number l and magnetic quantum number ml)
arise as a natural consequence in the solution of the Schrödinger equation. The restrictions
on the values of these three quantum numbers also come naturally from this solution. The
quantum mechanical model of the hydrogen atom successfully predicts all aspects of the
hydrogen atom spectrum including some phenomena that could not be explained by the
Bohr model.
According to the quantum mechanical model of the atom, the electron distribution of an
atom containing a number of electrons is divided into shells. The shells, in turn, are thought
to consist of one or more subshells and subshells are assumed to be composed of one or
more orbitals, which the electrons occupy. While for hydrogen and hydrogen like systems
(such as He+, Li2+ etc.) all the orbitals within a given shell have same energy, the energy of
the orbitals in a multi-electron atom depends upon the values of n and l: The lower the value
of (n + l ) for an orbital, the lower is its energy. If two orbitals have the same (n + l ) value,
the orbital with lower value of n has the lower energy. In an atom many such orbitals are

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 68 9/9/2022 4:28:23 PM

 structure of atom 69

possible and electrons are filled in those orbitals in order of increasing energy in accordance
with Pauli exclusion principle (no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four
quantum numbers) and Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity (pairing of electrons in the
orbitals belonging to the same subshell does not take place until each orbital belonging to
that subshell has got one electron each, i.e., is singly occupied). This forms the basis of the
electronic structure of atoms.

EXERCISES

2.1 (i) Calculate the number of electrons which will together weigh one gram.
(ii) Calculate the mass and charge of one mole of electrons.
2.2 (i) Calculate the total number of electrons present in one mole of methane.
(ii) Find (a) the total number and (b) the total mass of neutrons in 7 mg of 14C.
(Assume that mass of a neutron = 1.675 × 10–27 kg).
(iii) Find (a) the total number and (b) the total mass of protons in 34 mg of NH3
at STP.
Will the answer change if the temperature and pressure are changed ?
2.3 How many neutrons and protons are there in the following nuclei ?
13 16 24 56 88
6 C, 8 O, 12 Mg, 26 Fe, 38 Sr

2.4 Write the complete symbol for the atom with the given atomic number (Z) and atomic
mass (A)
(i) Z = 17, A = 35.
(ii) Z = 92, A = 233.
(iii) Z = 4, A = 9.
2.5 Yellow light emitted from a sodium lamp has a wavelength (λ) of 580 nm. Calculate
the frequency (ν) and wavenumber ( ) of the yellow light.
2.6 Find energy of each of the photons which
(i) correspond to light of frequency 3×1015 Hz.
(ii) have wavelength of 0.50 Å.
2.7 Calculate the wavelength, frequency and wavenumber of a light wave whose period
is 2.0 × 10–10 s.
2.8 What is the number of photons of light with a wavelength of 4000 pm that provide
1J of energy?
2.9 A photon of wavelength 4 × 10–7 m strikes on metal surface, the work function
of the metal being 2.13 eV. Calculate (i) the energy of the photon (eV),
(ii) the kinetic energy of the emission, and (iii) the velocity of the photoelectron
(1 eV= 1.6020 × 10–19 J).
2.10 Electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 242 nm is just sufficient to ionise the
sodium atom. Calculate the ionisation energy of sodium in kJ mol–1.
2.11 A 25 watt bulb emits monochromatic yellow light of wavelength of 0.57µm.
Calculate the rate of emission of quanta per second.
2.12 Electrons are emitted with zero velocity from a metal surface when it is exposed to
radiation of wavelength 6800 Å. Calculate threshold frequency (ν0 ) and work function
(W0 ) of the metal.
2.13 What is the wavelength of light emitted when the electron in a hydrogen atom undergoes
transition from an energy level with n = 4 to an energy level with n = 2?

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 69 9/9/2022 4:28:24 PM

 70 chemistry

2.14 How much energy is required to ionise a H atom if the electron occupies n = 5 orbit?
Compare your answer with the ionization enthalpy of H atom (energy required to
remove the electron from n =1 orbit).
2.15 What is the maximum number of emission lines when the excited electron of a H
atom in n = 6 drops to the ground state?
2.16 (i) The energy associated with the first orbit in the hydrogen atom is
–2.18 × 10–18 J atom–1. What is the energy associated with the fifth orbit?
(ii) Calculate the radius of Bohr’s fifth orbit for hydrogen atom.
2.17 Calculate the wavenumber for the longest wavelength transition in the Balmer series
of atomic hydrogen.
2.18 What is the energy in joules, required to shift the electron of the hydrogen atom from
the first Bohr orbit to the fifth Bohr orbit and what is the wavelength of the light
emitted when the electron returns to the ground state? The ground state electron
energy is –2.18 × 10–11 ergs.
2.19 The electron energy in hydrogen atom is given by En = (–2.18 × 10–18 )/n2 J. Calculate
the energy required to remove an electron completely from the n = 2 orbit. What is
the longest wavelength of light in cm that can be used to cause this transition?
2.20 Calculate the wavelength of an electron moving with a velocity of 2.05 × 107 m s–1.
2.21 The mass of an electron is 9.1 × 10–31 kg. If its K.E. is 3.0 × 10–25 J, calculate its
wavelength.
2.22 Which of the following are isoelectronic species i.e., those having the same number
of electrons?
Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, S2–, Ar.
2.23 (i) Write the electronic configurations of the following ions: (a) H– (b) Na+ (c) O2–
(d) F–
(ii) What are the atomic numbers of elements whose outermost electrons are
represented by (a) 3s1 (b) 2p3 and (c) 3p5 ?
(iii) Which atoms are indicated by the following configurations ?
(a) [He] 2s1 (b) [Ne] 3s2 3p3 (c) [Ar] 4s2 3d1.
2.24 What is the lowest value of n that allows g orbitals to exist?
2.25 An electron is in one of the 3d orbitals. Give the possible values of n, l and ml for
this electron.
2.26 An atom of an element contains 29 electrons and 35 neutrons. Deduce (i) the number
of protons and (ii) the electronic configuration of the element.
2.27 Give the number of electrons in the species
2.28 (i) An atomic orbital has n = 3. What are the possible values of l and ml ?
(ii) List the quantum numbers (ml and l) of electrons for 3d orbital.
(iii) Which of the following orbitals are possible?
1p, 2s, 2p and 3f
2.29 Using s, p, d notations, describe the orbital with the following quantum numbers.
(a) n=1, l=0; (b) n = 3; l=1 (c) n = 4; l =2; (d) n=4; l=3.
2.30 Explain, giving reasons, which of the following sets of quantum numbers are not
possible.
(a) n = 0, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = + ½
(b) n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = – ½
(c) n = 1, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = + ½
(d) n = 2, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = – ½

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 70 9/9/2022 4:28:24 PM

 structure of atom 71

(e) n = 3, l = 3, ml = –3, ms = + ½
(f) n = 3, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = + ½
2.31 How many electrons in an atom may have the following quantum numbers?
(a) n = 4, ms = – ½ (b) n = 3, l = 0
2.32 Show that the circumference of the Bohr orbit for the hydrogen atom is an integral
multiple of the de Broglie wavelength associated with the electron revolving around
the orbit.
2.33 What transition in the hydrogen spectrum would have the same wavelength as the
Balmer transition n = 4 to n = 2 of He+ spectrum ?
2.34 Calculate the energy required for the process
He+ (g)  He2+ (g) + e–
The ionization energy for the H atom in the ground state is 2.18 × 10–18 J atom–1
2.35 If the diameter of a carbon atom is 0.15 nm, calculate the number of carbon atoms
which can be placed side by side in a straight line across length of scale of length
20 cm long.
2.36 2 ×108 atoms of carbon are arranged side by side. Calculate the radius of carbon
atom if the length of this arrangement is 2.4 cm.
2.37 The diameter of zinc atom is 2.6 Å. Calculate (a) radius of zinc atom in pm and
(b) number of atoms present in a length of 1.6 cm if the zinc atoms are arranged
side by side lengthwise.
2.38 A certain particle carries 2.5 × 10–16C of static electric charge. Calculate the number
of electrons present in it.
2.39 In Milikan’s experiment, static electric charge on the oil drops has been obtained
by shining X-rays. If the static electric charge on the oil drop is –1.282 × 10–18C,
calculate the number of electrons present on it.
2.40 In Rutherford’s experiment, generally the thin foil of heavy atoms, like gold, platinum
etc. have been used to be bombarded by the α-particles. If the thin foil of light atoms
like aluminium etc. is used, what difference would be observed from the above
results ?
79 35
2.41 Symbols 35 Br
and 79
Br can be written, whereas symbols 79 Br
and 35
Br are not
acceptable. Answer briefly.
2.42 An element with mass number 81 contains 31.7% more neutrons as compared to
protons. Assign the atomic symbol.
2.43 An ion with mass number 37 possesses one unit of negative charge. If the ion
conatins 11.1% more neutrons than the electrons, find the symbol of the ion.
2.44 An ion with mass number 56 contains 3 units of positive charge and 30.4% more
neutrons than electrons. Assign the symbol to this ion.
2.45 Arrange the following type of radiations in increasing order of frequency: (a) radiation
from microwave oven (b) amber light from traffic signal (c) radiation from FM radio
(d) cosmic rays from outer space and (e) X-rays.
2.46 Nitrogen laser produces a radiation at a wavelength of 337.1 nm. If the number of
photons emitted is 5.6 × 1024, calculate the power of this laser.
2.47 Neon gas is generally used in the sign boards. If it emits strongly at 616 nm,
calculate (a) the frequency of emission, (b) distance traveled by this radiation in
30 s (c) energy of quantum and (d) number of quanta present if it produces 2 J of
energy.

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 71 9/9/2022 4:28:24 PM

 72 chemistry

2.48 In astronomical observations, signals observed from the distant stars are generally
weak. If the photon detector receives a total of 3.15 × 10–18 J from the radiations of
600 nm, calculate the number of photons received by the detector.
2.49 Lifetimes of the molecules in the excited states are often measured by using pulsed
radiation source of duration nearly in the nano second range. If the radiation source
has the duration of 2 ns and the number of photons emitted during the pulse source
is 2.5 × 1015, calculate the energy of the source.
2.50 The longest wavelength doublet absorption transition is observed at 589 and 589.6
nm. Calcualte the frequency of each transition and energy difference between two
excited states.
2.51 The work function for caesium atom is 1.9 eV. Calculate (a) the threshold wavelength
and (b) the threshold frequency of the radiation. If the caesium element is irradiated
with a wavelength 500 nm, calculate the kinetic energy and the velocity of the ejected
photoelectron.
2.52 Following results are observed when sodium metal is irradiated with different
wavelengths. Calculate (a) threshold wavelength and, (b) Planck’s constant.
λ (nm) 500 450 400
v × 10–5 (cm s–1) 2.55 4.35 5.35
2.53 The ejection of the photoelectron from the silver metal in the photoelectric effect
experiment can be stopped by applying the voltage of 0.35 V when the radiation
256.7 nm is used. Calculate the work function for silver metal.
2.54 If the photon of the wavelength 150 pm strikes an atom and one of tis inner bound
electrons is ejected out with a velocity of 1.5 × 107 m s–1, calculate the energy with
which it is bound to the nucleus.
2.55 Emission transitions in the Paschen series end at orbit n = 3 and start from orbit n
and can be represeted as v = 3.29 × 1015 (Hz) [1/32 – 1/n2]
Calculate the value of n if the transition is observed at 1285 nm. Find the region of
the spectrum.
2.56 Calculate the wavelength for the emission transition if it starts from the orbit having
radius 1.3225 nm and ends at 211.6 pm. Name the series to which this transition
belongs and the region of the spectrum.
2.57 Dual behaviour of matter proposed by de Broglie led to the discovery of electron
microscope often used for the highly magnified images of biological molecules and
other type of material. If the velocity of the electron in this microscope is 1.6 × 106
ms–1, calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with this electron.
2.58 Similar to electron diffraction, neutron diffraction microscope is also used for the
determination of the structure of molecules. If the wavelength used here is 800 pm,
calculate the characteristic velocity associated with the neutron.
2.59 If the velocity of the electron in Bohr’s first orbit is 2.19 × 106 ms–1, calculate the
de Broglie wavelength associated with it.
2.60 The velocity associated with a proton moving in a potential difference of 1000 V
is 4.37 × 105 ms–1. If the hockey ball of mass 0.1 kg is moving with this velocity,
calcualte the wavelength associated with this velocity.
2.61 If the position of the electron is measured within an accuracy of + 0.002 nm, calculate
the uncertainty in the momentum of the electron. Suppose the momentum of the
electron is h/4πm × 0.05 nm, is there any problem in defining this value.
2.62 The quantum numbers of six electrons are given below. Arrange them in order of
increasing energies. If any of these combination(s) has/have the same energy lists:
1. n = 4, l = 2, ml = –2 , ms = –1/2
2. n = 3, l = 2, ml = 1 , ms = +1/2

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 72 9/9/2022 4:28:24 PM

 structure of atom 73

3. n = 4, l = 1, ml = 0 , ms = +1/2
4. n = 3, l = 2, ml = –2 , ms = –1/2
5. n = 3, l = 1, ml = –1 , ms = +1/2
6. n = 4, l = 1, ml = 0 , ms = +1/2
2.63 The bromine atom possesses 35 electrons. It contains 6 electrons in 2p orbital,
6 electrons in 3p orbital and 5 electron in 4p orbital. Which of these electron
experiences the lowest effective nuclear charge ?
2.64 Among the following pairs of orbitals which orbital will experience the larger effective
nuclear charge? (i) 2s and 3s, (ii) 4d and 4f, (iii) 3d and 3p.
2.65 The unpaired electrons in Al and Si are present in 3p orbital. Which electrons will
experience more effective nuclear charge from the nucleus ?
2.66 Indicate the number of unpaired electrons in : (a) P, (b) Si, (c) Cr, (d) Fe and (e) Kr.
2.67 (a) How many subshells are associated with n = 4 ? (b) How many electrons will be
present in the subshells having ms value of –1/2 for n = 4 ?

2024-25

Unit 2.indd 73 9/9/2022 4:28:24 PM

 Unit 3

Classification of Elements and

Periodicity in Properties

The Periodic Table is arguably the most important concept

in chemistry, both in principle and in practice. It is the
everyday support for students, it suggests new avenues
of research to professionals, and it provides a succinct
After studying this Unit, you will be organization of the whole of chemistry. It is a remarkable
able to demonstration of the fact that the chemical elements are
not a random cluster of entities but instead display trends
• appreciate how the concept of
and lie together in families. An awareness of the Periodic
grouping elements in accordance
Table is essential to anyone who wishes to disentangle
to their properties led to the
the world and see how it is built up from the fundamental
development of Periodic Table.
building blocks of the chemistry, the chemical elements.
• understand the Periodic Law;
• understand the significance of Glenn T. Seaborg
atomic number and electronic
configuration as the basis for
periodic classification;
In this Unit, we will study the historical development of the
• name the elements with
Z >100 according to IUPAC
Periodic Table as it stands today and the Modern Periodic
nomenclature; Law. We will also learn how the periodic classification
follows as a logical consequence of the electronic
• classify elements into s, p, d,
f blocks and learn their main configuration of atoms. Finally, we shall examine some of
characteristics; the periodic trends in the physical and chemical properties
• recognise the periodic trends in of the elements.
physical and chemical properties
of elements;
3.1 WHY DO WE NEED TO CLASSIFY ELEMENTS ?
• compare the reactivity of elements We know by now that the elements are the basic units of
and correlate it with their all types of matter. In 1800, only 31 elements were known.
occurrence in nature; By  1865, the number of identified elements had more than
• explain the relationship between doubled to 63. At present 114 elements are known. Of
ionization enthalpy and metallic them, the recently discovered elements are man-made.
character; Efforts to synthesise new elements are continuing. With
• use scientific vocabulary such a large number of elements it is very difficult to
appropriately to communicate study individually the chemistry of all these elements and
ideas related to certain important their innumerable compounds individually. To ease out
properties of atoms e.g., this problem, scientists searched for a systematic way to
atomic/ionic radii, ionization
organise their knowledge by classifying the elements. Not
enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy,
electronegativity, valence of only that it would rationalize known chemical facts about
elements. elements, but even predict new ones for undertaking
further study.

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 74 9/9/2022 4:36:12 PM

 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 75

3.2 GENESIS OF PERIODIC the periodic recurrence of properties. This

CLASSIFICATION also did not attract much attention. The
Classification of elements into groups and English chemist, John Alexander Newlands
development of Periodic Law and Periodic in 1865 profounded the Law of Octaves. He
Table are the consequences of systematising arranged the elements in increasing order
the knowledge gained by a number of of their atomic weights and noted that every
scientists through their observations and eighth element had properties similar to the
experiments. The German chemist, Johann first element (Table 3.2). The relationship was
Dobereiner in early 1800’s was the first to just like every eighth note that resembles the
consider the idea of trends among properties first in octaves of music. Newlands’s Law of
of elements. By 1829 he noted a similarity Octaves seemed to be true only for elements
among the physical and chemical properties up to calcium. Although his idea was not
of several groups of three elements (Triads). In widely accepted at that time, he, for his work,
each case, he noticed that the middle element was later awarded Davy Medal in 1887 by the
of each of the Triads had an atomic weight Royal Society, London.
about half way between the atomic weights of The Periodic Law, as we know it today
the other two (Table 3.1). Also the properties owes its development to the Russian chemist,
of the middle element were in between those Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) and the
of the other two members. Since Dobereiner’s German chemist, Lothar Meyer (1830-1895).

Table 3.1 Dobereiner’s Triads

Atomic Atomic Atomic

Element Element Element
weight weight weight

Li 7 Ca 40 Cl 35.5
Na 23 Sr 88 Br 80
K 39 Ba 137 I 127

relationship, referred to as the Law of Triads, Working independently, both the chemists in
seemed to work only for a few elements, it was 1869 proposed that on arranging elements in
dismissed as coincidence. The next reported the increasing order of their atomic weights,
attempt to classify elements was made by a similarities appear in physical and chemical
French geologist, A.E.B. de Chancourtois in properties at regular intervals. Lothar Meyer
1862. He arranged the then known elements plotted the physical properties such as
in order of increasing atomic weights and atomic volume, melting point and boiling
made a cylindrical table of elements to display point against atomic weight and obtained

Table 3.2 Newlands’ Octaves

Element Li Be B C N O F
At. wt. 7 9 11 12 14 16 19
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
At. wt. 23 24 27 29 31 32 35.5
Element K Ca
At. wt. 39 40

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 75 9/9/2022 4:36:12 PM

 76 chemistry

a periodically repeated pattern. Unlike classification if the order of atomic weight

Newlands, Lothar Meyer observed a change was strictly followed. He ignored the order
in length of that repeating pattern. By 1868, of atomic weights, thinking that the atomic
Lothar Meyer had developed a table of the measurements might be incorrect, and placed
elements that closely resembles the Modern the elements with similar properties together.
Periodic Table. However, his work was not For example, iodine with lower atomic weight
published until after the work of Dmitri than that of tellurium (Group VI) was placed
Mendeleev, the scientist who is generally in Group VII along with fluorine, chlorine,
credited with the development of the Modern bromine because of similarities in properties
Periodic Table. (Fig. 3.1). At the same time, keeping his
While Dobereiner initiated the study of primary aim of arranging the elements of
periodic relationship, it was Mendeleev who similar properties in the same group, he
was responsible for publishing the Periodic proposed that some of the elements were
Law for the first time. It states as follows : still undiscovered and, therefore, left several
gaps in the table. For example, both gallium
The properties of the elements are and germanium were unknown at the time
a periodic function of their atomic
Mendeleev published his Periodic Table.
weights.
He left the gap under aluminium and a gap
Mendeleev arranged elements in horizontal under silicon, and called these elements
rows and vertical columns of a table in order Eka-Aluminium and Eka-Silicon. Mendeleev
of their increasing atomic weights in such a predicted not only the existence of gallium and
way that the elements with similar properties germanium, but also described some of their
occupied the same vertical column or group. general physical properties. These elements
Mendeleev’s system of classifying elements were discovered later. Some of the properties
was more elaborate than that of Lothar predicted by Mendeleev for these elements
Meyer’s. He fully recognized the significance and those found experimentally are listed in
of periodicity and used broader range of Table 3.3.
physical and chemical properties to classify
the elements. In particular, Mendeleev relied The boldness of Mendeleev’s quantitative
on the similarities in the empirical formulas predictions and their eventual success
and properties of the compounds formed by made him and his Periodic Table famous.
the elements. He realized that some of the Mendeleev’s Periodic Table published in 1905
elements did not fit in with his scheme of is shown in Fig. 3.1.

Table 3.3 Mendeleev’s Predictions for the Elements Eka-aluminium (Gallium) and
Eka-silicon (Germanium)

Eka-aluminium Gallium Eka-silicon Germanium

Property
(predicted) (found) (predicted) (found)

Atomic weight 68 70 72 72.6

Density/(g/cm3) 5.9 5.94 5.5 5.36

Melting point/K Low 302.93 High 1231

Formula of oxide E2O3 Ga2O3 EO2 GeO2

Formula of chloride E Cl3 GaCl3 ECl4 GeCl4

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 76 9/9/2022 4:36:12 PM

Unit 3.indd 77
PERIODIC SYSTEM OF THE ELEMENTS IN GROUPS AND SERIES

2024-25
Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

Fig. 3.1 Mendeleev’s Periodic Table published earlier

77

9/9/2022 4:36:12 PM
 78 chemistry

3.3 MODERN PERIODIC LAW AND THE physical and chemical properties of elements
PRESENT FORM OF THE PERIODIC and their compounds.
TABLE Numerous forms of Periodic Table have
We must bear in mind that when Mendeleev been devised from time to time. Some
developed his Periodic Table, chemists forms emphasise chemical reactions and
knew nothing about the internal structure valence, whereas others stress the electronic
of atom. However, the beginning of the 20th configuration of elements. A modern version,
century witnessed profound developments the so-called “long form” of the Periodic
in theories about sub-atomic particles. In Table of the elements (Fig. 3.2), is the most
1913, the English physicist, Henry Moseley convenient and widely used. The horizontal
observed regularities in the characteristic rows (which Mendeleev called series) are
X-ray spectra of the elements. A plot of called periods and the vertical columns,
(where is frequency of X-rays emitted) groups. Elements having similar outer
against atomic number (Z) gave a straight electronic configurations in their atoms
line and not the plot of vs atomic mass. are arranged in vertical columns, referred
He thereby showed that the atomic number to as groups or families. According to the
is a more fundamental property of an element recommendation of International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), the
than its atomic mass. Mendeleev’s Periodic
groups are numbered from 1 to 18 replacing
Law was, therefore, accordingly modified. This
the older notation of groups IA … VIIA, VIII,
is known as the Modern Periodic Law and
IB … VIIB and 0.
can be stated as :
There are altogether seven periods. The
The physical and chemical properties period number corresponds to the highest
of the elements are periodic functions principal quantum number (n) of the elements
of their atomic numbers. in the period. The first period contains 2
The Periodic Law revealed important elements. The subsequent periods consists of
analogies among the 94 naturally occurring 8, 8, 18, 18 and 32 elements, respectively. The
elements (neptunium and plutonium like seventh period is incomplete and like the sixth
actinium and protoactinium are also found period would have a theoretical maximum
in pitch blende – an ore of uranium). It (on the basis of quantum numbers) of 32
stimulated renewed interest in Inorganic elements. In this form of the Periodic Table,
Chemistry and has carried into the present 14 elements of both sixth and seventh periods
with the creation of artificially produced (lanthanoids and actinoids, respectively) are
short-lived elements. placed in separate panels at the bottom*.
You may recall that the atomic number
3.4 NOMENCLATURE OF ELEMENTS
is equal to the nuclear charge (i.e., number
WITH ATOMIC NUMBERS > 100
of protons) or the number of electrons in
a neutral atom. It is then easy to visualize The naming of the new elements had been
the significance of quantum numbers and traditionally the privilege of the discoverer
electronic configurations in periodicity of (or discoverers) and the suggested name was
elements. In fact, it is now recognized that the ratified by the IUPAC. In recent years this has
Periodic Law is essentially the consequence led to some controversy. The new elements
of the periodic variation in electronic with very high atomic numbers are so unstable
configurations, which indeed determine the that only minute quantities, sometimes only

* Glenn T. Seaborg’s work in the middle of the 20th century starting with the discovery of plutonium in 1940, followed by
those of all the transuranium elements from 94 to 102 led to reconfiguration of the periodic table placing the actinoids below
the lanthanoids. In 1951, Seaborg was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work. Element 106 has been named
Seaborgium (Sg) in his honour.

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 78 9/9/2022 4:36:13 PM

Unit 3.indd 79
0

IA IIA III B IV B VB VI B VII B

III A IV A VA VI A VII A ← VIII → IB II B

2024-25
Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

Fig. 3.2 Long form of the Periodic Table of the Elements with their atomic numbers and ground state outer electronic
configurations. The groups are numbered 1-18 in accordance with the 1984 IUPAC recommendations. This
notation replaces the old numbering scheme of IA–VIIA, VIII, IB–VIIB and 0 for the elements.
79

9/9/2022 4:36:13 PM
 80 chemistry

a few atoms of them are obtained. Their digits which make up the atomic number and
synthesis and characterisation, therefore, “ium” is added at the end. The IUPAC names
require highly sophisticated costly equipment for elements with Z above 100 are shown in
and laboratory. Such work is carried out with Table 3.5.
competitive spirit only in some laboratories
in the world. Scientists, before collecting the Table 3.4 Notation for IUPAC
reliable data on the new element, at times Nomenclature of Elements
get tempted to claim for its discovery. For
example, both American and Soviet scientists Digit Name Abbreviation
claimed credit for discovering element 104.
0 nil n
The Americans named it Rutherfordium
1 un u
whereas Soviets named it Kurchatovium. To
2 bi b
avoid such problems, the IUPAC has made
3 tri t
recommendation that until a new element’s
4 quad q
discovery is proved, and its name is officially
5 pent p
recognised, a systematic nomenclature be
6 hex h
derived directly from the atomic number of
7 sept s
the element using the numerical roots for
8 oct o
0 and numbers 1-9. These are shown in
9 enn e
Table 3.4. The roots are put together in order of

Table 3.5 Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number Above 100

Atomic Name according to IUPAC IUPAC

Symbol
Number IUPAC nomenclature Official Name Symbol

101 Unnilunium Unu Mendelevium Md

102 Unnilbium Unb Nobelium No
103 Unniltrium Unt Lawrencium Lr
104 Unnilquadium Unq Rutherfordium Rf
105 Unnilpentium Unp Dubnium Db
106 Unnilhexium Unh Seaborgium Sg
107 Unnilseptium Uns Bohrium Bh
108 Unniloctium Uno Hassium Hs
109 Unnilennium Une Meitnerium Mt
110 Ununnillium Uun Darmstadtium Ds
111 Unununnium Uuu Rontgenium Rg
112 Ununbium Uub Copernicium Cn
113 Ununtrium Uut Nihonium Nh
114 Ununquadium Uuq Flerovium Fl
115 Ununpentium Uup Moscovium Mc
116 Ununhexium Uuh Livermorium Lv
117 Ununseptium Uus Tennessine Ts
118 Ununoctium Uuo Oganesson Og

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 80 9/9/2022 4:36:13 PM

 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 81

Thus, the new element first gets a be readily seen that the number of elements
temporary name, with symbol consisting in each period is twice the number of atomic
of three letters. Later permanent name orbitals available in the energy level that is
and symbol are given by a vote of IUPAC being filled. The first period (n = 1) starts with
representatives from each country. The the filling of the lowest level (1s) and therefore
permanent name might reflect the country has two elements — hydrogen (ls1) and helium
(or state of the country) in which the element (ls2) when the first shell (K) is completed. The
was discovered, or pay tribute to a notable second period (n = 2) starts with lithium and the
scientist. As of now, elements with atomic third electron enters the 2s orbital. The next
numbers up to 118 have been discovered. element, beryllium has four electrons and has
Official names of all elements have been the electronic configuration 1s22s2. Starting
announced by IUPAC. from the next element boron, the 2p orbitals
are filled with electrons when the L shell is
Problem 3.1 completed at neon (2s22p6). Thus there are
What would be the IUPAC name and 8 elements in the second period. The third
symbol for the element with atomic period (n = 3) begins at sodium, and the added
number 120? electron enters a 3s orbital. Successive filling
of 3s and 3p orbitals gives rise to the third
Solution period of 8 elements from sodium to argon. The
From Table 3.4, the roots for 1, 2 and 0 fourth period (n = 4) starts at potassium, and
are un, bi and nil, respectively. Hence, the added electrons fill up the 4s orbital. Now
the symbol and the name respectively you may note that before the 4p orbital is filled,
are Ubn and unbinilium. filling up of 3d orbitals becomes energetically
favourable and we come across the so called 3d
3.5 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS transition series of elements. This starts from
OF ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC scandium (Z = 21) which has the electronic
TABLE configuration 3d1 4s2. The 3d orbitals are filled
In the preceding unit we have learnt that an at zinc (Z=30) with electronic configuration
electron in an atom is characterised by a set 3d104s2. The fourth period ends at krypton
of four quantum numbers, and the principal with the filling up of the 4p orbitals. Altogether
quantum number (n ) defines the main energy we have 18 elements in this fourth period. The
level known as shell. We have also studied fifth period (n = 5) beginning with rubidium
about the filling of electrons into different is similar to the fourth period and contains
subshells, also referred to as orbitals (s, p, the 4d transition series starting at yttrium
d, f ) in an atom. The distribution of electrons (Z = 39). This period ends at xenon with the
into orbitals of an atom is called its electronic filling up of the 5p orbitals. The sixth period
configuration. An element’s location in the (n = 6) contains 32 elements and successive
Periodic Table reflects the quantum numbers electrons enter 6s, 4f, 5d and 6p orbitals, in
of the last orbital filled. In this section we the order — filling up of the 4f orbitals begins
will observe a direct connection between the with cerium (Z = 58) and ends at lutetium
electronic configurations of the elements and (Z = 71) to give the 4f-inner transition series
the long form of the Periodic Table. which is called the lanthanoid series. The
seventh period (n = 7) is similar to the sixth
(a) Electronic Configurations in Periods period with the successive filling up of the
The period indicates the value of n for the 7s, 5f, 6d and 7p orbitals and includes most
outermost or valence shell. In other words, of the man-made radioactive elements. This
successive period in the Periodic Table is period will end at the element with atomic
associated with the filling of the next higher number 118 which would belong to the noble
principal energy level (n = 1, n = 2, etc.). It can gas family. Filling up of the 5f orbitals after

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 81 9/9/2022 4:36:13 PM

 82 chemistry

actinium (Z = 89) gives the 5f-inner transition a theoretical foundation for the periodic
series known as the actinoid series. The 4f- classification. The elements in a vertical column
and 5f-inner transition series of elements of the Periodic Table constitute a group or
are placed separately in the Periodic Table family and exhibit similar chemical behaviour.
to maintain its structure and to preserve the This similarity arises because these elements
principle of classification by keeping elements have the same number and same distribution
with similar properties in a single column. of electrons in their outermost orbitals. We
can classify the elements into four blocks viz.,
Problem 3.2 s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block
How would you justify the presence depending on the type of atomic orbitals that
of 18 elements in the 5th period of the are being filled with electrons. This is illustrated
Periodic Table? in Fig. 3.3. We notice two exceptions to this
Solution categorisation. Strictly, helium belongs to the
s-block but its positioning in the p-block
When n = 5, l = 0, 1, 2, 3. The order
in which the energy of the available along with other group 18 elements is
orbitals 4d, 5s and 5p increases is 5s justified because it has a completely filled
< 4d < 5p. The total number of orbitals valence shell (1s2) and as a result, exhibits
available are 9. The maximum number properties characteristic of other noble gases.
of electrons that can be accommodated The other exception is hydrogen. It has only
is 18; and therefore 18 elements are one s-electron and hence can be placed in
there in the 5th period. group 1 (alkali metals). It can also
gain an electron to achieve a noble gas
(b) Groupwise Electronic Configurations arrangement and hence it can behave
Elements in the same vertical column or similar to a group 17 (halogen family)
group have similar valence shell electronic elements. Because it is a special case, we
configurations, the same number of electrons shall place hydrogen separately at the top of
in the outer orbitals, and similar properties. the Periodic Table as shown in Fig. 3.2 and
For example, the Group 1 elements (alkali Fig. 3.3. We will briefly discuss the salient
metals) all have ns1 valence shell electronic features of the four types of elements marked in
configuration as shown below. the Periodic Table. More about these elements
Atomic number Symbol Electronic configuration
3 Li 1s22s1 (or) [He]2s1
11 Na 1s22s22p63s1 (or) [Ne]3s1
19 K 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 (or) [Ar]4s1
37 Rb 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p65s1 (or) [Kr]5s1
55 Cs 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p66s1 (or) [Xe]6s1
87 Fr [Rn]7s1

Thus it can be seen that the properties of will be discussed later. During the description
an element have periodic dependence upon of their features certain terminology has been
its atomic number and not on relative atomic used which has been classified in section 3.7.
mass.
3.6 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS 3.6.1 The s-Block Elements
AND TY P E S OF E L E M E NTS : The elements of Group 1 (alkali metals) and
s-, p-, d-, f- BLOCKS Group 2 (alkaline earth metals) which have
The aufbau (build up) principle and the ns1 and ns2 outermost electronic configuration
electronic configuration of atoms provide belong to the s-Block Elements. They are all

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 82 9/9/2022 4:36:13 PM

Unit 3.indd 83
Nh Mc Ts Og

2024-25
Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

Fig. 3.3 The types of elements in the Periodic Table based on the orbitals that
are being filled. Also shown is the broad division of elements into METALS
( ), NON-METALS ( ) and METALLOIDS ( ).
83

11/2/2022 4:28:19 PM
 84 chemistry

reactive metals with low ionization enthalpies. valence (oxidation states), paramagnetism and
They lose the outermost electron(s) readily to oftenly used as catalysts. However, Zn, Cd and
form 1+ ion (in the case of alkali metals) or 2+ Hg which have the electronic configuration,
ion (in the case of alkaline earth metals). The (n-1) d10ns2 do not show most of the properties
metallic character and the reactivity increase of transition elements. In a way, transition
as we go down the group. Because of high metals form a bridge between the chemically
reactivity they are never found pure in nature. active metals of s-block elements and the
The compounds of the s-block elements, with less active elements of Groups 13 and 14 and
the exception of those of lithium and beryllium thus take their familiar name “Transition
are predominantly ionic. Elements”.

3.6.2 The p-Block Elements 3.6.4 The f-Block Elements

(Inner-Transition Elements)
The p-Block Elements comprise those
belonging to Group 13 to 18 and these The two rows of elements at the bottom of
the Periodic Table, called the Lanthanoids,
together with the s-Block Elements are
Ce(Z = 58) – Lu(Z = 71) and Actinoids,
called the Representative Elements or Main Th(Z = 90) – Lr (Z = 103) are characterised by
Group Elements. The outermost electronic the outer electronic configuration (n-2)f1-14
configuration varies from ns2np1 to ns2np6 (n-1)d0–1ns2. The last electron added to each
in each period. At the end of each period is element is filled in f- orbital. These two series
a noble gas element with a closed valence of elements are hence called the Inner-
shell ns2np6 configuration. All the orbitals Transition Elements (f-Block Elements).
in the valence shell of the noble gases are They are all metals. Within each series, the
completely filled by electrons and it is very properties of the elements are quite similar.
difficult to alter this stable arrangement by The chemistry of the early actinoids is
the addition or removal of electrons. The more complicated than the corresponding
noble gases thus exhibit very low chemical lanthanoids, due to the large number of
reactivity. Preceding the noble gas family oxidation states possible for these actinoid
are two chemically important groups of non- elements. Actinoid elements are radioactive.
Many of the actinoid elements have been made
metals. They are the halogens (Group 17) and
only in nanogram quantities or even less by
the chalcogens (Group 16). These two groups
nuclear reactions and their chemistry is not
of elements have highly negative electron fully studied. The elements after uranium are
gain enthalpies and readily add one or two called Transuranium Elements.
electrons respectively to attain the stable
noble gas configuration. The non-metallic Problem 3.3
character increases as we move from left to
The elements Z = 117 and 120 have not yet
right across a period and metallic character been discovered. In which family/group
increases as we go down the group. would you place these elements and
also give the electronic configuration in
3.6.3 The d-Block Elements (Transition
each case.
Elements)
These are the elements of Group 3 to 12 in Solution
the centre of the Periodic Table. These are We see from Fig. 3.2, that element
characterised by the filling of inner d orbitals with Z = 117, would belong to the
by electrons and are therefore referred to as halogen family (Group 17) and the
d-Block Elements. These elements have electronic configuration would be [Rn]
5f146d107s27p5. The element with Z = 120,
the general outer electronic configuration
will be placed in Group 2 (alkaline earth
(n-1)d1-10ns0-2 except for Pd where its electronic metals), and will have the electronic
configuration is 4d105s0.. They are all metals. configuration [Uuo]8s2.
They mostly form coloured ions, exhibit variable

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 84 11/2/2022 4:28:19 PM

 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 85

3.6.5 Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids

Solution
In addition to displaying the classification
of elements into s-, p-, d-, and f-blocks, Metallic character increases down a
group and decreases along a period as
Fig. 3.3 shows another broad classification
we move from left to right. Hence the
of elements based on their properties. The order of increasing metallic character
elements can be divided into Metals and is: P < Si < Be < Mg < Na.
Non-Metals. Metals comprise more than
78% of all known elements and appear on 3.7 PERIODIC TRENDS IN PROPERTIES
the left side of the Periodic Table. Metals are OF ELEMENTS
usually solids at room temperature [mercury
There are many observable patterns in the
is an exception; gallium and caesium also
physical and chemical properties of elements
have very low melting points (303K and
as we descend in a group or move across a
302K, respectively)]. Metals usually have high
period in the Periodic Table. For example,
melting and boiling points. They are good within a period, chemical reactivity tends to
conductors of heat and electricity. They are be high in Group 1 metals, lower in elements
malleable (can be flattened into thin sheets by towards the middle of the table, and increases
hammering) and ductile (can be drawn into to a maximum in the Group 17 non-metals.
wires). In contrast, non-metals are located at Likewise within a group of representative
the top right hand side of the Periodic Table. metals (say alkali metals) reactivity increases
In fact, in a horizontal row, the property of on moving down the group, whereas within a
elements change from metallic on the left to group of non-metals (say halogens), reactivity
non-metallic on the right. Non-metals are decreases down the group. But why do the
usually solids or gases at room temperature properties of elements follow these trends?
with low melting and boiling points (boron And how can we explain periodicity? To
and carbon are exceptions). They are poor answer these questions, we must look into the
conductors of heat and electricity. Most non- theories of atomic structure and properties
metallic solids are brittle and are neither of the atom. In this section we shall discuss
malleable nor ductile. The elements become the periodic trends in certain physical and
more metallic as we go down a group; the chemical properties and try to explain them
non-metallic character increases as one goes in terms of number of electrons and energy
from left to right across the Periodic Table. levels.
The change from metallic to non-metallic
3.7.1 Trends in Physical Properties
character is not abrupt as shown by the thick
zig-zag line in Fig. 3.3. The elements (e.g., There are numerous physical properties of
silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and elements such as melting and boiling points,
tellurium) bordering this line and running heats of fusion and vaporization, energy
diagonally across the Periodic Table show of atomization, etc. which show periodic
variations. However, we shall discuss the
properties that are characteristic of both
periodic trends with respect to atomic and
metals and non-metals. These elements are
ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, electron gain
called Semi-metals or Metalloids.
enthalpy and electronegativity.
Problem 3.4 (a) Atomic Radius
Considering the atomic number and You can very well imagine that finding the
position in the periodic table, arrange size of an atom is a lot more complicated than
the following elements in the increasing
measuring the radius of a ball. Do you know
order of metallic character : Si, Be, Mg,
Na, P. why? Firstly, because the size of an atom
(~ 1.2 Å i.e., 1.2 × 10–10 m in radius) is very

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 85 9/9/2022 4:36:14 PM

 86 chemistry

small. Secondly, since the electron cloud The atomic radii of a few elements are listed
surrounding the atom does not have a sharp in Table 3.6. Two trends are obvious. We can
boundary, the determination of the atomic explain these trends in terms of nuclear charge
size cannot be precise. In other words, there and energy level. The atomic size generally
is no practical way by which the size of an decreases across a period as illustrated in
individual atom can be measured. However, Fig. 3.4(a) for the elements of the second
an estimate of the atomic size can be made by period. It is because within the period the
knowing the distance between the atoms in outer electrons are in the same valence shell
the combined state. One practical approach to and the effective nuclear charge increases
estimate the size of an atom of a non-metallic as the atomic number increases resulting in
element is to measure the distance between the increased attraction of electrons to the
two atoms when they are bound together nucleus. Within a family or vertical column
by a single bond in a covalent molecule and of the periodic table, the atomic radius
from this value, the “Covalent Radius” of the increases regularly with atomic number as
element can be calculated. For example, the illustrated in Fig. 3.4(b). For alkali metals
bond distance in the chlorine molecule (Cl2) and halogens, as we descend the groups,
is 198 pm and half this distance (99 pm), is the principal quantum number (n) increases
taken as the atomic radius of chlorine. For
and the valence electrons are farther from
metals, we define the term “Metallic Radius”
the nucleus. This happens because the inner
which is taken as half the internuclear
energy levels are filled with electrons, which
distance separating the metal cores in the
serve to shield the outer electrons from the
metallic crystal. For example, the distance
pull of the nucleus. Consequently the size of
between two adjacent copper atoms in solid
copper is 256 pm; hence the metallic radius the atom increases as reflected in the atomic
of copper is assigned a value of 128 pm. For radii.
simplicity, in this book, we use the term Note that the atomic radii of noble gases
Atomic Radius to refer to both covalent or are not considered here. Being monoatomic,
metallic radius depending on whether the their (non-bonded radii) values are very
element is a non-metal or a metal. Atomic large. In fact radii of noble gases should be
radii can be measured by X-ray or other compared not with the covalent radii but with
spectroscopic methods. the van der Waals radii of other elements.

Table 3.6(a) Atomic Radii/pm Across the Periods

Atom (Period II) Li Be B C N O F
Atomic radius 152 111 88 77 74 66 64
Atom (Period III) Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Atomic radius 186 160 143 117 110 104 99

Table 3.6(b) Atomic Radii/pm Down a Family

Atom Atomic Atom Atomic
(Group I) Radius (Group 17) Radius
Li 152 F 64
Na 186 Cl 99
K 231 Br 114
Rb 244 I 133
Cs 262 At 140

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 86 9/9/2022 4:36:14 PM

 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 87

Fig. 3.4 (a) Variation of atomic radius with atomic Fig. 3.4 (b) Variation of atomic radius with
number across the second period atomic number for alkali metals and
halogens

(b) Ionic Radius cation with the greater positive charge will
The removal of an electron from an atom have a smaller radius because of the greater
results in the formation of a cation, whereas attraction of the electrons to the nucleus.
gain of an electron leads to an anion. The Anion with the greater negative charge will
ionic radii can be estimated by measuring have the larger radius. In this case, the net
the distances between cations and anions repulsion of the electrons will outweigh the
in ionic crystals. In general, the ionic radii nuclear charge and the ion will expand in size.
of elements exhibit the same trend as the
atomic radii. A cation is smaller than its Problem 3.5
parent atom because it has fewer electrons Which of the following species will have
while its nuclear charge remains the same. the largest and the smallest size?
The size of an anion will be larger than that of Mg, Mg2+, Al, Al3+.
the parent atom because the addition of one Solution
or more electrons would result in increased
Atomic radii decrease across a period.
repulsion among the electrons and a decrease Cations are smaller than their parent
in effective nuclear charge. For example, the atoms. Among isoelectronic species,
ionic radius of fluoride ion (F–) is 136 pm the one with the larger positive nuclear
whereas the atomic radius of fluorine is only charge will have a smaller radius.
64 pm. On the other hand, the atomic radius Hence the largest species is Mg; the
of sodium is 186 pm compared to the ionic smallest one is Al3+.
radius of 95 pm for Na+.
When we find some atoms and ions which (c) Ionization Enthalpy
contain the same number of electrons, we call A quantitative measure of the tendency of
them isoelectronic species*. For example, an element to lose electron is given by its
O2–, F–, Na+ and Mg2+ have the same number Ionization Enthalpy. It represents the
of electrons (10). Their radii would be different energy required to remove an electron from an
because of their different nuclear charges. The isolated gaseous atom (X) in its ground state.

* Two or more species with same number of atoms, same number of valence electrons and same structure, regardless of the
nature of elements involved.

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 87 9/9/2022 4:36:14 PM

 88 chemistry

In other words, the first ionization enthalpy

for an element X is the enthalpy change
(∆i H) for the reaction depicted in equation 3.1.
X(g) → X+(g) + e– (3.1)
The ionization enthalpy is expressed in
units of kJ mol–1. We can define the second
ionization enthalpy as the energy required
to remove the second most loosely bound
electron; it is the energy required to carry out
the reaction shown in equation 3.2.
X+(g) → X2+(g) + e– (3.2)
Energy is always required to remove
electrons from an atom and hence ionization Fig. 3.5 Variation of first ionization enthalpies
(∆iH) with atomic number for elements
enthalpies are always positive. The second
with Z = 1 to 60
ionization enthalpy will be higher than the
first ionization enthalpy because it is more can be correlated with their high reactivity.
difficult to remove an electron from a positively In addition, you will notice two trends the
charged ion than from a neutral atom. In the first ionization enthalpy generally increases
same way the third ionization enthalpy will be as we go across a period and decreases
higher than the second and so on. The term as we descend in a group. These trends
“ionization enthalpy”, if not qualified, is taken are illustrated in Figs. 3.6(a) and 3.6(b)
as the first ionization enthalpy. respectively for the elements of the second
The first ionization enthalpies of elements period and the first group of the periodic
having atomic numbers up to 60 are plotted table. You will appreciate that the ionization
in Fig. 3.5. The periodicity of the graph is enthalpy and atomic radius are closely related
quite striking. You will find maxima at the properties. To understand these trends, we
noble gases which have closed electron shells have to consider two factors : (i) the attraction
and very stable electron configurations. On of electrons towards the nucleus, and (ii) the
the other hand, minima occur at the alkali repulsion of electrons from each other. The
metals and their low ionization enthalpies effective nuclear charge experienced by a

3.6 (a) 3.6 (b)

Fig. 3.6(a) F i r s t i o n i z a t i o n e n t h a l p i e s ( ∆ i H ) o f e l e m e n t s o f t h e s e c o n d p e r i o d a s a
function of atomic number (Z) and Fig. 3.6(b) ∆iH of alkali metals as a function of Z.

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 88 9/9/2022 4:36:14 PM

 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 89

valence electron in an atom will be less than the 2s electrons of beryllium. Therefore, it is
the actual charge on the nucleus because of easier to remove the 2p-electron from boron
“shielding” or “screening” of the valence compared to the removal of a 2s- electron from
electron from the nucleus by the intervening beryllium. Thus, boron has a smaller first
core electrons. For example, the 2s electron ionization enthalpy than beryllium. Another
in lithium is shielded from the nucleus by “anomaly” is the smaller first ionization
the inner core of 1s electrons. As a result, the enthalpy of oxygen compared to nitrogen. This
valence electron experiences a net positive arises because in the nitrogen atom, three
charge which is less than the actual charge 2p-electrons reside in different atomic orbitals
of +3. In general, shielding is effective when (Hund’s rule) whereas in the oxygen atom,
the orbitals in the inner shells are completely two of the four 2p-electrons must occupy the
filled. This situation occurs in the case of same 2p-orbital resulting in an increased
alkali metals which have single outermost electron-electron repulsion. Consequently,
ns-electron preceded by a noble gas electronic it is easier to remove the fourth 2p-electron
configuration. from oxygen than it is, to remove one of the
When we move from lithium to fluorine three 2p-electrons from nitrogen.
across the second period, successive electrons
are added to orbitals in the same principal Problem 3.6
quantum level and the shielding of the nuclear The first ionization enthalpy (∆i H ) values
charge by the inner core of electrons does of the third period elements, Na, Mg and
not increase very much to compensate for Si are respectively 496, 737 and 786 kJ
the increased attraction of the electron to the mol–1. Predict whether the first ∆i H value
nucleus. Thus, across a period, increasing for Al will be more close to 575 or 760 kJ
nuclear charge outweighs the shielding. mol–1 ? Justify your answer.
Consequently, the outermost electrons are Solution
held more and more tightly and the ionization
It will be more close to 575 kJ mol–1.
enthalpy increases across a period. As we go
The value for Al should be lower than
down a group, the outermost electron being
that of Mg because of effective shielding
increasingly farther from the nucleus, there is of 3p electrons from the nucleus by
an increased shielding of the nuclear charge 3s-electrons.
by the electrons in the inner levels. In this
case, increase in shielding outweighs the (d) Electron Gain Enthalpy
increasing nuclear charge and the removal of
When an electron is added to a neutral
the outermost electron requires less energy
gaseous atom (X) to convert it into a negative
down a group.
ion, the enthalpy change accompanying the
From Fig. 3.6(a), you will also notice that process is defined as the Electron Gain
the first ionization enthalpy of boron (Z = 5) Enthalpy (∆ egH). Electron gain enthalpy
is slightly less than that of beryllium (Z = 4) provides a measure of the ease with which
even though the former has a greater nuclear an atom adds an electron to form anion as
charge. When we consider the same principal represented by equation 3.3.
quantum level, an s-electron is attracted to the
nucleus more than a p-electron. In beryllium, X(g) + e – → X –(g) (3.3)
the electron removed during the ionization is Depending on the element, the process
an s-electron whereas the electron removed of adding an electron to the atom can be
during ionization of boron is a p-electron. The either endothermic or exothermic. For many
penetration of a 2s-electron to the nucleus is elements energy is released when an electron
more than that of a 2p-electron; hence the 2p is added to the atom and the electron gain
electron of boron is more shielded from the enthalpy is negative. For example, group
nucleus by the inner core of electrons than 17 elements (the halogens) have very high

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 89 9/9/2022 4:36:15 PM

 90 chemistry

Table 3.7 Electron Gain Enthalpies* / (kJ mol–1) of Some Main Group Elements

Group 1 ∆egH Group 16 ∆egH Group 17 ∆egH Group 0 ∆egH

H – 73 He + 48
Li – 60 O – 141 F – 328 Ne + 116
Na – 53 S – 200 Cl – 349 Ar + 96
K – 48 Se – 195 Br – 325 Kr + 96
Rb – 47 Te – 190 I – 295 Xe + 77
Cs – 46 Po – 174 At – 270 Rn + 68

negative electron gain enthalpies because

they can attain stable noble gas electronic Problem 3.7
configurations by picking up an electron. Which of the following will have the most
On the other hand, noble gases have large negative electron gain enthalpy and
positive electron gain enthalpies because the which the least negative?
electron has to enter the next higher principal P, S, Cl, F.
quantum level leading to a very unstable Explain your answer.
electronic configuration. It may be noted that Solution
electron gain enthalpies have large negative
values toward the upper right of the periodic Electron gain enthalpy generally
table preceding the noble gases. becomes more negative across a
period as we move from left to right.
The variation in electron gain enthalpies of Within a group, electron gain enthalpy
elements is less systematic than for ionization becomes less negative down a group.
enthalpies. As a general rule, electron gain However, adding an electron to the
enthalpy becomes more negative with increase 2p-orbital leads to greater repulsion
in the atomic number across a period. The than adding an electron to the larger
effective nuclear charge increases from left to 3p-orbital. Hence the element with
right across a period and consequently it will most negative electron gain enthalpy is
be easier to add an electron to a smaller atom chlorine; the one with the least negative
since the added electron on an average would electron gain enthalpy is phosphorus.
be closer to the positively charged nucleus. We
should also expect electron gain enthalpy to (e) Electronegativity
become less negative as we go down a group
A qualitative measure of the ability of an atom
because the size of the atom increases and
the added electron would be farther from the in a chemical compound to attract shared
nucleus. This is generally the case (Table electrons to itself is called electronegativity.
3.7). However, electron gain enthalpy of O or Unlike ionization enthalpy and electron gain
F is less negative than that of the succeeding enthalpy, it is not a measureable quantity.
element. This is because when an electron is However, a number of numerical scales of
added to O or F, the added electron goes to electronegativity of elements viz., Pauling
the smaller n = 2 quantum level and suffers scale, Mulliken-Jaffe scale, Allred-Rochow
significant repulsion from the other electrons scale have been developed. The one which
present in this level. For the n = 3 quantum is the most widely used is the Pauling scale.
level (S or Cl), the added electron occupies Linus Pauling, an American scientist, in 1922
a larger region of space and the electron- assigned arbitrarily a value of 4.0 to fluorine,
electron repulsion is much less. the element considered to have the greatest
* In many books, the negative of the enthalpy change for the process depicted in equation 3.3 is defined as the ELECTRON
AFFINITY (Ae ) of the atom under consideration. If energy is released when an electron is added to an atom, the electron
affinity is taken as positive, contrary to thermodynamic convention. If energy has to be supplied to add an electron to an
atom, then the electron affinity of the atom is assigned a negative sign. However, electron affinity is defined as absolute
zero and, therefore at any other temperature (T) heat capacities of the reactants and the products have to be taken into
account in ∆egH = –Ae – 5/2 RT.

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 90 9/9/2022 4:36:15 PM

 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 91

ability to attract electrons. Approximate On the same account electronegativity values

values for the electronegativity of a few decrease with the increase in atomic radii
elements are given in Table 3.8(a) down a group. The trend is similar to that of
ionization enthalpy.
The electronegativity of any given element
is not constant; it varies depending on the Knowing the relationship between
element to which it is bound. Though it is electronegativity and atomic radius, can
not a measurable quantity, it does provide a you now visualise the relationship between
means of predicting the nature of force that electronegativity and non-metallic properties?
holds a pair of atoms together – a relationship Non-metallic elements have strong tendency
that you will explore later.
Electronegativity generally
increases across a period from
left to right (say from lithium to
fluorine) and decrease down a group
(say from fluorine to astatine)
in the periodic table. How can
these trends be explained?
Can the electronegativity be
related to atomic radii, which
tend to decrease across each
period from left to right, but
increase down each group ? The
attraction between the outer
(or valence) electrons and the
nucleus increases as the atomic
radius decreases in a period. The
electronegativity also increases.
Fig. 3.7 The periodic trends of elements in the periodic table

Table 3.8(a) Electronegativity Values (on Pauling scale) Across the Periods
Atom (Period II) Li Be B C N O F

Electronegativity 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Atom (Period III) Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

Electronegativity 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0

Table 3.8(b) Electronegativity Values (on Pauling scale) Down a Family

Atom Electronegativity Atom Electronegativity

(Group I) Value (Group 17) Value
Li 1.0 F 4.0
Na 0.9 Cl 3.0
K 0.8 Br 2.8
Rb 0.8 I 2.5
Cs 0.7 At 2.2

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 91 9/9/2022 4:36:15 PM

 92 chemistry

to gain electrons. Therefore, electronegativity is with outer electronic configuration 2s22p5,

directly related to that non-metallic properties shares one electron with oxygen in the OF2
of elements. It can be further extended to say molecule. Being highest electronegative
that the electronegativity is inversely related element, fluorine is given oxidation state
to the metallic properties of elements. Thus, –1. Since there are two fluorine atoms in
the increase in electronegativities across this molecule, oxygen with outer electronic
a period is accompanied by an increase configuration 2s22p4 shares two electrons
in non-metallic properties (or decrease in with fluorine atoms and thereby exhibits
metallic properties) of elements. Similarly, the oxidation state +2. In Na2O, oxygen being
decrease in electronegativity down a group is more electronegative accepts two electrons,
accompanied by a decrease in non-metallic one from each of the two sodium atoms and,
properties (or increase in metallic properties) thus, shows oxidation state –2. On the other
of elements. hand sodium with electronic configuration
All these periodic trends are summarised 3s1 loses one electron to oxygen and is given
in Figure 3.7. oxidation state +1. Thus, the oxidation state
of an element in a particular compound can
3.7.2 Periodic Trends in Chemical be defined as the charge acquired by its atom
Properties on the basis of electronegative consideration
Most of the trends in chemical properties of from other atoms in the molecule.
elements, such as diagonal relationships, inert
pair effect, effects of lanthanoid contraction Problem 3.8
etc. will be dealt with along the discussion Using the Periodic Table, predict the
of each group in later units. In this section formulas of compounds which might
we shall study the periodicity of the valence be formed by the following pairs of
state shown by elements and the anomalous elements; (a) silicon and bromine
properties of the second period elements (from (b) aluminium and sulphur.
lithium to fluorine).
Solution
(a) Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation (a) Silicon is group 14 element with
States a valence of 4; bromine belongs to
The valence is the most characteristic property the halogen family with a valence
of the elements and can be understood in of 1. Hence the formula of the
compound formed would be SiBr4.
terms of their electronic configurations. The
valence of representative elements is usually (b) Aluminium belongs to group
(though not necessarily) equal to the number 13 with a valence of 3; sulphur
belongs to group 16 elements with
of electrons in the outermost orbitals and/or
a valence of 2. Hence, the formula
equal to eight minus the number of outermost
of the compound formed would be
electrons as shown below. Al2S3.
Nowadays the term oxidation state is
frequently used for valence. Consider the Some periodic trends observed in the
two oxygen containing compounds: OF2 and valence of elements (hydrides and oxides)
Na2O. The order of electronegativity of the are shown in Table 3.9. Other such periodic
three elements involved in these compounds trends which occur in the chemical behaviour
is F > O > Na. Each of the atoms of fluorine, of the elements are discussed elsewhere in

Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Number of valence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
electron
alence 1 2 3 4 3,5 2,6 1,7 0,8

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 92 9/9/2022 4:36:15 PM

 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 93

Table 3.9 Periodic Trends in Valence of Elements as shown by the Formulas of Their
Compounds
Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17

Formula of LiH CaH2 B2H6 CH4 NH3 H2O HF

hydride NaH AlH3 SiH4 PH3 H2S HCl
KH GeH4 AsH3 H2Se HBr
SnH4 H2Te HI

Formula Li2O MgO B2O3 CO2 N2O3, N2O5 –

of oxide Na2O CaO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O6, P4O10 SO3 Cl2 O7
K2O SrO Ga2O3 GeO2 As2O3, As2O5 SeO3 –
BaO In2O3 SnO2 Sb2O3, Sb2O5 TeO3 –
PbO2 Bi2O3 – –

this book. There are many elements which the second element of the following group
exhibit variable valence. This is particularly i.e., magnesium and aluminium, respectively.
characteristic of transition elements and This sort of similarity is commonly referred
actinoids, which we shall study later. to as diagonal relationship in the periodic
properties.
(b) Anomalous Properties of Second
Period Elements What are the reasons for the different
chemical behaviour of the first member of
The first element of each of the groups 1
a group of elements in the s- and p-blocks
(lithium) and 2 (beryllium) and groups 13-17
compared to that of the subsequent members
(boron to fluorine) differs in many respects
in the same group? The anomalous behaviour
from the other members of their respective
is attributed to their small size, large charge/
group. For example, lithium unlike other
radius ratio and high electronegativity of the
alkali metals, and beryllium unlike other
elements. In addition, the first member of
alkaline earth metals, form compounds with
group has only four valence orbitals (2s and
pronounced covalent character; the other
2p) available for bonding, whereas the second
members of these groups predominantly member of the groups have nine valence
form ionic compounds. In fact the behaviour orbitals (3s, 3p, 3d). As a consequence of
of lithium and beryllium is more similar with this, the maximum covalency of the first
member of each group is 4 (e.g., boron
Property Element
can only form  BF4  , whereas the other


members of the groups can expand their

Metallic radius M/pm Li Be B valence shell to accommodate more than
152 111 88 four pairs of electrons e.g., aluminium
Na Mg Al
 AlF 
3
6
forms). Furthermore, the first
186 160 143 member of p-block elements displays
greater ability to form pπ – pπ multiple
Ionic radius M+/pm Li Be bonds to itself (e.g., C = C, C ≡ C,
76 31 N = N, N ≡ Ν) and to other second period
Na Mg elements (e.g., C = O, C = N, C ≡ N,
102 72 N = O) compared to subsequent members
of the same group.

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 93 9/9/2022 4:36:15 PM

 94 chemistry

here it can be directly related to the metallic

Problem 3.9 and non-metallic character of elements. Thus,
Are the oxidation state and covalency of the metallic character of an element, which
Al in [AlCl(H2O)5]2+ same ? is highest at the extremely left decreases and
Solution the non-metallic character increases while
No. The oxidation state of Al is +3 and moving from left to right across the period.
the covalency is 6. The chemical reactivity of an element can be
best shown by its reactions with oxygen and
3.7.3 Periodic Trends and Chemical halogens. Here, we shall consider the reaction
Reactivity of the elements with oxygen only. Elements
We have observed the periodic trends in on two extremes of a period easily combine
certain fundamental properties such as with oxygen to form oxides. The normal oxide
atomic and ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, formed by the element on extreme left is the
electron gain enthalpy and valence. We most basic (e.g., Na2O), whereas that formed
know by now that the periodicity is related to by the element on extreme right is the most
electronic configuration. That is, all chemical acidic (e.g., Cl2O7). Oxides of elements in the
and physical properties are a manifestation of centre are amphoteric (e.g., Al2O3, As2O3) or
the electronic configuration of elements. We neutral (e.g., CO, NO, N2O). Amphoteric oxides
shall now try to explore relationships between behave as acidic with bases and as basic with
these fundamental properties of elements with acids, whereas neutral oxides have no acidic
their chemical reactivity. or basic properties.
The atomic and ionic radii, as we know,
generally decrease in a period from left to right. Problem 3.10
As a consequence, the ionization enthalpies Show by a chemical reaction with water
generally increase (with some exceptions as that Na2O is a basic oxide and Cl2O7 is
an acidic oxide.
outlined in section 3.7.1(a)) and electron gain
enthalpies become more negative across a Solution
period. In other words, the ionization enthalpy Na2O with water forms a strong base
of the extreme left element in a period is the whereas Cl2O7 forms strong acid.
least and the electron gain enthalpy of the Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH
element on the extreme right is the highest Cl2O7 + H2O → 2HClO4
negative (note : noble gases having completely
filled shells have rather positive electron Their basic or acidic nature can be
gain enthalpy values). This results into high qualitatively tested with litmus paper.
chemical reactivity at the two extremes and
the lowest in the centre. Thus, the maximum Among transition metals (3d series), the
chemical reactivity at the extreme left (among change in atomic radii is much smaller as
alkali metals) is exhibited by the loss of an compared to those of representative elements
electron leading to the formation of a cation across the period. The change in atomic radii
and at the extreme right (among halogens) is still smaller among inner-transition metals
shown by the gain of an electron forming (4f series). The ionization enthalpies are
an anion. This property can be related with intermediate between those of s- and p-blocks.
the reducing and oxidizing behaviour of the As a consequence, they are less electropositive
elements which you will learn later. However, than group 1 and 2 metals.

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 94 9/9/2022 4:36:15 PM

 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 95

In a group, the increase in atomic and increases down the group and non-metallic
ionic radii with increase in atomic number character decreases. This trend can be related
generally results in a gradual decrease in with their reducing and oxidizing property
ionization enthalpies and a regular decrease which you will learn later. In the case of
(with exception in some third period elements transition elements, however, a reverse trend
as shown in section 3.7.1(d)) in electron is observed. This can be explained in terms of
gain enthalpies in the case of main group atomic size and ionization enthalpy.
elements. Thus, the metallic character

SUMMARY

In this Unit, you have studied the development of the Periodic Law and the Periodic Table.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table was based on atomic masses. Modern Periodic Table arranges
the elements in the order of their atomic numbers in seven horizontal rows (periods) and
eighteen vertical columns (groups or families). Atomic numbers in a period are consecutive,
whereas in a group they increase in a pattern. Elements of the same group have similar
valence shell electronic configuration and, therefore, exhibit similar chemical properties.
However, the elements of the same period have incrementally increasing number of electrons
from left to right, and, therefore, have different valencies. Four types of elements can be
recognized in the periodic table on the basis of their electronic configurations. These are
s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block elements. Hydrogen with one electron in the 1s orbital
occupies a unique position in the periodic table. Metals comprise more than seventy eight
per cent of the known elements. Non-metals, which are located at the top of the periodic
table, are less than twenty in number. Elements which lie at the border line between metals
and non-metals (e.g., Si, Ge, As) are called metalloids or semi-metals. Metallic character
increases with increasing atomic number in a group whereas decreases from left to right
in a period. The physical and chemical properties of elements vary periodically with their
atomic numbers.

Periodic trends are observed in atomic sizes, ionization enthalpies, electron gain
enthalpies, electronegativity and valence. The atomic radii decrease while going from
left to right in a period and increase with atomic number in a group. Ionization enthalpies
generally increase across a period and decrease down a group. Electronegativity also shows
a similar trend. Electron gain enthalpies, in general, become more negative across a period
and less negative down a group. There is some periodicity in valence, for example, among
representative elements, the valence is either equal to the number of electrons in the
outermost orbitals or eight minus this number. Chemical reactivity is highest at the two
extremes of a period and is lowest in the centre. The reactivity on the left extreme of a period
is because of the ease of electron loss (or low ionization enthalpy). Highly reactive elements
do not occur in nature in free state; they usually occur in the combined form. Oxides formed
of the elements on the left are basic and of the elements on the right are acidic in nature.
Oxides of elements in the centre are amphoteric or neutral.

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 95 9/9/2022 4:36:15 PM

 96 chemistry

Exercises

3.1 What is the basic theme of organisation in the periodic table?

3.2 Which important property did Mendeleev use to classify the elements in his periodic
table and did he stick to that?
3.3 What is the basic difference in approach between the Mendeleev’s Periodic Law and
the Modern Periodic Law?
3.4 On the basis of quantum numbers, justify that the sixth period of the periodic table
should have 32 elements.
3.5 In terms of period and group where would you locate the element with Z =114?
3.6 Write the atomic number of the element present in the third period and seventeenth
group of the periodic table.
3.7 Which element do you think would have been named by
(i) Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
(ii) Seaborg’s group?
3.8 Why do elements in the same group have similar physical and chemical properties?
3.9 What does atomic radius and ionic radius really mean to you?
3.10 How do atomic radius vary in a period and in a group? How do you explain the
variation?
3.11 What do you understand by isoelectronic species? Name a species that will be
isoelectronic with each of the following atoms or ions.
(i) F– (ii) Ar (iii) Mg2+ (iv) Rb+
3.12 Consider the following species :
N3–, O2–, F–, Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+
(a) What is common in them?
(b) Arrange them in the order of increasing ionic radii.
3.13 Explain why cation are smaller and anions larger in radii than their parent atoms?
3.14 What is the significance of the terms — ‘isolated gaseous atom’ and ‘ground state’
while defining the ionization enthalpy and electron gain enthalpy?
Hint : Requirements for comparison purposes.
3.15 Energy of an electron in the ground state of the hydrogen atom is
–2.18×10–18J. Calculate the ionization enthalpy of atomic hydrogen in terms of
J mol–1.
Hint: Apply the idea of mole concept to derive the answer.
3.16 Among the second period elements the actual ionization enthalpies are in the order
Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ne.
Explain why
(i) Be has higher ∆i H than B
(ii) O has lower ∆i H than N and F?

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 96 9/9/2022 4:36:15 PM

 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 97

3.17 How would you explain the fact that the first ionization enthalpy of sodium is lower
than that of magnesium but its second ionization enthalpy is higher than that of
magnesium?
3.18 What are the various factors due to which the ionization enthalpy of the main group
elements tends to decrease down a group?
3.19 The first ionization enthalpy values (in kJ mol–1) of group 13 elements are :
B Al Ga In Tl
801 577 579 558 589
How would you explain this deviation from the general trend ?
3.20 Which of the following pairs of elements would have a more negative electron gain
enthalpy?
(i) O or F (ii) F or Cl
3.21 Would you expect the second electron gain enthalpy of O as positive, more negative
or less negative than the first? Justify your answer.
3.22 What is the basic difference between the terms electron gain enthalpy and
electronegativity?
3.23 How would you react to the statement that the electronegativity of N on Pauling
scale is 3.0 in all the nitrogen compounds?
3.24 Describe the theory associated with the radius of an atom as it
(a) gains an electron
(b) loses an electron
3.25 Would you expect the first ionization enthalpies for two isotopes of the same element
to be the same or different? Justify your answer.
3.26 What are the major differences between metals and non-metals?
3.27 Use the periodic table to answer the following questions.
(a) Identify an element with five electrons in the outer subshell.
(b) Identify an element that would tend to lose two electrons.
(c) Identify an element that would tend to gain two electrons.
(d) Identify the group having metal, non-metal, liquid as well as gas at the room
temperature.
3.28 The increasing order of reactivity among group 1 elements is Li < Na < K < Rb <Cs
whereas that among group 17 elements is F > CI > Br > I. Explain.
3.29 Write the general outer electronic configuration of s-, p-, d- and f- block elements.
3.30 Assign the position of the element having outer electronic configuration
(i) ns2np4 for n=3 (ii) (n-1)d2ns2 for n=4, and (iii) (n-2) f 7 (n-1)d1ns2 for n=6, in the
periodic table.

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 97 9/9/2022 4:36:15 PM

 98 chemistry

3.31 The first (∆iH1) and the second (∆iH2) ionization enthalpies (in kJ mol–1) and the (∆egH)
electron gain enthalpy (in kJ mol–1) of a few elements are given below:
Elements ∆H1 ∆H2 ∆egH
I 520 7300 –60
II 419 3051 –48
III 1681 3374 –328
IV 1008 1846 –295
V 2372 5251 +48
VI 738 1451 –40
Which of the above elements is likely to be :
(a) the least reactive element.
(b) the most reactive metal.
(c) the most reactive non-metal.
(d) the least reactive non-metal.
(e) the metal which can form a stable binary halide of the formula MX2(X=halogen).
(f) the metal which can form a predominantly stable covalent halide of the formula
MX (X=halogen)?
3.32 Predict the formulas of the stable binary compounds that would be formed by the
combination of the following pairs of elements.
(a) Lithium and oxygen (b) Magnesium and nitrogen
(c) Aluminium and iodine (d) Silicon and oxygen
(e) Phosphorus and fluorine (f) Element 71 and fluorine
3.33 In the modern periodic table, the period indicates the value of :
(a) atomic number
(b) atomic mass
(c) principal quantum number
(d) azimuthal quantum number.
3.34 Which of the following statements related to the modern periodic table is incorrect?
(a) The p-block has 6 columns, because a maximum of 6 electrons can occupy all
the orbitals in a p-shell.
(b) The d-block has 8 columns, because a maximum of 8 electrons can occupy all
the orbitals in a d-subshell.
(c) Each block contains a number of columns equal to the number of electrons that
can occupy that subshell.
(d) The block indicates value of azimuthal quantum number (l ) for the last subshell
that received electrons in building up the electronic configuration.

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 98 9/9/2022 4:36:15 PM

 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 99

3.35 Anything that influences the valence electrons will affect the chemistry of the
element. Which one of the following factors does not affect the valence shell?
(a) Valence principal quantum number (n)
(b) Nuclear charge (Z )
(c) Nuclear mass
(d) Number of core electrons.
3.36 The size of isoelectronic species — F–, Ne and Na+ is affected by
(a) nuclear charge (Z )
(b) valence principal quantum number (n)
(c) electron-electron interaction in the outer orbitals
(d) none of the factors because their size is the same.
3.37 Which one of the following statements is incorrect in relation to ionization enthalpy?
(a) Ionization enthalpy increases for each successive electron.
(b) The greatest increase in ionization enthalpy is experienced on removal of electron
from core noble gas configuration.
(c) End of valence electrons is marked by a big jump in ionization enthalpy.
(d) Removal of electron from orbitals bearing lower n value is easier than from
orbital having higher n value.
3.38 Considering the elements B, Al, Mg, and K, the correct order of their metallic
character is :
(a) B > Al > Mg > K (b) Al > Mg > B > K
(c) Mg > Al > K > B (d) K > Mg > Al > B
3.39 Considering the elements B, C, N, F, and Si, the correct order of their non-metallic
character is :
(a) B > C > Si > N > F (b) Si > C > B > N > F
(c) F > N > C > B > Si (d) F > N > C > Si > B
3.40 Considering the elements F, Cl, O and N, the correct order of their chemical reactivity
in terms of oxidizing property is :
(a) F > Cl > O > N (b) F > O > Cl > N
(c) Cl > F > O > N (d) O > F > N > Cl

2024-25

Unit 3.indd 99 9/9/2022 4:36:16 PM

 UNIT 1
DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD

Chapter 1 Biology is the science of life forms and living processes. The living world
The Living World comprises an amazing diversity of living organisms. Early man could
easily perceive the difference between inanimate matter and living
Chapter 2 organisms. Early man deified some of the inanimate matter (wind, sea,
Biological Classification fire etc.) and some among the animals and plants. A common feature of
all such forms of inanimate and animate objects was the sense of awe
Chapter 3 or fear that they evoked. The description of living organisms including
Plant Kingdom human beings began much later in human history. Societies which
indulged in anthropocentric view of biology could register limited
Chapter 4 progress in biological knowledge. Systematic and monumental
Animal Kingdom description of life forms brought in, out of necessity, detailed systems
of identification, nomenclature and classification. The biggest spin off
of such studies was the recognition of the sharing of similarities among
living organisms both horizontally and vertically. That all present day
living organisms are related to each other and also to all organisms
that ever lived on this earth, was a revelation which humbled man and
led to cultural movements for conservation of biodiversity. In the
following chapters of this unit, you will get a description, including
classification, of animals and plants from a taxonomist’s perspective.

2024-25
 Born on 5 July 1904, in Kempten, Germany, ERNST MAYR, the
Harvard University evolutionary biologist who has been called
‘The Darwin of the 20th century’, was one of the 100 greatest
scientists of all time. Mayr joined Harvard’s Faculty of Arts
and Sciences in 1953 and retired in 1975, assuming the title
Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology Emeritus. Throughout
his nearly 80-year career, his research spanned ornithology,
taxonomy, zoogeography, evolution, systematics, and the
history and philosophy of biology. He almost single-handedly
made the origin of species diversity the central question of
evolutionary biology that it is today. He also pioneered the
currently accepted definition of a biological species. Mayr was
awarded the three prizes widely regarded as the triple crown of
biology: the Balzan Prize in 1983, the International Prize for
Biology in 1994, and the Crafoord Prize in 1999. Mayr died at
the age of 100 in the year 2004.
Ernst Mayr
(1904 – 2004)

2024-25
 C HAPTER 1
THE LIVING W ORLD
1.1 Diversity in the How wonderful is the living world ! The wide range of living types is
Living World amazing. The extraordinary habitats in which we find living organisms,
be it cold mountains, deciduous forests, oceans, fresh water lakes, deserts
1.2 Taxonomic
or hot springs, leave us speechless. The beauty of a galloping horse, of
Categories
the migrating birds, the valley of flowers or the attacking shark evokes
awe and a deep sense of wonder. The ecological conflict and cooperation
among members of a population and among populations of a community
or even the molecular traffic inside a cell make us deeply reflect on – what
indeed is life? This question has two implicit questions within it. The first
is a technical one and seeks answer to what living is as opposed to the
non-living, and the second is a philosophical one, and seeks answer to
what the purpose of life is. As scientists, we shall not attempt answering
the second question. We will try to reflect on – what is living?

1.1 D IVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD

If you look around you will see a large variety of living organisms, be it
potted plants, insects, birds, your pets or other animals and plants. There
are also several organisms that you cannot see with your naked eye but
they are all around you. If you were to increase the area that you make
observations in, the range and variety of organisms that you see would
increase. Obviously, if you were to visit a dense forest, you would probably
see a much greater number and kinds of living organisms in it. Each
different kind of plant, animal or organism that you see, represents a
species. The number of species that are known and described range
between 1.7-1.8 million. This refers to biodiversity or the number and

2024-25
4 BIOLOGY

types of organisms present on earth. We should remember here that as

we explore new areas, and even old ones, new organisms are continuously
being identified.
As stated earlier, there are millions of plants and animals in the world;
we know the plants and animals in our own area by their local names.
These local names would vary from place to place, even within a country.
Probably you would recognise the confusion that would be created if we
did not find ways and means to talk to each other, to refer to organisms
we are talking about.
Hence, there is a need to standardise the naming of living organisms
such that a particular organism is known by the same name all over the
world. This process is called nomenclature. Obviously, nomenclature
or naming is only possible when the organism is described correctly and
we know to what organism the name is attached to. This is identification.
In order to facilitate the study, number of scientists have established
procedures to assign a scientific name to each known organism. This is
acceptable to biologists all over the world. For plants, scientific names are
based on agreed principles and criteria, which are provided in International
Code for Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). You may ask, how are animals
named? Animal taxonomists have evolved International Code of Zoological
Nomenclature (ICZN). The scientific names ensure that each organism
has only one name. Description of any organism should enable the people
(in any part of the world) to arrive at the same name. They also ensure
that such a name has not been used for any other known organism.
Biologists follow universally accepted principles to provide scientific
names to known organisms. Each name has two components – the
Generic name and the specific epithet. This system of providing a
name with two components is called Binomial nomenclature. This
naming system given by Carolus Linnaeus is being practised by biologists
all over the world. This naming system using a two word format was
found convenient. Let us take the example of mango to understand the
way of providing scientific names better. The scientific name of mango is
written as Mangifera indica. Let us see how it is a binomial name. In this
name Mangifera represents the genus while indica, is a particular species,
or a specific epithet. Other universal rules of nomenclature are as follows:
1. Biological names are generally in Latin and written in italics.
They are Latinised or derived from Latin irrespective of their
origin.
2. The first word in a biological name represents the genus while
the second component denotes the specific epithet.
3. Both the words in a biological name, when handwritten, are
separately underlined, or printed in italics to indicate their Latin
origin.

2024-25
 THE LIVING WORLD 5

4. The first word denoting the genus starts with a capital letter
while the specific epithet starts with a small letter. It can be
illustrated with the example of Mangifera indica.
Name of the author appears after the specific epithet, i.e., at the end of
the biological name and is written in an abbreviated form, e.g., Mangifera
indica Linn. It indicates that this species was first described by Linnaeus.
Since it is nearly impossible to study all the living organisms, it is
necessary to devise some means to make this possible. This process is
classification. Classification is the process by which anything is grouped
into convenient categories based on some easily observable characters.
For example, we easily recognise groups such as plants or animals or
dogs, cats or insects. The moment we use any of these terms, we associate
certain characters with the organism in that group. What image do you
see when you think of a dog ? Obviously, each one of us will see ‘dogs’
and not ‘cats’. Now, if we were to think of ‘Alsatians’ we know what we are
talking about. Similarly, suppose we were to say ‘mammals’, you would,
of course, think of animals with external ears and body hair. Likewise, in
plants, if we try to talk of ‘Wheat’, the picture in each of our minds will be
of wheat plants, not of rice or any other plant. Hence, all these - ‘Dogs’,
‘Cats’, ‘Mammals’, ‘Wheat’, ‘Rice’, ‘Plants’, ‘Animals’, etc., are convenient
categories we use to study organisms. The scientific term for these
categories is taxa. Here you must recognise that taxa can indicate
categories at very different levels. ‘Plants’ – also form a taxa. ‘Wheat’ is
also a taxa. Similarly, ‘animals’, ‘mammals’, ‘dogs’ are all taxa – but you
know that a dog is a mammal and mammals are animals. Therefore,
‘animals’, ‘mammals’ and ‘dogs’ represent taxa at different levels.
Hence, based on characteristics, all living organisms can be classified
into different taxa. This process of classification is taxonomy. External
and internal structure, along with the structure of cell, development
process and ecological information of organisms are essential and form
the basis of modern taxonomic studies.
Hence, characterisation, identification, classification and nomenclature
are the processes that are basic to taxonomy.
Taxonomy is not something new. Human beings have always been
interested in knowing more and more about the various kinds of
organisms, particularly with reference to their own use. In early days,
human beings needed to find sources for their basic needs of food, clothing
and shelter. Hence, the earliest classifications were based on the ‘uses’ of
various organisms.
Human beings were, since long, not only interested in knowing more
about different kinds of organisms and their diversities, but also the
relationships among them. This branch of study was referred to as
systematics. The word systematics is derived from the Latin word
‘systema’ which means systematic arrangement of organisms. Linnaeus

2024-25
6 BIOLOGY

used Systema Naturae as the title of his publication. The scope of

systematics was later enlarged to include identification, nomenclature
and classification. Systematics takes into account evolutionary
relationships between organisms.

1.2 TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES

Classification is not a single step process but involves hierarchy of steps
in which each step represents a rank or category. Since the category is a
part of overall taxonomic arrangement, it is called the taxonomic category
and all categories together constitute the taxonomic hierarchy. Each
category, referred to as a unit of classification, in fact, represents a rank
and is commonly termed as taxon (pl.: taxa).
Taxonomic categories and hierarchy can be illustrated by an example.
Insects represent a group of organisms sharing common features like
three pairs of jointed legs. It means insects are recognisable concrete
objects which can be classified, and thus were given a rank or category.
Can you name other such groups of organisms? Remember, groups
represent category. Category further denotes rank. Each rank or taxon,
in fact, represents a unit of classification. These taxonomic groups/
categories are distinct biological entities and not merely morphological
aggregates.
Taxonomical studies of all known organisms have led to the
development of common categories such as kingdom, phylum or division
(for plants), class, order, family, genus and species. All organisms,
including those in the plant and animal kingdoms have species as the
lowest category. Now the question you may ask is, how to place an
organism in various categories? The basic requirement is the knowledge
of characters of an individual or group of organisms. This helps in
identifying similarities and dissimilarities among the individuals of the
same kind of organisms as well as of other kinds of organisms.

1.2.1 Species
Taxonomic studies consider a group of individual organisms with
fundamental similarities as a species. One should be able to distinguish
one species from the other closely related species based on the distinct
morphological differences. Let us consider Mangifera indica, Solanum
tuberosum (potato) and Panthera leo (lion). All the three names, indica,
tuberosum and leo, represent the specific epithets, while the first words
Mangifera, Solanum and Panthera are genera and represents another
higher level of taxon or category. Each genus may have one or more than
one specific epithets representing different organisms, but having
morphological similarities. For example, Panthera has another specific
epithet called tigris and Solanum includes species like nigrum and

2024-25
 THE LIVING WORLD 7

melongena. Human beings belong to the species sapiens which is grouped

in the genus Homo. The scientific name thus, for human being, is written
as Homo sapiens.

1.2.2 Genus
Genus comprises a group of related species which has more characters
in common in comparison to species of other genera. We can say that
genera are aggregates of closely related species. For example, potato and
brinjal are two different species but both belong to the genus Solanum.
Lion (Panthera leo), leopard (P. pardus) and tiger (P. tigris) with several
common features, are all species of the genus Panthera. This genus differs
from another genus Felis which includes cats.

1.2.3 Family
The next category, Family, has a group of related genera with still less
number of similarities as compared to genus and species. Families are
characterised on the basis of both vegetative and reproductive features of
plant species. Among plants for example, three different genera Solanum,
Petunia and Datura are placed in the family Solanaceae. Among animals
for example, genus Panthera, comprising lion, tiger, leopard is put along
with genus, Felis (cats) in the family Felidae. Similarly, if you observe the
features of a cat and a dog, you will find some similarities and some
differences as well. They are separated into two different families – Felidae
and Canidae, respectively.

1.2.4 Order
You have seen earlier that categories like species, genus and families are
based on a number of similar characters. Generally, order and other
higher taxonomic categories are identified based on the aggregates of
characters. Order being a higher category, is the assemblage of families
which exhibit a few similar characters. The similar characters are less in
number as compared to different genera included in a family. Plant
families like Convolvulaceae, Solanaceae are included in the order
Polymoniales mainly based on the floral characters. The animal order,
Carnivora, includes families like Felidae and Canidae.

1.2.5 Class
This category includes related orders. For example, order Primata
comprising monkey, gorilla and gibbon is placed in class Mammalia along
with order Carnivora that includes animals like tiger, cat and dog. Class
Mammalia has other orders also.

1.2.6 Phylum
Classes comprising animals like fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds along
with mammals constitute the next higher category called Phylum. All

2024-25
8 BIOLOGY

these, based on the common features like presence of notochord

and dorsal hollow neural system, are included in phylum
Chordata. In case of plants, classes with a few similar characters
are assigned to a higher category called Division.

1.2.7 Kingdom
All animals belonging to various phyla are assigned to the
highest category called Kingdom Animalia in the classification
system of animals. The Kingdom Plantae, on the other hand, is
distinct, and comprises all plants from various divisions.
Henceforth, we will refer to these two groups as animal and
plant kingdoms.
The taxonomic categories from species to kingdom have been
shown in ascending order starting with species in Figure 1.1.
These are broad categories. However, taxonomists have also
developed sub-categories in this hierarchy to facilitate more
sound and scientific placement of various taxa.
Look at the hierarchy in Figure 1.1. Can you recall the basis
of arrangement? Say, for example, as we go higher from species
to kingdom, the number of common characteristics goes on
Figure 1.1 T a x o n o m i c
decreasing. Lower the taxa, more are the characteristics that the
categories members within the taxon share. Higher the category, greater is
s h o w i n g the difficulty of determining the relationship to other taxa at the
hierarchial same level. Hence, the problem of classification becomes more
arrangement
in ascending complex.
order Table 1.1 indicates the taxonomic categories to which some
common organisms like housefly, man, mango and wheat belong.

TABLE 1.1 Organisms with their Taxonomic Categories

Common Biological Genus Family Order Class Phylum/
Name Name Division

Man Homo sapiens Homo Hominidae Primata Mammalia Chordata

Housefly Musca Musca Muscidae Diptera Insecta Arthropoda

domestica

Mango Mangifera Mangifera Anacardiaceae Sapindales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae

indica

Wheat Triticum Triticum Poaceae Poales Monocotyledonae Angiospermae

aestivum

2024-25
 THE LIVING WORLD 9

S UMMARY
The living world is rich in variety. Millions of plants and animals have been
identified and described but a large number still remains unknown. The
very range of organisms in terms of size, colour, habitat, physiological and
morphological features make us seek the defining characteristics of living
organisms. In order to facilitate the study of kinds and diversity of organisms,
biologists have evolved certain rules and principles for identification,
nomenclature and classification of organisms. The branch of knowledge
dealing with these aspects is referred to as taxonomy. The taxonomic studies
of various species of plants and animals are useful in agriculture, forestry,
industry and in general for knowing our bio-resources and their diversity.
The basics of taxonomy like identification, naming and classification of
organisms are universally evolved under international codes. Based on the
resemblances and distinct differences, each organism is identified and
assigned a correct scientific/biological name comprising two words as per
the binomial system of nomenclature. An organism represents/occupies a
place or position in the system of classification. There are many categories/
ranks and are generally referred to as taxonomic categories or taxa. All the
categories constitute a taxonomic hierarchy.

E XERCISES
1. Why are living organisms classified?
2. Why are the classification systems changing every now and then?
3. What different criteria would you choose to classify people that you
meet often?
4. What do we learn from identification of individuals and populations?
5. Given below is the scientific name of Mango. Identify the correctly
written name.
Mangifera Indica
Mangifera indica
6. Define a taxon. Give some examples of taxa at different hierarchical
levels.
7. Can you identify the correct sequence of taxonomical categories?
(a) Species Order Phylum Kingdom
(b) Genus Species Order Kingdom
(c) Species Genus Order Phylum
8. Try to collect all the currently accepted meanings for the word ‘species’.
Discuss with your teacher the meaning of species in case of higher
plants and animals on one hand, and bacteria on the other hand.
9. Define and understand the following terms:
(i) Phylum (ii) Class (iii) Family (iv) Order (v) Genus
10. Illustrate the taxonomical hierarchy with suitable examples of a plant
and an animal.

2024-25
 10 BIOLOGY

C HAPTER 2
B IOLOGICAL C LASSIFICATION
2.1 Kingdom Monera Since the dawn of civilisation, there have been many attempts to classify
living organisms. It was done instinctively not using criteria that were
2.2 Kingdom Protista
scientific but borne out of a need to use organisms for our own use – for
2.3 Kingdom Fungi food, shelter and clothing. Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more
2.4 Kingdom Plantae scientific basis for classification. He used simple morphological characters
to classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs. He also divided animals
2.5 Kingdom into two groups, those which had red blood and those that did not.
Animalia In Linnaeus' time a Two Kingdom system of classification with
2.6 Viruses, Viroids Plantae and Animalia kingdoms was developed that included all
and Lichens plants and animals respectively. This system did not distinguish between
the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular organisms
and photosynthetic (green algae) and non-photosynthetic (fungi)
organisms. Classification of organisms into plants and animals was easily
done and was easy to understand, but, a large number of organisms
did not fall into either category. Hence the two kingdom classification
used for a long time was found inadequate. Besides, gross morphology
a need was also felt for including other characteristics like cell structure,
nature of wall, mode of nutrition, habitat, methods of reproduction,
evolutionary relationships, etc. Classification systems for the living
organisms have hence, undergone several changes over the time.
Though plant and animal kingdoms have been a constant under all
different systems, the understanding of what groups/organisms be
included under these kingdoms have been changing; the number and
nature of other kingdoms have also been understood differently by
different scientists over the time.

2024-25
 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 11

TABLE 2.1 Characteristics of the Five Kingdoms

Five Kingdoms
Characters
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Cell wall Noncellulosic Present in Present Present

(Polysaccharide some with chitin (cellulose) Absent
+ amino acid)

Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present

membrane
Body Cellular Cellular Multiceullar/ Tissue/ Tissue/organ/
organisation loose tissue organ organ system
Autotrophic
Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
(chemosyn-
(Photosyn- (Saprophytic/ (Photosyn- ( H o l o z o i c /
thetic and
Mode of thetic) and Parasitic) thetic) Saprophytic
photosynthetic)
nutrition and Hetero- Hetero- etc.)
trophic (sapro- trophic
phytic/para-
sitic)

R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed a Five Kingdom Classification. The

kingdoms defined by him were named Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae
and Animalia. The main criteria for classification used by him include cell
structure, body organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction and
phylogenetic relationships. Table 2.1 gives a comparative account of different
characteristics of the five kingdoms.
The three-domain system has also been proposed that divides the Kingdom
Monera into two domains, leaving the remaining eukaryotic kingdoms in the
third domain and thereby a six kingdom classification. You will learn about
this system in detail at higher classes.
Let us look at this five kingdom classification to understand the issues
and considerations that influenced the classification system. Earlier
classification systems included bacteria, blue green algae, fungi, mosses,
ferns, gymnosperms and the angiosperms under ‘Plants’. The character
that unified this whole kingdom was that all the organisms included had a
cell wall in their cells. This placed together groups which widely differed in
other characteristics. It brought together the prokaryotic bacteria and the
blue green algae (cyanobacteria) with other groups which were eukaryotic.
It also grouped together the unicellular organisms and the multicellular
ones, say, for example, Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra were placed together
under algae. The classification did not differentiate between the heterotrophic
group – fungi, and the autotrophic green plants, though they also showed
a characteristic difference in their walls composition – the fungi had chitin

2024-25
12 BIOLOGY

in their walls while the green plants had a cellulosic cell wall. When such
characteristics were considered, the fungi were placed in a separate
kingdom – Kingdom Fungi. All prokaryotic organisms were grouped
together under Kingdom Monera and the unicellular eukaryotic organisms
were placed in Kingdom Protista. Kingdom Protista has brought together
Chlamydomonas, Chlorella (earlier placed in Algae within Plants and both
having cell walls) with Paramoecium and Amoeba (which were earlier placed
in the animal kingdom which lack cell wall). It has put together organisms
which, in earlier classifications, were placed in different kingdoms. This
happened because the criteria for classification changed. This kind of
changes will take place in future too depending on the improvement in our
understanding of characteristics and evolutionary relationships. Over time,
an attempt has been made to evolve a classification system which reflects
not only the morphological, physiological and reproductive similarities,
but is also phylogenetic, i.e., is based on evolutionary relationships.
In this chapter we will study characteristics of Kingdoms Monera,
Protista and Fungi of the Whittaker system of classification. The Kingdoms
Plantae and Animalia, commonly referred to as plant and animal
kingdoms, respectively, will be dealt separately in chapters 3 and 4.

2.1 KINGDOM MONERA

Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera. They are the most
abundant micro-organisms. Bacteria occur almost everywhere. Hundreds
of bacteria are present in a handful of soil. They also live in extreme habitats
such as hot springs, deserts, snow and deep oceans where very few other
life forms can survive. Many of them live in or on other organisms as
parasites.
Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape: the
spherical Coccus (pl.: cocci), the rod-shaped Bacillus (pl.: bacilli), the
comma-shaped Vibrium (pl.: vibrio) and the spiral Spirillum (pl.: spirilla)
(Figure 2.1).

Spore Flagellum

Cocci Spirilla
Bacilli
Vibrio

Figure 2.1 Bacteria of different shapes

2024-25
 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 13

Though the bacterial structure is very simple, they are very complex
in behaviour. Compared to many other organisms, bacteria as a group
show the most extensive metabolic diversity. Some of the bacteria are
autotrophic, i.e., they synthesise their own food from inorganic substrates.
They may be photosynthetic autotrophic or chemosynthetic autotrophic.
The vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophs, i.e., they depend on other
organisms or on dead organic matter for food.

2.1.1 Archaebacteria
These bacteria are special since they live in some of the most harsh habitats
such as extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles)
and marshy areas (methanogens). Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria
in having a different cell wall structure and this feature is responsible for
their survival in extreme conditions. Methanogens are present in the gut
of several ruminant animals such as cows and buffaloes and they are
responsible for the production of methane (biogas) from the dung of these
animals.

2.1.2 Eubacteria
There are thousands of different eubacteria or ‘true
bacteria’. They are characterised by the presence of a
rigid cell wall, and if motile, a flagellum. The
cyanobacteria (also referred to as blue-green algae)
have chlorophyll a similar to green plants and are
photosynthetic autotrophs (Figure 2.2). The
cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial or filamentous,
freshwater/marine or terrestrial algae. The colonies
are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath. They
often form blooms in polluted water bodies. Some of
these organisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen in
specialised cells called heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc and
Anabaena. Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria
oxidise various inorganic substances such as
nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the released
energy for their ATP production. They play a great role
in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous,
iron and sulphur.
Heterotrophic bacteria are most abundant in
nature. The majority are important decomposers.
Many of them have a significant impact on human Figure 2.2 A filamentous blue-green
affairs. They are helpful in making curd from milk, algae – Nostoc
production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in legume

2024-25
14 BIOLOGY

roots, etc. Some are pathogens causing damage

to human beings, crops, farm animals and pets.
Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are well
known diseases caused by different bacteria.
Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission (Figure
2.3). Sometimes, under unfavourable conditions,
they produce spores. They also reproduce by a
sort of sexual reproduction by adopting a
primitive type of DNA transfer from one bacterium
to the other.
Figure 2.3 A dividing bacterium The Mycoplasma are organisms that
completely lack a cell wall. They are the smallest
living cells known and can survive without oxygen. Many mycoplasma
are pathogenic in animals and plants.

2.2 KINGDOM PROTISTA

All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista, but the boundaries
of this kingdom are not well defined. What may be ‘a photosynthetic
protistan’ to one biologist may be ‘a plant’ to another. In this book we
include Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds and
Protozoans under Protista. Members of Protista are primarily aquatic.
This kingdom forms a link with the others dealing with plants, animals
and fungi. Being eukaryotes, the protistan cell body contains a well defined
nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Some have flagella or
cilia. Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by a process involving
cell fusion and zygote formation.

2.2.1 Chrysophytes
This group includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids). They are found
in fresh water as well as in marine environments. They are microscopic
and float passively in water currents (plankton). Most of them are
photosynthetic. In diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping shells,
which fit together as in a soap box. The walls are embedded with silica
and thus the walls are indestructible. Thus, diatoms have left behind
large amount of cell wall deposits in their habitat; this accumulation over
billions of years is referred to as ‘diatomaceous earth’. Being gritty this
soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups. Diatoms are the
chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.

2024-25
 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 15

2.2.2 Dinoflagellates
These organisms are mostly marine and photosynthetic.
They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending
on the main pigments present in their cells. The cell wall
has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface. Most of
them have two flagella; one lies longitudinally and the
other transversely in a furrow between the wall plates.
Very often, red dinoflagellates (Example: Gonyaulax)
undergo such rapid multiplication that they make the
sea appear red (red tides). Toxins released by such large
numbers may even kill other marine animals such as
fishes. (a)

2.2.3 Euglenoids
Majority of them are fresh water organisms found in
stagnant water. Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein
rich layer called pellicle which makes their body flexible.
They have two flagella, a short and a long one. Though (b)
they are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when
deprived of sunlight they behave like heterotrophs by
predating on other smaller organisms. Interestingly, the
pigments of euglenoids are identical to those present in
higher plants. Example: Euglena (Figure 2.4b).

2.2.4 Slime Moulds

Slime moulds are saprophytic protists. The body moves
along decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic
material. Under suitable conditions, they form an
aggregation called plasmodium which may grow and (c)
spread over several feet. During unfavourable conditions,
the plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting bodies
bearing spores at their tips. The spores possess true walls.
They are extremely resistant and survive for many years,
even under adverse conditions. The spores are dispersed
by air currents.

2.2.5 Protozoans
All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or (d)
parasites. They are believed to be primitive relatives of
animals. There are four major groups of protozoans. Figure 2.4 (a) Dinoflagellates
(b) Euglena
Amoeboid protozoans: These organisms live in fresh (c) Slime mould
water, sea water or moist soil. They move and capture (d) Paramoecium

2024-25
16 BIOLOGY

their prey by putting out pseudopodia (false feet) as in Amoeba. Marine

forms have silica shells on their surface. Some of them such as Entamoeba
are parasites.
Flagellated protozoans: The members of this group are either free-living
or parasitic. They have flagella. The parasitic forms cause diaseases such
as sleeping sickness. Example: Trypanosoma.
Ciliated protozoans: These are aquatic, actively moving organisms because
of the presence of thousands of cilia. They have a cavity (gullet) that opens
to the outside of the cell surface. The coordinated movement of rows of
cilia causes the water laden with food to be steered into the gullet. Example:
Paramoecium (Figure 2.4d).
Sporozoans: This includes diverse organisms that have an infectious
spore-like stage in their life cycle. The most notorious is Plasmodium
(malarial parasite) which causes malaria, a disease which has a staggering
effect on human population.

2.3 KINGDOM FUNGI

The fungi constitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms. They

show a great diversity in morphology and habitat. You must have seen
fungi on a moist bread and rotten fruits. The common mushroom you eat
and toadstools are also fungi. White spots seen on mustard leaves are due
to a parasitic fungus. Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used to make
bread and beer. Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals; wheat
rust-causing Puccinia is an important example. Some are the source of
antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium. Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water,
soil and on animals and plants. They prefer to grow in warm and humid
places. Have you ever wondered why we keep food in the refrigerator ? Yes,
it is to prevent food from going bad due to bacterial or fungal infections.
With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are
filamentous. Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like structures
called hyphae. The network of hyphae is known as mycelium. Some hyphae
are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm – these are
called coenocytic hyphae. Others have septae or cross walls in their
hyphae. The cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin and polysaccharides.
Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from
dead substrates and hence are called saprophytes. Those that depend
on living plants and animals are called parasites. They can also live as
symbionts – in association with algae as lichens and with roots of higher
plants as mycorrhiza.
Reproduction in fungi can take place by vegetative means –
fragmentation, fission and budding. Asexual reproduction is by spores

2024-25
 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 17

called conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores, and sexual reproduction

is by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores. The various spores are
produced in distinct structures called fruiting bodies. The sexual cycle
involves the following three steps:
(i) Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes
called plasmogamy.
(ii) Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
(iii) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.
When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid
hyphae of compatible mating types come together and
fuse. In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells
immediately results in diploid cells (2n). However, in other
fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes), an intervening
dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell) occurs;
such a condition is called a dikaryon and the phase is
called dikaryophase of fungus. Later, the parental nuclei
fuse and the cells become diploid. The fungi form fruiting
bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading to (a)
formation of haploid spores.
The morphology of the mycelium, mode of spore
formation and fruiting bodies form the basis for the
division of the kingdom into various classes.

2.3.1 Phycomycetes
Members of phycomycetes are found in aquatic habitats
and on decaying wood in moist and damp places or as
(b)
obligate parasites on plants. The mycelium is aseptate
and coenocytic. Asexual reproduction takes place by
zoospores (motile) or by aplanospores (non-motile). These
spores are endogenously produced in sporangium. A
zygospore is formed by fusion of two gametes. These
gametes are similar in morphology (isogamous) or
dissimilar (anisogamous or oogamous). Some common
examples are Mucor (Figure 2.5a), Rhizopus (the bread
mould mentioned earlier) and Albugo (the parasitic fungi
on mustard).

2.3.2 Ascomycetes
Commonly known as sac-fungi, the ascomycetes are mostly (c)
multicellular, e.g., Penicillium, or rarely unicellular, e.g., yeast
(Saccharomyces). They are saprophytic, decomposers, Figure 2.5 Fungi: (a) Mucor
parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung). Mycelium (b) Aspergillus (c) Agaricus

2024-25
18 BIOLOGY

is branched and septate. The asexual spores are conidia produced

exogenously on the special mycelium called conidiophores. Conidia on
germination produce mycelium. Sexual spores are called ascospores
which are produced endogenously in sac like asci (singular ascus). These
asci are arranged in different types of fruiting bodies called ascocarps.
Some examples are Aspergillus (Figure 2.5b), Claviceps and Neurospora.
Neurospora is used extensively in biochemical and genetic work. Many
members like morels and truffles are edible and are considered delicacies.

2.3.3 Basidiomycetes
Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi
or puffballs. They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living
plant bodies as parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts. The mycelium is branched
and septate. The asexual spores are generally not found, but vegetative
reproduction by fragmentation is common. The sex organs are absent,
but plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two vegetative or somatic
cells of different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryotic
which ultimately gives rise to basidium. Karyogamy and meiosis take
place in the basidium producing four basidiospores. The basidiospores
are exogenously produced on the basidium (pl.: basidia). The basidia are
arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps. Some common members
are Agaricus (mushroom) (Figure 2.5c), Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia (rust
fungus).

2.3.4 Deuteromycetes
Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or
vegetative phases of these fungi are known. When the sexual forms of
these fungi were discovered they were moved into classes they rightly
belong to. It is also possible that the asexual and vegetative stage have
been given one name (and placed under deuteromycetes) and the sexual
stage another (and placed under another class). Later when the linkages
were established, the fungi were correctly identified and moved out of
deuteromycetes. Once perfect (sexual) stages of members of
dueteromycetes were discovered they were often moved to ascomycetes
and basidiomycetes. The deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores
known as conidia. The mycelium is septate and branched. Some members
are saprophytes or parasites while a large number of them are
decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling. Some examples are
Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

2024-25
 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 19

2.4 KINGDOM PLANTAE

Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing

organisms commonly called plants. A few members are partially
heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants or parasites. Bladderwort
and Venus fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants and Cuscuta is a
parasite. The plant cells have an eukaryotic structure with prominent
chloroplasts and cell wall mainly made of cellulose. You will study the
eukaryotic cell structure in detail in Chapter 8. Plantae includes algae,
bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
Life cycle of plants has two distinct phases – the diploid sporophytic
and the haploid gametophytic – that alternate with each other. The lengths
of the haploid and diploid phases, and whether these phases are free–
living or dependent on others, vary among different groups in plants.
This phenomenon is called alternation of generation. You will study
further details of this kingdom in Chapter 3.

2.5 KINGDOM ANIMALIA

This kingdom is characterised by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms

that are multicellular and their cells lack cell walls. They directly or
indirectly depend on plants for food. They digest their food in an internal
cavity and store food reserves as glycogen or fat. Their mode of nutrition
is holozoic – by ingestion of food. They follow a definite growth pattern
and grow into adults that have a definite shape and size. Higher forms
show elaborate sensory and neuromotor mechanism. Most of them are
capable of locomotion.
The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and female followed
by embryological development. Salient features of various phyla are
described in Chapter 4.

2.6 VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PRIONS AND LICHENS

In the five kingdom classification of Whittaker there is no mention of lichens

and some acellular organisms like viruses, viroids and prions. These are
briefly introduced here.
All of us who have suffered the ill effects of common cold or ‘flu’ know
what effects viruses can have on us, even if we do not associate it with our
condition. Viruses did not find a place in classification since they are not
considered truly ‘living’, if we understand living as those organisms that
have a cell structure. The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are
characterised by having an inert crystalline structure outside the living cell.

2024-25
20 BIOLOGY

Head

Collar
Sheath

RNA Capsid
Tail fibres

(a) (b)

Figure 2.6 (a) Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) (b) Bacteriophage

Once they infect a cell they take over the machinery of the host cell to replicate
themselves, killing the host. Would you call viruses living or non-living?
Virus means venom or poisonous fluid. Dmitri Ivanowsky (1892)
recognised certain microbes as causal organism of the mosaic disease of
tobacco (Figure 2.6a). These were found to be smaller than bacteria
because they passed through bacteria-proof filters. M.W. Beijerinek
(1898) demonstrated that the extract of the infected plants of tobacco
could cause infection in healthy plants and named the new pathogen
“virus” and called the fluid as Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living
fluid). W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be crystallised
and crystals consist largely of proteins. They are inert outside their specific
host cell. Viruses are obligate parasites.
In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could
be either RNA or DNA. No virus contains both RNA and DNA. A virus is
a nucleoprotein and the genetic material is infectious. In general, viruses
that infect plants have single stranded RNA and viruses that infect animals
have either single or double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA.
Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria) are
usually double stranded DNA viruses (Figure 2.6b). The protein coat
called capsid made of small subunits called capsomeres, protects the
nucleic acid. These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral
geometric forms. Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes
and influenza. AIDS in humans is also caused by a virus. In plants, the
symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing
and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.

2024-25
 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 21

Viroids : In 1971, T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious agent that

was smaller than viruses and caused potato spindle tuber disease. It was
found to be a free RNA; it lacked the protein coat that is found in viruses,
hence the name viroid. The RNA of the viroid was of low molecular weight.
Prions : In modern medicine certain infectious neurological diseases
were found to be transmitted by an agent consisting of abnormally folded
protein. The agent was similar in size to viruses. These agents were called
prions. The most notable diseases caused by prions are bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called mad cow disease in cattle and
its analogous variant Cr–Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.
Lichens : Lichens are symbiotic associations i.e. mutually useful
associations, between algae and fungi. The algal component is known as
phycobiont and fungal component as mycobiont, which are autotrophic
and heterotrophic, respectively. Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi
provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and water for its partner.
So close is their association that if one saw a lichen in nature one would
never imagine that they had two different organisms within them. Lichens
are very good pollution indicators – they do not grow in polluted areas.

SUMMARY

Biological classification of plants and animals was first proposed by Aristotle on the
basis of simple morphological characters. Linnaeus later classified all living organisms
into two kingdoms – Plantae and Animalia. Whittaker proposed an elaborate five
kingdom classification – Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. The main
criteria of the five kingdom classification were cell structure, body organisation,
mode of nutrition and reproduction, and phylogenetic relationships.
In the five kingdom classification, bacteria are included in Kingdom Monera.
Bacteria are cosmopolitan in distribution. These organisms show the most extensive
metabolic diversity. Bacteria may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in their mode of
nutrition. Kingdom Protista includes all single-celled eukaryotes such as
Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime-moulds and Protozoans. Protists
have defined nucleus and other membrane bound organelles. They reproduce
both asexually and sexually. Members of Kingdom Fungi show a great diversity
in structures and habitat. Most fungi are saprophytic in their mode of nutrition.
They show asexual and sexual reproduction. Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes,
Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes are the four classes under this kingdom.
The plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms. Algae,
bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms are included in this
group. The life cycle of plants exhibit alternation of generations – gametophytic
and sporophytic generations. The heterotrophic eukaryotic, multicellular
organisms lacking a cell wall are included in the Kingdom Animalia. The mode of
nutrition of these organisms is holozoic. They reproduce mostly by the sexual
mode. Some acellular organisms like viruses and viroids as well as the lichens are
not included in the five kingdom system of classification.

2024-25
22 BIOLOGY

EXERCISES

1. Discuss how classification systems have undergone several changes over a

period of time?
2. State two economically important uses of:
(a) heterotrophic bacteria
(b) archaebacteria
3. What is the nature of cell-walls in diatoms?
4. Find out what do the terms ‘algal bloom’ and ‘red-tides’ signify.
5. How are viroids different from viruses?
6. Describe briefly the four major groups of Protozoa.
7. Plants are autotrophic. Can you think of some plants that are partially
heterotrophic?
8. What do the terms phycobiont and mycobiont signify?
9. Give a comparative account of the classes of Kingdom Fungi under the following:
(i) mode of nutrition
(ii) mode of reproduction
10. What are the characteristic features of Euglenoids?
11. Give a brief account of viruses with respect to their structure and nature of
genetic material. Also name four common viral diseases.
12. Organise a discussion in your class on the topic – Are viruses living or non-
living?

2024-25
 PLANT KINGDOM 23

C HAPTER 3
PLANT KINGDOM
3.1 Algae In the previous chapter, we looked at the broad classification of living
organisms under the system proposed by Whittaker (1969) wherein he
3.2 Bryophytes
suggested the Five Kingdom classification viz. Monera, Protista, Fungi,
3.3 Pteridophytes Animalia and Plantae. In this chapter, we will deal in detail with further
classification within Kingdom Plantae popularly known as the ‘plant
3.4 Gymnosperms
kingdom’.
3.5 Angiosperms We must stress here that our understanding of the plant kingdom
has changed over time. Fungi, and members of the Monera and Protista
having cell walls have now been excluded from Plantae though earlier
classifications placed them in the same kingdom. So, the cyanobacteria
that are also referred to as blue green algae are not ‘algae’ any more. In
this chapter, we will describe Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes,
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms under Plantae .
Let us also look at classification within angiosperms to understand
some of the concerns that influenced the classification systems. The
earliest systems of classification used only gross superficial morphological
characters such as habit, colour, number and shape of leaves, etc. They
were based mainly on vegetative characters or on the androecium
structure (system given by Linnaeus). Such systems were artificial; they
separated the closely related species since they were based on a few
characteristics. Also, the artificial systems gave equal weightage to
vegetative and sexual characteristics; this is not acceptable since we know
that often the vegetative characters are more easily affected by
environment. As against this, natural classification systems developed,
which were based on natural affinities among the organisms and consider,

2024-25
24 BIOLOGY

not only the external features, but also internal features, like ultra-
structure, anatomy, embryology and phytochemistry. Such a
classification for flowering plants was given by George Bentham and
Joseph Dalton Hooker.
At present phylogenetic classification systems based on
evolutionary relationships between the various organisms are acceptable.
This assumes that organisms belonging to the same taxa have a common
ancestor. We now use information from many other sources too to help
resolve difficulties in classification. These become more important when
there is no supporting fossil evidence. Numerical Taxonomy which is
now easily carried out using computers is based on all observable
characteristics. Number and codes are assigned to all the characters and
the data are then processed. In this way each character is given equal
importance and at the same time hundreds of characters can be
considered. Cytotaxonomy that is based on cytological information like
chromosome number, structure, behaviour and chemotaxonomy that
uses the chemical constituents of the plant to resolve confusions, are also
used by taxonomists these days.

3.1 ALGAE
Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic and largely
aquatic (both fresh water and marine) organisms. They occur in a
variety of other habitats: moist stones, soils and wood. Some of them
also occur in association with fungi (lichen) and animals (e.g., on sloth
bear).
The form and size of algae is highly variable, ranging from colonial
forms like Volvox and the filamentous forms like Ulothrix and Spirogyra
(Figure 3.1). A few of the marine forms such as kelps, form massive plant
bodies.
The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods.
Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation. Each fragment develops into
a thallus. Asexual reproduction is by the production of different types of
spores, the most common being the zoospores. They are flagellated
(motile) and on germination gives rise to new plants. Sexual reproduction
takes place through fusion of two gametes. These gametes can be
flagellated and similar in size (as in Ulothrix) or non-flagellated (non-motile)
but similar in size (as in Spirogyra). Such reproduction is called
isogamous. Fusion of two gametes dissimilar in size, as in species of
Eudorina is termed as anisogamous. Fusion between one large, non-
motile (static) female gamete and a smaller, motile male gamete is termed
oogamous, e.g., Volvox, Fucus.

2024-25
PLANT KINGDOM 25

Figure 3.1 Algae : (a) Green algae (i) Volvox (ii) Ulothrix
(b) Brown algae (i) Laminaria (ii) Fucus (iii) Dictyota
(c) Red algae (i) Porphyra (ii) Polysiphonia

2024-25
26 BIOLOGY

Algae are useful to man in a variety of ways. At least a half of the total
carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried out by algae through
photosynthesis. Being photosynthetic they increase the level of dissolved
oxygen in their immediate environment. They are of paramount
importance as primary producers of energy-rich compounds which form
the basis of the food cycles of all aquatic animals. Many species of Porphyra,
Laminaria and Sargassum are among the 70 species of marine algae
used as food. Certain marine brown and red algae produce large amounts
of hydrocolloids (water holding substances), e.g., algin (brown algae) and
carrageen (red algae) which are used commercially. Agar, one of the
commercial products obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria are used to
grow microbes and in preparations of ice-creams and jellies. Chlorella a
unicellular alga rich in proteins is used as food supplement even by space
travellers. The algae are divided into three main classes: Chlorophyceae,
Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.

3.1.1 Chlorophyceae
The members of chlorophyceae are commonly called green algae. The
plant body may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous. They are usually
grass green due to the dominance of pigments chlorophyll a and b. The
pigments are localised in definite chloroplasts. The chloroplasts may be
discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon-shaped in
different species. Most of the members have one or more storage bodies
called pyrenoids located in the chloroplasts. Pyrenoids contain protein
besides starch. Some algae may store food in the form of oil droplets.
Green algae usually have a rigid cell wall made of an inner layer of cellulose
and an outer layer of pectose.
Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by fragmentation or by
formation of different types of spores. Asexual reproduction is by
flagellated zoospores produced in zoosporangia. The sexual reproduction
shows considerable variation in the type and formation of sex cells and it
may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous. Some commonly found
green algae are: Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra and Chara
(Figure 3.1a).

3.1.2 Phaeophyceae
The members of phaeophyceae or brown algae are found primarily in
marine habitats. They show great variation in size and form. They range
from simple branched, filamentous forms (Ectocarpus) to profusely
branched forms as represented by kelps, which may reach a height of
100 metres. They possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and xanthophylls.
They vary in colour from olive green to various shades of brown depending
upon the amount of the xanthophyll pigment, fucoxanthin present in

2024-25
 PLANT KINGDOM 27

them. Food is stored as complex carbohydrates, which may be in the

form of laminarin or mannitol. The vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall
usually covered on the outside by a gelatinous coating of algin. The
protoplast contains, in addition to plastids, a centrally located vacuole
and nucleus. The plant body is usually attached to the substratum by a
holdfast, and has a stalk, the stipe and leaf like photosynthetic organ –
the frond. Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation. Asexual
reproduction in most brown algae is by biflagellate zoospores that are
pear-shaped and have two unequal laterally attached flagella.
Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.
Union of gametes may take place in water or within the oogonium
(oogamous species). The gametes are pyriform (pear-shaped) and bear
two laterally attached flagella. The common forms are Ectocarpus, Dictyota,
Laminaria, Sargassum and Fucus (Figure 3.1b).

3.1.3 Rhodophyceae
The members of rhodophyceae are commonly called red algae because of
the predominance of the red pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their body. Majority
of the red algae are marine with greater concentrations found in the warmer
areas. They occur in both well-lighted regions close to the surface of water
and also at great depths in oceans where relatively little light penetrates.
The red thalli of most of the red algae are multicellular. Some of them
have complex body organisation. The food is stored as floridean starch
which is very similar to amylopectin and glycogen in structure.
The red algae usually reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation. They
reproduce asexually by non-motile spores and sexually by non-motile

TABLE 3.1 Divisions of Algae and their Main Characteristics

Classes Common Major Stored Cell Wall Flagellar Habitat

Name Pigments Food Number and
Position of
Insertions
Chlorophyceae Green Chlorophyll Starch Cellulose 2-8, equal, Fresh water,
algae a, b apical brackish water,
salt water
Phaeophyceae Brown Chlorophyll Mannitol, Cellulose 2, unequal, Fresh water
algae a, c, laminarin and algin lateral (rare) brackish
fucoxanthin water, salt
water
Rhodophyceae Red Chlorophyll Floridean Cellulose, Absent Fresh water
algae a, d, starch pectin and (some),
phycoerythrin poly brackish
sulphate water, salt
esters water (most)

2024-25
28 BIOLOGY

gametes. Sexual reproduction is oogamous and accompanied by complex

post fertilisation developments. The common members are: Polysiphonia,
Porphyra (Figure 3.1c), Gracilaria and Gelidium.

3.2 B RYOPHYTES

Bryophytes include the various mosses and liverworts that are found
commonly growing in moist shaded areas in the hills (Figure 3.2).

Antheridiophore
Archegoniophore

Gemma cup Gemma cup

Rhizoids Rhizoids
(a) (b)

Antheridial
Capsule branch Branches

Sporophyte
Seta

Leaves

Archegonial
branch

Gametophyte
Main axis
Rhizoids

(d)
(c)

Figure 3.2 Bryophytes: A liverwort – Marchantia (a) Female thallus (b) Male thallus
Mosses – (c) Funaria, gametophyte and sporophyte (d) Sphagnum
gametophyte

2024-25
 PLANT KINGDOM 29

Bryophytes are also called amphibians of the plant kingdom because

these plants can live in soil but are dependent on water for sexual
reproduction. They usually occur in damp, humid and shaded localities.
They play an important role in plant succession on bare rocks/soil.
The plant body of bryophytes is more differentiated than that of algae.
It is thallus-like and prostrate or erect, and attached to the substratum
by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids. They lack true roots, stem or
leaves. They may possess root-like, leaf-like or stem-like structures. The
main plant body of the bryophyte is haploid. It produces gametes, hence
is called a gametophyte. The sex organs in bryophytes are multicellular.
The male sex organ is called antheridium. They produce biflagellate
antherozoids. The female sex organ called archegonium is flask-shaped
and produces a single egg. The antherozoids are released into water where
they come in contact with archegonium. An antherozoid fuses with the
egg to produce the zygote. Zygotes do not undergo reduction division
immediately. They produce a multicellular body called a sporophyte.
The sporophyte is not free-living but attached to the photosynthetic
gametophyte and derives nourishment from it. Some cells of the
sporophyte undergo reduction division (meiosis) to produce haploid
spores. These spores germinate to produce gametophyte.
Bryophytes in general are of little economic importance but some
mosses provide food for herbaceous mammals, birds and other animals.
Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that have long been used as
fuel, and as packing material for trans-shipment of living material because
of their capacity to hold water. Mosses along with lichens are the first
organisms to colonise rocks and hence, are of great ecological importance.
They decompose rocks making the substrate suitable for the growth of
higher plants. Since mosses form dense mats on the soil, they reduce the
impact of falling rain and prevent soil erosion. The bryophytes are divided
into liverworts and mosses.

3.2.1 Liverworts
The liverworts grow usually in moist, shady habitats such as banks of
streams, marshy ground, damp soil, bark of trees and deep in the woods.
The plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e.g., Marchantia. The thallus is
dorsiventral and closely appressed to the substrate. The leafy members
have tiny leaf-like appendages in two rows on the stem-like structures.
Asexual reproduction in liverworts takes place by fragmentation of
thalli, or by the formation of specialised structures called gemmae
(sing. gemma). Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds, which
develop in small receptacles called gemma cups located on the thalli.
The gemmae become detached from the parent body and germinate to
form new individuals. During sexual reproduction, male and female sex

2024-25
30 BIOLOGY

organs are produced either on the same or on different thalli. The

sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and capsule. After meiosis,
spores are produced within the capsule. These spores germinate to form
free-living gametophytes.

3.2.2 Mosses
The predominant stage of the life cycle of a moss is the gametophyte which
consists of two stages. The first stage is the protonema stage, which
develops directly from a spore. It is a creeping, green, branched and
frequently filamentous stage. The second stage is the leafy stage, which
develops from the secondary protonema as a lateral bud. They consist of
upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged leaves. They are attached
to the soil through multicellular and branched rhizoids. This stage bears
the sex organs.
Vegetative reproduction in mosses is by fragmentation and budding
in the secondary protonema. In sexual reproduction, the sex organs
antheridia and archegonia are produced at the apex of the leafy shoots.
After fertilisation, the zygote develops into a sporophyte, consisting of a
foot, seta and capsule. The sporophyte in mosses is more elaborate than
that in liverworts. The capsule contains spores. Spores are formed after
meiosis. The mosses have an elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal.
Common examples of mosses are Funaria, Polytrichum and Sphagnum
(Figure 3.2).

3.3 PTERIDOPHYTES
The Pteridophytes include horsetails and ferns. Pteridophytes are used
for medicinal purposes and as soil-binders. They are also frequently grown
as ornamentals. Evolutionarily, they are the first terrestrial plants to
possess vascular tissues – xylem and phloem. You shall study more about
these tissues in Chapter 6. The pteridophytes are found in cool, damp,
shady places though some may flourish well in sandy-soil conditions.
You may recall that in bryophytes the dominant phase in the life
cycle is the gametophytic plant body. However, in pteridophytes, the
main plant body is a sporophyte which is differentiated into true root,
stem and leaves (Figure 3.3). These organs possess well-differentiated
vascular tissues. The leaves in pteridophyta are small (microphylls) as
in Selaginella or large (macrophylls) as in ferns. The sporophytes bear
sporangia that are subtended by leaf-like appendages called
sporophylls. In some cases sporophylls may form distinct compact
structures called strobili or cones (Selaginella, Equisetum). The
sporangia produce spores by meiosis in spore mother cells. The spores
germinate to give rise to inconspicuous, small but multicellular,

2024-25
PLANT KINGDOM 31

Strobilus

Node

Internode

Branch

Rhizome

(b)

(d)
(c)

Figure 3.3 Pteridophytes : (a) Selaginella (b) Equisetum (c) Fern (d) Salvinia

2024-25
32 BIOLOGY

free-living, mostly photosynthetic thalloid gametophytes called

prothallus. These gametophytes require cool, damp, shady places to
grow. Because of this specific restricted requirement and the need for
water for fertilisation, the spread of living pteridophytes is limited and
restricted to narrow geographical regions. The gametophytes bear male
and female sex organs called antheridia and archegonia, respectively.
Water is required for transfer of antherozoids – the male gametes released
from the antheridia, to the mouth of archegonium. Fusion of male gamete
with the egg present in the archegonium result in the formation of zygote.
Zygote thereafter produces a multicellular well-differentiated sporophyte
which is the dominant phase of the pteridophytes. In majority of the
pteridophytes all the spores are of similar kinds; such plants are called
homosporous. Genera like Selaginella and Salvinia which produce
two kinds of spores, macro (large) and micro (small) spores, are known
as heterosporous. The megaspores and microspores germinate and give
rise to female and male gametophytes, respectively. The female
gametophytes in these plants are retained on the parent sporophytes
for variable periods. The development of the zygotes into young embryos
take place within the female gametophytes. This event is a precursor to
the seed habit considered an important step in evolution.
The pteridophytes are further classified into four classes: Psilopsida
(Psilotum); Lycopsida (Selaginella, Lycopodium), Sphenopsida (Equisetum)
and Pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum).

3.4 G YMNOSPERMS
The gymnosperms (gymnos : naked, sperma : seeds) are plants in which
the ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall and remain exposed, both
before and after fertilisation. The seeds that develop post-fertilisation, are
not covered, i.e., are naked. Gymnosperms include medium-sized trees
or tall trees and shrubs (Figure 3.4). One of the gymnosperms, the giant
redwood tree Sequoia is one of the tallest tree species. The roots are
generally tap roots. Roots in some genera have fungal association in the
form of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some others (Cycas) small specialised
roots called coralloid roots are associated with N2- fixing cyanobacteria.
The stems are unbranched (Cycas) or branched (Pinus, Cedrus). The leaves
may be simple or compound. In Cycas the pinnate leaves persist for a few
years. The leaves in gymnosperms are well-adapted to withstand extremes
of temperature, humidity and wind. In conifers, the needle-like leaves
reduce the surface area. Their thick cuticle and sunken stomata also
help to reduce water loss.

2024-25
 PLANT KINGDOM 33

The gymnosperms are heterosporous; they produce

haploid microspores and megaspores. The two kinds of
spores are produced within sporangia that are borne
on sporophylls which are arranged spirally along an axis
to form lax or compact strobili or cones. The strobili
bearing microsporophylls and microsporangia are
called microsporangiate or male strobili. The
microspores develop into a male gametophytic
generation which is highly reduced and is confined to
only a limited number of cells. This reduced
gametophyte is called a pollen grain. The development
of pollen grains take place within the microsporangia. (a)
The cones bearing megasporophylls with ovules or
megasporangia are called macrosporangiate or female
strobili. The male or female cones or strobili may be
borne on the same tree (Pinus). However, in cycas male
cones and megasporophylls are borne on different trees.
The megaspore mother cell is differentiated from one of
the cells of the nucellus. The nucellus is protected by
envelopes and the composite structure is called an
ovule. The ovules are borne on megasporophylls which
may be clustered to form the female cones. The
megaspore mother cell divides meiotically to form four
megaspores. One of the megaspores enclosed within the
megasporangium develops into a multicellular female
gametophyte that bears two or more archegonia or
female sex organs. The multicellular female gametophyte
is also retained within megasporangium. (b)
Unlike bryophytes and pteridophytes, in
gymnosperms the male and the female gametophytes
do not have an independent free-living existence. They Dwarf Shoot
remain within the sporangia retained on the
sporophytes. The pollen grain is released from the
microsporangium. They are carried in air currents and Long Shoot
come in contact with the opening of the ovules borne
on megasporophylls. The pollen tube carrying the
male gametes grows towards archegonia in the ovules
and discharge their contents near the mouth of the Seeds
archegonia. Following fertilisation, zygote develops
into an embryo and the ovules into seeds. These seeds (c)
are not covered. Figure 3.4 Gymnosperms: (a) Cycas
(b) Pinus (c) Ginkgo

2024-25
34 BIOLOGY

3.5 ANGIOSPERMS

Unlike the gymnosperms where the ovules are naked, in the angiosperms
or flowering plants, the pollen grains and ovules are developed in
specialised structures called flowers. In angiosperms, the seeds are
enclosed in fruits. The angiosperms are an exceptionally large group of
plants occurring in wide range of habitats. They range in size from the
smallest Wolffia to tall trees of Eucalyptus (over 100 metres). They provide
us with food, fodder, fuel, medicines and several other commercially
important products. They are divided into two classes : the dicotyledons
and the monocotyledons (Figure 3.5).

(a) (b)
Figure 3.5 Angiosperms : (a) A dicotyledon (b) A monocotyledon

S UMMARY

Plant kingdom includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms

and angiosperms. Algae are chlorophyll-bearing simple, thalloid,
autotrophic and largely aquatic organisms. Depending on the type of
pigment possesed and the type of stored food, algae are classfied into
three classes, namely Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.
Algae usually reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation, asexually by
formation of different types of spores and sexually by formation of gametes
which may show isogamy, anisogamy or oogamy.
Bryophytes are plants which can live in soil but are dependent on
water for sexual reproduction. Their plant body is more differentiated
than that of algae. It is thallus-like and prostrate or erect and attached to
the substratum by rhizoids. They possess root-like, leaf-like and stem-

2024-25
 PLANT KINGDOM 35

like structures. The bryophytes are divided into liverworts and mosses.
The plant body of liverworts is thalloid and dorsiventral whereas mosses
have upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged leaves. The main
plant body of a bryophyte is gamete-producing and is called a
gametophyte. It bears the male sex organs called antheridia and female
sex organs called archegonia. The male and female gametes produced
fuse to form zygote which produces a multicellular body called a
sporophyte. It produces haploid spores. The spores germinate to form
gametophytes.
In pteridophytes the main plant is a sporophyte which is differentiated
into true root, stem and leaves. These organs possess well-differentiated
vascular tissues. The sporophytes bear sporangia which produce spores.
The spores germinate to form gametophytes which require cool, damp
places to grow. The gametophytes bear male and female sex organs called
antheridia and archegonia, respectively. Water is required for transfer of
male gametes to archegonium where zygote is formed after fertilisation.
The zygote produces a sporophyte.
The gymnosperms are the plants in which ovules are not enclosed by
any ovary wall. After fertilisation the seeds remain exposed and therefore
these plants are called naked-seeded plants. The gymnosperms produce
microspores and megaspores which are produced in microsporangia and
megasporangia borne on the sporophylls. The sporophylls –
microsporophylls and megasporophylls – are arranged spirally on axis
to form male and female cones, respectively. The pollen grain germinates
and pollen tube releases the male gamete into the ovule, where it fuses
with the egg cell in archegonia. Following fertilisation, the zygote develops
into embryo and the ovules into seeds.
The angiosperms are divided into two classes – the dicotyledons and
the monocotyledons.

EXERCISES

1. What is the basis of classification of algae?

2. When and where does reduction division take place in the life cycle of a
liverwort, a moss, a fern, a gymnosperm and an angiosperm?
3. Name three groups of plants that bear archegonia. Briefly describe the
life cycle of any one of them.
4. Mention the ploidy of the following: protonemal cell of a moss; primary
endosperm nucleus in dicot, leaf cell of a moss; prothallus cell of a ferm;
gemma cell in Marchantia; meristem cell of monocot, ovum of a liverwort,
and zygote of a fern.

2024-25
36 BIOLOGY

5. Write a note on economic importance of algae and gymnosperms.

6. Both gymnosperms and angiosperms bear seeds, then why are they
classified separately?
7. What is heterospory? Briefly comment on its significance. Give two
examples.
8. Explain briefly the following terms with suitable examples:-
(i) protonema
(ii) antheridium
(iii) archegonium
(iv) diplontic
(v) sporophyll
(vi) isogamy
9. Differentiate between the following:-
(i) red algae and brown algae
(ii) liverworts and moss
(iii) homosporous and heterosporous pteridophyte
10. Match the following (column I with column II)
Column I Column II
(a) Chlamydomonas (i) Moss
(b) Cycas (ii) Pteridophyte
(c) Selaginella (iii) Algae
(d) Sphagnum (iv) Gymnosperm
11. Describe the important characteristics of gymnosperms.

2024-25
ANIMAL KINGDOM 73
37

C HAPTER 4
ANIMAL KINGDOM
4.1 Basis of When you look around, you will observe different animals with different
Classification structures and forms. As over a million species of animals have been
described till now, the need for classification becomes all the more
4.2 Classification of
important. The classification also helps in assigning a systematic position
Animals to newly described species.

4.1 B ASIS OF CLASSIFICATION

Inspite of differences in structure and form of different animals, there are
fundamental features common to various individuals in relation to the
arrangement of cells, body symmetry, nature of coelom, patterns of
digestive, circulatory or reproductive systems. These features are used
as the basis of animal classification and some of them are discussed here.

4.1.1 Levels of Organisation

Though all members of Animalia are multicellular, all of them do not
exhibit the same pattern of organisation of cells. For example, in sponges,
the cells are arranged as loose cell aggregates, i.e., they exhibit cellular
level of organisation. Some division of labour (activities) occur among
the cells. In coelenterates, the arrangement of cells is more complex. Here
the cells performing the same function are arranged into tissues, hence is
called tissue level of organisation. A still higher level of organisation, i.e.,
organ level is exhibited by members of Platyhelminthes and other higher
phyla where tissues are grouped together to form organs, each specialised
for a particular function. In animals like Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs,

2024-25
 38 BIOLOGY

Echinoderms and Chordates, organs have

associated to form functional systems, each
system concerned with a specific physiological
function. This pattern is called organ system
level of organisation. Organ systems in different
groups of animals exhibit various patterns of
complexities. For example, the digestive system
in Platyhelminthes has only a single opening
to the outside of the body that serves as both
mouth and anus, and is hence called
incomplete. A complete digestive system has
two openings, mouth and anus. Similarly, the
Figure 4.1 (a) Radial symmetry
circulatory system may be of two types:
(i) open type in which the blood is pumped
out of the heart and the cells and tissues are
directly bathed in it and
(ii) closed type in which the blood is circulated
through a series of vessels of varying diameters
(arteries, veins and capillaries).

4.1.2 Symmetry
Animals can be categorised on the basis of their
symmetry. Sponges are mostly asymmetrical,
i.e., any plane that passes through the centre
does not divide them into equal halves. When
any plane passing through the central axis of
the body divides the organism into two identical
Figure 4.1 (b) Bilateral symmetry halves, it is called radial symmetry.
Coelenterates, ctenophores and echinoderms
have this kind of body plan (Figure 4.1a).
Ectoderm Animals like annelids, arthropods, etc., where
Mesoglea
Endoderm the body can be divided into identical left and
right halves in only one plane, exhibit bilateral
symmetry (Figure 4.1b).

4.1.3 Diploblastic and Triploblastic

Organisation
Animals in which the cells are arranged in two
embryonic layers, an external ectoderm and
Mesoderm
(a) (b) an internal endoderm, are called diploblastic
animals, e.g., coelenterates. An undifferentiated
Figure 4.2 Showing germinal layers : layer, mesoglea, is present in between the
(a) Diploblastic (b) Triploblastic ectoderm and the endoderm (Figure 4.2a).

2024-25
ANIMAL KINGDOM 93
39

Those animals in which the developing embryo has a third germinal layer,
mesoderm, in between the ectoderm and endoderm, are called
triploblastic animals (platyhelminthes to chordates, Figure 4.2b).

4.1.4 Coelom
Presence or absence of a cavity between the body
wall and the gut wall is very important in
classification. The body cavity, which is lined
by mesoderm is called coelom. Animals
possessing coelom are called coelomates, e.g.,
annelids, molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms,
hemichordates and chordates (Figure 4.3a). In
some animals, the body cavity is not lined by
mesoderm, instead, the mesoderm is present as
scattered pouches in between the ectoderm and
endoderm. Such a body cavity is called
pseudocoelom and the animals possessing them
are called pseudocoelomates, e.g.,
aschelminthes (Figure 4.3b). The animals in
which the body cavity is absent are called Figure 4.3 Diagrammatic sectional view of :
acoelomates, e.g., platyhelminthes (Figure 4.3c). (a) Coelomate (b) Pseudocoelomate
(c) Acoelomate

4.1.5 Segmentation
In some animals, the body is externally and internally divided into
segments with a serial repetition of at least some organs. For example, in
earthworm, the body shows this pattern called metameric segmentation
and the phenomenon is known as metamerism.

4.1.6 Notochord
Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure formed on the
dorsal side during embryonic development in some animals. Animals with
notochord are called chordates and those animals which do not form this
structure are called non-chordates, e.g., porifera to echinoderms.

4.2 C LASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS

The broad classification of Animalia based on common fundamental

features as mentioned in the preceding sections is given in Figure 4.4.

2024-25
 40 BIOLOGY

*Echinodermata exhibits radial or bilateral symmetry depending on the stage.

Figure 4.4 Broad classification of Kingdom Animalia based on common fundamental features
The important characteristic features of the
different phyla are described.

4.2.1 Phylum – Porifera

Members of this phylum are commonly known
as sponges. They are generally marine and mostly
asymmetrical animals (Figure 4.5). These are
primitive multicellular animals and have cellular
level of organisation. Sponges have a water
transport or canal system. Water enters through
minute pores (ostia) in the body wall into a central
cavity, spongocoel, from where it goes out
through the osculum. This pathway of water
(b) transport is helpful in food gathering, respiratory
(a) exchange and removal of waste. Choanocytes
or collar cells line the spongocoel and the canals.
Digestion is intracellular. The body is supported
by a skeleton made up of spicules or spongin
fibres. Sexes are not separate (hermaphrodite),
i.e., eggs and sperms are produced by the same
individual. Sponges reproduce asexually by
fragmentation and sexually by formation of
(c)
gametes. Fertilisation is internal and development
Figure 4.5 Examples of Porifera : (a) Sycon is indirect having a larval stage which is
(b) Euspongia (c) Spongilla morphologically distinct from the adult.

2024-25
ANIMAL KINGDOM 14
41

Examples: Sycon (Scypha), Spongilla (Fresh water sponge) and Euspongia

(Bath sponge).

4.2.2 Phylum – Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

They are aquatic, mostly marine, sessile or free-swimming, radially
symmetrical animals (Figure 4.6). The name cnidaria is derived from the

(a) (b)
Figure 4.6 Examples of Coelenterata indicating outline of their body form :
(a) Aurelia (Medusa) (b) Adamsia (Polyp)

cnidoblasts or cnidocytes (which contain the stinging capsules or

nematocysts) present on the tentacles and the body. Cnidoblasts are used
for anchorage, defense and for the capture of prey (Figure 4.7). Cnidarians
exhibit tissue level of organisation and are diploblastic. They have a central
gastro-vascular cavity with a single opening, mouth on hypostome.
Digestion is extracellular and intracellular. Some of the cnidarians, e.g.,
corals have a skeleton composed of calcium carbonate. Cnidarians exhibit
two basic body forms called polyp and medusa (Figure 4.6). The former
is a sessile and cylindrical form like Hydra, Adamsia, etc. whereas, the
latter is umbrella-shaped and free-swimming like Aurelia or jelly fish. Figure 4.7
Those cnidarians which exist in both forms exhibit alternation of Diagrammatic view of
generation (Metagenesis), i.e., polyps produce medusae asexually and Cnidoblast
medusae form the polyps sexually (e.g., Obelia).
Examples: Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war), Adamsia (Sea anemone),
Pennatula (Sea-pen), Gorgonia (Sea-fan) and Meandrina (Brain coral).

2024-25
 42 BIOLOGY

4.2.3 Phylum – Ctenophora

Ctenophores, commonly known as sea walnuts or comb
jellies are exclusively marine, radially symmetrical, diploblastic
organisms with tissue level of organisation. The body bears
eight external rows of ciliated comb plates, which help in
locomotion (Figure 4.8). Digestion is both extracellular and
intracellular. Bioluminescence (the property of a living
organism to emit light) is well-marked in ctenophores. Sexes
are not separate. Reproduction takes place only by sexual
means. Fertilisation is external with indirect development.
Examples: Pleurobrachia and Ctenoplana.

4.2.4 Phylum – Platyhelminthes

They have dorso-ventrally flattened body, hence are called
flatworms (Figure 4.9). These are mostly endoparasites found
in animals including human beings. Flatworms are bilaterally
symmetrical, triploblastic and acoelomate animals with organ
Figure 4.8 Example of level of organisation. Hooks and suckers are present in the
Ctenophora parasitic forms. Some of them absorb nutrients from the host
(Pleurobrachia)
directly through their body surface. Specialised cells called
flame cells help in osmoregulation and excretion. Sexes are not
separate. Fertilisation is internal and development is through
many larval stages. Some members like Planaria possess high
regeneration capacity.
Examples: Taenia (Tapeworm), Fasciola (Liver fluke).

(a) (b)
Figure 4.9 Examples of Platyhelminthes : (a) Tape worm (b) Liver fluke

2024-25
ANIMAL KINGDOM 34
43

4.2.5 Phylum – Aschelminthes

The body of the aschelminthes is circular in
cross-section, hence, the name roundworms
(Figure 4.10). They may be freeliving, aquatic
and terrestrial or parasitic in plants and animals.
Roundworms have organ-system level of body
organisation. They are bilaterally symmetrical,
triploblastic and pseudocoelomate animals.
Alimentary canal is complete with a well-
developed muscular pharynx. An excretory
tube removes body wastes from the body cavity
through the excretory pore. Sexes are separate
(dioecious), i.e., males and females are distinct.
Often females are longer than males. Fertilisation
is internal and development may be direct (the Male Female
young ones resemble the adult) or indirect.
Figure 4.10 Example of
Examples : Ascaris (Roundworm), Wuchereria Aschelminthes:
(Filaria worm), Ancylostoma (Hookworm). Roundworm

4.2.6 Phylum – Annelida

They may be aquatic (marine and fresh water) or
terrestrial; free-living, and sometimes parasitic.
They exhibit organ-system level of body
organisation and bilateral symmetry. They are
triploblastic, metamerically segmented and
coelomate animals. Their body surface is
distinctly marked out into segments or
metameres and, hence, the phylum name
Annelida (Latin, annulus : little ring) (Figure 4.11).
They possess longitudinal and circular muscles
which help in locomotion. Aquatic annelids like
Nereis possess lateral appendages, parapodia,
which help in swimming. A closed circulatory
system is present. Nephridia (sing. nephridium)
help in osmoregulation and excretion. Neural
system consists of paired ganglia (sing. ganglion)
connected by lateral nerves to a double ventral
nerve cord. Nereis, an aquatic form, is dioecious,
but earthworms and leeches are monoecious.
Reproduction is sexual.
Examples : Nereis, Pheretima (Earthworm) and Figure 4.11 Examples of Annelida : (a) Nereis
Hirudinaria (Blood sucking leech). (b) Hirudinaria

2024-25
44 BIOLOGY

4.2.7 Phylum – Arthropoda

This is the largest phylum of Animalia which
includes insects. Over two-thirds of all named
species on earth are arthropods (Figure 4.12).
They have organ-system level of organisation.
They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic,
segmented and coelomate animals. The body
(a) (b) of arthropods is covered by chitinous
exoskeleton. The body consists of head, thorax
and abdomen. They have jointed appendages
(arthros-joint, poda-appendages). Respiratory
organs are gills, book gills, book lungs or
tracheal system. Circulatory system is of open
type. Sensory organs like antennae, eyes
(compound and simple), statocysts or
balancing organs are present. Excretion takes
place through malpighian tubules. They are
mostly dioecious. Fertilisation is usually
(c) (d) internal. They are mostly oviparous.
Development may be direct or indirect.
Figure 4.12 Examples of Arthropoda : Examples: Economically important insects –
(a) Locust (b) Butterfly Apis (Honey bee), Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer
(c) Scorpion (d) Prawn (Lac insect)
Vectors – Anopheles, Culex and Aedes
(Mosquitoes)
Gregarious pest – Locusta (Locust)
Living fossil – Limulus (King crab).

4.2.8 Phylum – Mollusca

This is the second largest animal phylum
(Figure 4.13). Molluscs are terrestrial or aquatic
(marine or fresh water) having an organ-system
level of organisation. They are bilaterally
symmetrical, triploblastic and coelomate
(a) animals. Body is covered by a calcareous shell
and is unsegmented with a distinct head,
muscular foot and visceral hump. A soft and
spongy layer of skin forms a mantle over the
visceral hump. The space between the hump
and the mantle is called the mantle cavity in
which feather like gills are present. They have
respiratory and excretory functions. The
(b) anterior head region has sensory tentacles. The
Figure 4.13 Examples of Mollusca : mouth contains a file-like rasping organ for
(a) Pila (b) Octopus feeding, called radula.

2024-25
ANIMAL KINGDOM 54
45

They are usually dioecious and oviparous with indirect

development.
Examples: Pila (Apple snail), Pinctada (Pearl oyster), Sepia
(Cuttlefish), Loligo (Squid), Octopus (Devil fish), Aplysia (Sea-
hare), Dentalium (Tusk shell) and Chaetopleura (Chiton).

4.2.9 Phylum – Echinodermata

(a)
These animals have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles
and, hence, the name Echinodermata (Spiny bodied, Figure
4.14). All are marine with organ-system level of organisation.
The adult echinoderms are radially symmetrical but larvae
are bilaterally symmetrical. They are triploblastic and
coelomate animals. Digestive system is complete with mouth
on the lower (ventral) side and anus on the upper (dorsal)
side. The most distinctive feature of echinoderms is the (b)
presence of water vascular system which helps in
locomotion, capture and transport of food and respiration. Figure 4.14 Examples of
An excretory system is absent. Sexes are separate. Echinodermata :
Reproduction is sexual. Fertilisation is usually external. (a) Asterias
(b) Ophiura
Development is indirect with free-swimming larva.
Examples: Asterias (Star fish), Echinus (Sea urchin), Antedon
(Sea lily), Cucumaria (Sea cucumber) and Ophiura (Brittle star).

4.2.10 Phylum – Hemichordata

Hemichordata was earlier considered as a sub-phylum under
phylum Chordata. But now it is placed as a separate phylum Proboscis
under non-chordata. Hemichordates have a rudimentary
structure in the collar region called stomochord, a structure
similar to notochord.
This phylum consists of a small group of worm-like
marine animals with organ-system level of organisation. They
are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and coelomate
animals. The body is cylindrical and is composed of an Collar
anterior proboscis, a collar and a long trunk (Figure 4.15).
Circulatory system is of open type. Respiration takes place
through gills. Excretory organ is proboscis gland. Sexes are
separate. Fertilisation is external. Development is indirect.
Trunk
Examples: Balanoglossus and Saccoglossus.

4.2.11 Phylum – Chordata

Animals belonging to phylum Chordata are fundamentally Figure 4.15 Balanoglossus
characterised by the presence of a notochord, a dorsal

2024-25
46 BIOLOGY

Nerve cord Notochord hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal

gill slits (Figure 4.16). These are bilaterally
symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate with
organ-system level of organisation. They
possess a post anal tail and a closed circulatory
Post-anal part system.
Table 4.1 presents a comparison of salient
Gill slits
features of chordates and non-chordates.
Figure 4.16 Chordata characteristics

TABLE 4.1 Comparison of Chordates and Non-chordates

S.No. Chordates Non-chordates
1. Notochord present. Notochord absent.
2. Central nervous system is dorsal, Central nervous system is ventral, solid
hollow and single. and double.
3. Pharynx perforated by gill slits. Gill slits are absent.
4. Heart is ventral. Heart is dorsal (if present).
5. A post-anal part (tail) is present. Post-anal tail is absent.

Phylum Chordata is divided into three

subphyla: U r o c h o r d a t a or Tunicata,
Cephalochordata and Vertebrata.
Subphyla Urochordata and
Cephalochordata are often referred to as
protochordates (Figure 4.17) and are
exclusively marine. In Urochordata, notochord
is present only in larval tail, while in
Cephalochordata, it extends from head to tail
region and is persistent throughout their life.
Examples: Urochordata – Ascidia, Salpa,
Doliolum; Cephalochordata – Branchiostoma
(Amphioxus or Lancelet).
The members of subphylum Vertebrata
possess notochord during the embryonic
period. The notochord is replaced by a
cartilaginous or bony vertebral column in the
adult. Thus all vertebrates are chordates but
all chordates are not vertebrates. Besides the
Figure 4.17 Ascidia
basic chordate characters, vertebrates have a
ventral muscular heart with two, three or four
chambers, kidneys for excretion and
osmoregulation and paired appendages which
may be fins or limbs.

2024-25
ANIMAL KINGDOM 74
47

The subphylum Vertebrata is further divided as follows:

Vertebrata
Division

Agnatha Gnathostomata
(lacks jaw) (bears jaw)
Super Class

Pisces Tetrapoda
(bear fins) (bear limbs)

Class Class Class

1. Cyclostomata 1. Chondrichthyes 1. Amphibia
2. Osteichthyes 2. Reptilia
3. Aves
4. Mammals

4.2.11.1 Class – Cyclostomata

All living members of the class Cyclostomata are
ectoparasites on some fishes. They have an
elongated body bearing 6-15 pairs of gill slits
for respiration. Cyclostomes have a sucking and
circular mouth without jaws (Fig. 4.18). Their
body is devoid of scales and paired fins.
Cranium and vertebral column are
cartilaginous. Circulation is of closed type.
Cyclostomes are marine but migrate for
Figure 4.18 A jawless vertebrate - Petromyzon
spawning to fresh water. After spawning, within
a few days, they die. Their larvae, after
metamorphosis, return to the ocean.
Examples: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine
(Hagfish).
4.2.11.2 Class – Chondrichthyes
They are marine animals with streamlined body
and have cartilaginous endoskeleton (a)
(Figure 4.19). Mouth is located ventrally.
Notochord is persistent throughout life. Gill
slits are separate and without operculum (gill
cover). The skin is tough, containing minute
placoid scales. Teeth are modified placoid
scales which are backwardly directed. Their
(b)
jaws are very powerful. These animals are
predaceous. Due to the absence of air bladder, Figure 4.19 Example of Cartilaginous fishes :
they have to swim constantly to avoid sinking. (a) Scoliodon (b) Pristis

2024-25
 48 BIOLOGY

Heart is two-chambered (one auricle and one ventricle).

Some of them have electric organs (e.g., Torpedo) and
some possess poison sting (e.g., Trygon). They are
cold-blooded (poikilothermous) animals, i.e., they lack
the capacity to regulate their body temperature. Sexes
are separate. In males pelvic fins bear claspers. They
have internal fertilisation and many of them are
viviparous.
Examples: Scoliodon (Dog fish), Pristis (Saw fish),
Carcharodon (Great white shark), Trygon (Sting ray).
4.2.11.3 Class – Osteichthyes
It includes both marine and fresh water fishes with bony
endoskeleton. Their body is streamlined. Mouth is
mostly terminal (Figure 4.20). They have four pairs of
gills which are covered by an operculum on each side.
Skin is covered with cycloid/ctenoid scales. Air bladder
is present which regulates buoyancy. Heart is two-
(a) (b)
chambered (one auricle and one ventricle). They are
Figure 4.20 Examples of Bony fishes : cold-blooded animals. Sexes are separate. Fertilisation
(a) Hippocampus (b) Catla is usually external. They are mostly oviparous and
development is direct.
Examples: Marine – E x o c o e t u s (Flying fish),
Hippocampus (Sea horse); Freshwater – Labeo (Rohu),
Catla (Katla), Clarias (Magur); Aquarium – Betta
(Fighting fish), Pterophyllum (Angel fish).

4.2.11.4 Class – Amphibia

As the name indicates (Gr., Amphi : dual, bios, life),
amphibians can live in aquatic as well as terrestrial
(a)
habitats (Figure 4.21). Most of them have two pairs of
limbs. Body is divisible into head and trunk. Tail may
be present in some. The amphibian skin is moist
(without scales). The eyes have eyelids. A tympanum
represents the ear. Alimentary canal, urinary and
reproductive tracts open into a common chamber called
cloaca which opens to the exterior. Respiration is by
gills, lungs and through skin. The heart is three-
chambered (two auricles and one ventricle). These are
cold-blooded animals. Sexes are separate. Fertilisation
(b)
is external. They are oviparous and development
is indirect.
Figure 4.21 Examples of Amphibia :
Examples: Bufo (Toad), Rana (Frog), Hyla (Tree frog),
(a) Salamandra
(b) Rana Salamandra (Salamander), Ichthyophis (Limbless
amphibia).

2024-25
ANIMAL KINGDOM 94
49

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 4.22 Reptiles: (a) Chameleon (b) Crocodilus (c) Chelone (d) Naja

4.2.11.5 Class – Reptilia

The class name refers to their creeping or crawling mode of locomotion
(Latin, repere or reptum, to creep or crawl). They are mostly terrestrial
animals and their body is covered by dry and cornified skin, epidermal
scales or scutes (Fig. 4.22). They do not have external ear openings.
Tympanum represents ear. Limbs, when present, are two pairs. Heart is
usually three-chambered, but four-chambered in crocodiles. Reptiles are
poikilotherms. Snakes and lizards shed their scales as skin cast. Sexes
are separate. Fertilisation is internal. They are oviparous and development
is direct.
Examples: Chelone (Turtle), Testudo (Tortoise), Chameleon (Tree lizard),
Calotes (Garden lizard), Crocodilus (Crocodile), Alligator (Alligator).
Hemidactylus (Wall lizard), Poisonous snakes – Naja (Cobra), Bangarus
(Krait), Vipera (Viper).
4.2.11.6 Class – Aves
The characteristic features of Aves (birds) are the presence of feathers
and most of them can fly except flightless birds (e.g., Ostrich). They possess
beak (Figure 4.23). The forelimbs are modified into wings. The hind limbs
generally have scales and are modified for walking, swimming or clasping
the tree branches. Skin is dry without glands except the oil gland at the
base of the tail. Endoskeleton is fully ossified (bony) and the long bones
are hollow with air cavities (pneumatic). The digestive tract of birds has
additional chambers, the crop and gizzard. Heart is completely four-
chambered. They are warm-blooded (homoiothermous) animals, i.e.,
they are able to maintain a constant body temperature. Respiration is by

2024-25
50 BIOLOGY

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 4.23 Some birds : (a) Neophron (b) Struthio (c) Psittacula (d) Pavo

lungs. Air sacs connected to lungs supplement respiration. Sexes are

separate. Fertilisation is internal. They are oviparous and development is
direct.
Examples : Corvus (Crow), Columba (Pigeon), Psittacula (Parrot), Struthio
(Ostrich), Pavo (Peacock), Aptenodytes (Penguin), Neophron (Vulture).

4.2.11.7 Class – Mammalia

They are found in a variety of habitats – polar ice caps, deserts, mountains,
forests, grasslands and dark caves. Some of them have adapted to fly or
live in water. The most unique mammalian characteristic is the presence
of milk producing glands (mammary glands) by which the young ones
are nourished. They have two pairs of limbs, adapted for walking, running,
climbing, burrowing, swimming or flying (Figure 4.24). The skin of

(c)

(a)

(d)
(b)
Figure 4.24 Some mammals : (a) Ornithorhynchus (b) Macropus (c) Pteropus (d) Balaenoptera

2024-25
ANIMAL KINGDOM 15
51

mammals is unique in possessing hair. External ears or pinnae are

present. Different types of teeth are present in the jaw. Heart is four-
chambered. They are homoiothermous. Respiration is by lungs. Sexes
are separate and fertilisation is internal. They are viviparous with few
exceptions and development is direct.
Examples: Oviparous-O rnithorhynchus (Platypus); Viviparous -
Macropus (Kangaroo), Pteropus (Flying fox), Camelus (Camel), Macaca
(Monkey), Rattus (Rat), Canis (Dog), Felis (Cat), Elephas (Elephant),
Equus (Horse), Delphinus (Common dolphin), Balaenoptera (Blue whale),
Panthera tigris (Tiger), Panthera leo (Lion).
The salient distinguishing features of all phyla under animal kingdom
is comprehensively given in the Table 4.2.

TABLE 4.2 Salient Features of Different Phyla in the Animal Kingdom

Phylum Level of Symme- Coelom Segmen- Digestive Circu- Respi- Distinctive

Organi- try tation System latory ratory Features
sation System System

Cellular Absent Absent Absent Body with pores

Porifera Various Absent Absent
and canals in walls.
Coelenterata Cnidoblasts
(Cnidaria) Tissue Radial Absent Absent Incomplete Absent Absent
present.

Tissue Radial Absent Absent Incomplete Absent Absent Comb plates for
Ctenophora
locomotion.
Organ &
Platyhelm- Organ- Bilateral Absent Absent Incomplete Absent Absent Flat body, suckers.
inthes system
Organ- Pseudo Often worm-
Aschelmin- Bilateral coelo- Absent Complete Absent Absent shaped,
system
thes mate elongated.
Organ- Coelo- Body segment-
Annelida system Bilateral mate Present Complete Present Absent ation like rings.
Organ- Exoskeleton of cu-
Bilateral Coelo- Present Complete Present Present
ticle, jointed ap-
Arthropoda system mate
pendages.
Organ- Bilateral Coelo- Absent Complete Present Present External skeleton
Mollusca system mate of shell usually
present.

Organ- Coelo- Water vascular

Echino- Radial Absent Complete Present Present
system mate system, radial
dermata
symmetry.
Organ- Bilateral Coelo- Wor m-like with
Hemi- Absent Complete Present Present
system mate proboscis, collar
chordata
and trunk.
Notochord, dorsal
Chordata Organ- Bilateral Coelo- Present Complete Present Present hollow nerve cord,
system mate gill slits with
limbs or fins.

2024-25
52 BIOLOGY

SUMMARY

The basic fundamental features such as level of organisation, symmetry,

cell organisation, coelom, segmentation, notochord, etc., have enabled us
to broadly classify the animal kingdom. Besides the fundamental features,
there are many other distinctive characters which are specific for each
phyla or class.
Porifera includes multicellular animals which exhibit cellular level of
organisation and have characteristic flagellated choanocytes. The
coelenterates have tentacles and bear cnidoblasts. They are mostly aquatic,
sessile or free-floating. The ctenophores are marine animals with comb
plates. The platyhelminths have flat body and exhibit bilateral symmetry.
The parasitic forms show distinct suckers and hooks. Aschelminthes are
pseudocoelomates and include parasitic as well as non-parasitic
roundworms.
Annelids are metamerically segmented animals with a true coelom.
The arthropods are the most abundant group of animals characterised
by the presence of jointed appendages. The molluscs have a soft body
surrounded by an external calcareous shell. The body is covered with
external skeleton made of chitin. The echinoderms possess a spiny skin.
Their most distinctive feature is the presence of water vascular system.
The hemichordates are a small group of worm-like marine animals. They
have a cylindrical body with proboscis, collar and trunk.
Phylum Chordata includes animals which possess a notochord either
throughout or during early embryonic life. Other common features
observed in the chordates are the dorsal, hollow nerve cord and paired
pharyngeal gill slits. Some of the vertebrates do not possess jaws (Agnatha)
whereas most of them possess jaws (Gnathostomata). Agnatha is
represented by the class, Cyclostomata. They are the most primitive
chordates and are ectoparasites on fishes. Gnathostomata has two super
classes, Pisces and Tetrapoda. Classes Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes
bear fins for locomotion and are grouped under Pisces. The
Chondrichthyes are fishes with cartilaginous endoskeleton and are marine.
Classes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia have two pairs of limbs
and are thus grouped under Tetrapoda. The amphibians have adapted
to live both on land and water. Reptiles are characterised by the presence

2024-25
ANIMAL KINGDOM 35
53

of dry and cornified skin. Limbs are absent in snakes. Fishes, amphibians
and reptiles are poikilothermous (cold-blooded). Aves are warm-blooded
animals with feathers on their bodies and forelimbs modified into wings
for flying. Hind limbs are adapted for walking, swimming, perching or
clasping. The unique features of mammals are the presence of mammary
glands and hairs on the skin. They commonly exhibit viviparity.

EXERCISES

1. What are the difficulties that you would face in classification of animals,
if common fundamental features are not taken into account?
2. If you are given a specimen, what are the steps that you would follow to
classify it?
3. How useful is the study of the nature of body cavity and coelom in the
classification of animals?
4. Distinguish between intracellular and extracellular digestion?
5. What is the difference between direct and indirect development?
6. What are the peculiar features that you find in parasitic
platyhelminthes?
7. What are the reasons that you can think of for the arthropods to
constitute the largest group of the animal kingdom?
8. Water vascular system is the characteristic of which group of the
following:
(a) Porifera (b) Ctenophora (c) Echinodermata (d) Chordata
9. “All vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates”.
Justify the statement.
10. How important is the presence of air bladder in Pisces?
11. What are the modifications that are observed in birds that help them
fly?
12. Could the number of eggs or young ones produced by an oviparous and
viviparous mother be equal? Why?
13. Segmentation in the body is first observed in which of the following:
(a) Platyhelminthes (b) Aschelminthes (c) Annelida (d) Arthropoda

2024-25
54 BIOLOGY

14. Match the following:

(a) Operculum (i) Ctenophora
(b) Parapodia (ii) Mollusca
(c) Scales (iii) Porifera
(d) Comb plates (iv) Reptilia
(e) Radula (v) Annelida
(f ) Hairs (vi) Cyclostomata and Chondrichthyes
(g) Choanocytes (vii) Mammalia
(h) Gill slits (viii) Osteichthyes
15. Prepare a list of some animals that are found parasitic on human
beings.

2024-25
 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 79

C HAPTER 7
S TRUCTURAL O RGANISATION IN
ANIMALS
7.1 Organ and Organ In the preceding chapters you came across a large variety of organisms,
System both unicellular and multicellular, of the animal kingdom. In unicellular
organisms, all functions like digestion, respiration and reproduction
7.2 Frogs
are performed by a single cell. In the complex body of multicellular
animals the same basic functions are carried out by different groups of
cells in a well organised manner. The body of a simple organism like
Hydra is made of different types of cells and the number of cells in each
type can be in thousands. The human body is composed of billions of
cells to perform various functions. How do these cells in the body work
together? As you have already learnt in your earlier classes, in
multicellular animals, a group of similar cells alongwith intercellular
substances perform a specific function. Such an organisation is called
tissue.
You may be surprised to know that all complex animals consist of
only four basic types of tissues. These tissues are organised in specific
proportion and pattern to form an organ like stomach, lung, heart and
kidney. When two or more organs perform a common function by their
physical and/or chemical interaction, they together form organ system,
e.g., digestive system, respiratory system, etc. Cells, tissues, organs and
organ systems split up the work in a way that exhibits division of labour
and contribute to the survival of the body as a whole.

7.1 O RGAN AND ORGAN SYSTEM

The basic tissues as you have learnt in earlier classes, organise to form
organs which in turn associate to form organ systems in the multicellular
organisms. Such an organisation is essential for more efficient and better
coordinated activities of millions of cells constituting an organism. Each

2024-25
80 BIOLOGY

organ in our body is made of one or more type of tissues. For example,
our heart consists of all the four types of tissues, i.e., epithelial, connective,
muscular and neural. We also notice, after some careful study that the
complexity in organ and organ systems displays certain discernable trend.
This discernable trend is called evolutionary trend (You will study the
details in class XII). In this chapter, you are being introduced to
morphology and anatomy of frog. Morphology refers to study of form or
externally visible features. In the case of plants or microbes, the term
morphology precisely means only this. In case of animals this refers to
the external appearance of the organs or parts of the body. The word
anatomy conventionally is used for the study of morphology of internal
organs in the animals. You will learn the morphology and anatomy of
frog representing vertebrates.

7.2 FROGS
Frogs can live both on land and in freshwater and belong to class Amphibia
of phylum Chordata. The most common species of frog found in India is
Rana tigrina.
They do not have constant body temperature i.e., their body
temperature varies with the temperature of the environment. Such animals
are called cold blooded or poikilotherms. You might have also noticed
changes in the colour of the frogs while they are in grasses and on dry
land. They have the ability to change the colour to hide them from their
enemies (camouflage). This protective coloration is called mimicry. You
may also know that frogs are not seen during peak summer and winter.
During this period they take shelter in deep burrows to protect them
from extreme heat and cold. This is known as summer sleep (aestivation)
and winter sleep (hibernation) respectively.

7.2.1 Morphology
Have you ever touched the skin of frog? The skin is smooth and slippery
due to the presence of mucus. The skin is always maintained in a moist
condition. The colour of dorsal side of body is
Head generally olive green with dark irregular spots. On
Trunk
the ventral side the skin is uniformly pale yellow.
Eye The frog never drinks water but absorb it through
the skin.
Body of a frog is divisible into head and trunk
(Figure 7.1). A neck and tail are absent. Above the
Fore limb mouth, a pair of nostrils is present. Eyes are bulged
and covered by a nictitating membrane that
Hind limb protects them while in water. On either side of eyes
a membranous tympanum (ear) receives sound
Figure 7.1 External features of frog signals. The forelimbs and hind limbs help in

2024-25
 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 81

swimming, walking, leaping and burrowing. The hind limbs end in five
digits and they are larger and muscular than fore limbs that end in four
digits. Feet have webbed digits that help in swimming. Frogs exhibit sexual
dimorphism. Male frogs can be distinguished by the presence of sound
producing vocal sacs and also a copulatory pad on the first digit of the
fore limbs which are absent in female frogs.

7.2.2 Anatomy
The body cavity of frogs accommodate different organ systems such as
digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous, excretory and reproductive
systems with well developed structures and functions (Figure 7.2).
The digestive system consists of alimentary canal and digestive glands.
The alimentary canal is short because frogs are carnivores and hence the
length of intestine is reduced. The mouth opens into the buccal cavity that
leads to the oesophagus through pharynx. Oesophagus is a short tube
that opens into the stomach which in turn continues as the intestine, rectum
and finally opens outside by the cloaca. Liver secretes bile that is stored in
the gall bladder. Pancreas, a digestive gland produces pancreatic juice

Heart
Oesophagus

Liver

Gall
bladder

Lung
Stomach

Fat bodies

Kidney

Ureter Intestine

Urinary
bladder Rectum

Cloaca
Cloacal Aperture

Figure 7.2 Diagrammatic representation of internal organs of frog showing

complete digestive system

2024-25
82 BIOLOGY

containing digestive enzymes. Food is captured by the bilobed tongue.

Digestion of food takes place by the action of HCl and gastric juices secreted
from the walls of the stomach. Partially digested food called chyme is passed
from stomach to the first part of the small intestine, the duodenum. The
duodenum receives bile from gall bladder and pancreatic juices from the
pancreas through a common bile duct. Bile emulsifies fat and pancreatic
juices digest carbohydrates and proteins. Final digestion takes place in the
intestine. Digested food is absorbed by the numerous finger-like folds in
the inner wall of intestine called villi and microvilli. The undigested solid
waste moves into the rectum and passes out through cloaca.
Frogs respire on land and in the water by two different methods. In
water, skin acts as aquatic respiratory organ (cutaneous respiration).
Dissolved oxygen in the water is exchanged through the skin by diffusion.
On land, the buccal cavity, skin and lungs act as the respiratory organs.
The respiration by lungs is called pulmonary respiration. The lungs are a
pair of elongated, pink coloured sac-like structures present in the upper
part of the trunk region (thorax). Air enters through the nostrils into the
buccal cavity and then to lungs. During aestivation and hibernation
gaseous exchange takes place through skin.
The vascular system of frog is well-developed closed type. Frogs have
a lymphatic system also. The blood vascular system involves heart, blood
vessels and blood. The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph
channels and lymph nodes. Heart is a muscular structure situated in the
upper part of the body cavity. It has three chambers, two atria and one
ventricle and is covered by a membrane called pericardium. A triangular
structure called sinus venosus joins the right atrium. It receives blood
through the major veins called vena cava. The ventricle opens into a sac-
like conus arteriosus on the ventral side of the heart. The blood from the
heart is carried to all parts of the body by the arteries (arterial system).
The veins collect blood from different parts of body to the heart and form
the venous system. Special venous connection between liver and intestine
as well as the kidney and lower parts of the body are present in frogs. The
former is called hepatic portal system and the latter is called renal portal
system. The blood is composed of plasma and cells. The blood cells are
RBC (red blood cells) or erythrocytes, WBC (white blood cells) or leucocytes
and platelets. RBC’s are nucleated and contain red coloured pigment
namely haemoglobin. The lymph is different from blood. It lacks few
proteins and RBCs. The blood carries nutrients, gases and water to the
respective sites during the circulation. The circulation of blood is achieved
by the pumping action of the muscular heart.
The elimination of nitrogenous wastes is carried out by a well
developed excretory system. The excretory system consists of a pair of
kidneys, ureters, cloaca and urinary bladder. These are compact, dark
red and bean like structures situated a little posteriorly in the body cavity
on both sides of vertebral column. Each kidney is composed of several
structural and functional units called uriniferous tubules or nephrons.
Two ureters emerge from the kidneys in the male frogs. The ureters act as
urinogenital duct which opens into the cloaca. In females the ureters and

2024-25
 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS 83

oviduct open seperately in the cloaca. The thin-walled urinary bladder is

present ventral to the rectum which also opens in the cloaca. The frog
excretes urea and thus is a ureotelic animal. Excretory wastes are carried
by blood into the kidney where it is separated and excreted.
The system for control and coordination is highly evolved in the frog. It
includes both neural system and endocrine glands. The chemical
coordination of various organs of the body is Vasa
achieved by hormones which are secreted by the efferentia
endocrine glands. The prominent endocrine
glands found in frog are pituitary, thyroid, Fat
parathyroid, thymus, pineal body, pancreatic bodies
islets, adrenals and gonads. The nervous system
is organised into a central nervous system (brain Testis
Kidney
and spinal cord), a peripheral nervous system
(cranial and spinal nerves) and an autonomic
nervous system (sympathetic and Adrenal
gland
parasympathetic). There are ten pairs of cranial Urino
nerves arising from the brain. Brain is enclosed genital duct
in a bony structure called brain box (cranium).
Rectum
The brain is divided into fore-brain, mid-brain
and hind-brain. Forebrain includes olfactory Cloaca
lobes, paired cerebral hemispheres and unpaired Urinary Cloacal
diencephalon. The midbrain is characterised by bladder aperture
a pair of optic lobes. Hind-brain consists of
cerebellum and medulla oblongata. The medulla Figure 7.3 Male reproductive system
oblongata passes out through the foramen
magnum and continues into spinal cord, which
is enclosed in the vertebral column.
Frog has different types of sense organs, namely Oviduct
organs of touch (sensory papillae), taste (taste
buds), smell (nasal epithelium), vision (eyes) and
hearing (tympanum with internal ears). Out of
these, eyes and internal ears are well-organised Ovary
structures and the rest are cellular aggregations Ova
around nerve endings. Eyes in a frog are a pair of
spherical structures situated in the orbit in skull.
These are simple eyes (possessing only one unit). Ureter
External ear is absent in frogs and only tympanum
can be seen externally. The ear is an organ of
hearing as well as balancing (equilibrium).
Frogs have well organised male and female
reproductive systems. Male reproductive organs
Cloaca
consist of a pair of yellowish ovoid testes (Figure
7.3), which are found adhered to the upper part Cloacal aperture
of kidneys by a double fold of peritoneum called
Urinary
mesorchium. Vasa efferentia are 10-12 in
bladder
number that arise from testes. They enter the
kidneys on their side and open into Bidder’s Figure 7.4 Female reproductive system

2024-25
84 BIOLOGY

canal. Finally it communicates with the urinogenital duct that comes out
of the kidneys and opens into the cloaca. The cloaca is a small, median
chamber that is used to pass faecal matter, urine and sperms to the exterior.
The female reproductive organs include a pair of ovaries (Figure 7.4).
The ovaries are situated near kidneys and there is no functional connection
with kidneys. A pair of oviduct arising from the ovaries opens into the
cloaca separately. A mature female can lay 2500 to 3000 ova at a time.
Fertilisation is external and takes place in water. Development involves a
larval stage called tadpole. Tadpole undergoes metamorphosis to form
the adult.
Frogs are beneficial for mankind because they eat insects and protect
the crop. Frogs maintain ecological balance because these serve as an
important link of food chain and food web in the ecosystem. In some
countries the muscular legs of frog are used as food by man.

SUMMARY

Cells, tissues, organs and organ systems split up the work in a way that
ensures the survival of the body as a whole and exhibit division of labour.
A tissue is defined as group of cells along with intercellular substances
performing one or more functions in the body. Epithelia are sheet like
tissues lining the body’s surface and its cavities, ducts and tubes. Epithelia
have one free surface facing a body fluid or the outside environment.
Their cells are structurally and functionally connected at junctions.
The Indian bullfrog, Rana tigrina, is the common frog found in India.
Body is covered by skin. Mucous glands are present in the skin which is
highly vascularised and helps in respiration in water and on land. Body is
divisible into head and trunk. A muscular tongue is present, which is bilobed
at the tip and is used in capturing the prey. The alimentary canal consists
of oesophagous, stomach, intestine and rectum, which open into the cloaca.
The main digestive glands are liver and pancreas. It can respire in water
through skin and through lungs on land. Circulatory system is closed
with single circulation. RBCs are nucleated. Nervous system is organised
into central, peripheral and autonomic. The organs of urinogenital system
are kidneys and urinogenital ducts, which open into the cloaca. The male
reproductive organ is a pair of testes. The female reproductive organ is a
pair of ovaries. A female lays 2500-3000 ova at a time. The fertilisation and
development are external. The eggs hatch into tadpoles, which
metamorphose into frogs.

EXERCISES

1. Draw a neat diagram of digestive system of frog.

2. Mention the function of the Ureters in frog.

2024-25
 Chapter 1
SETS
vIn these days of conflict between ancient and modern studies; there
must surely be something to be said for a study which did not
begin with Pythagoras and will not end with Einstein; but
is the oldest and the youngest. — G.H. HARDY v

1.1 Introduction
The concept of set serves as a fundamental part of the
present day mathematics. Today this concept is being used
in almost every branch of mathematics. Sets are used to
define the concepts of relations and functions. The study of
geometry, sequences, probability, etc. requires the knowledge
of sets.
The theory of sets was developed by German
mathematician Georg Cantor (1845-1918). He first
encountered sets while working on “problems on trigonometric
series”. In this Chapter, we discuss some basic definitions
Georg Cantor
and operations involving sets. (1845-1918)
1.2 Sets and their Representations
In everyday life, we often speak of collections of objects of a particular kind, such as,
a pack of cards, a crowd of people, a cricket team, etc. In mathematics also, we come
across collections, for example, of natural numbers, points, prime numbers, etc. More
specially, we examine the following collections:
(i) Odd natural numbers less than 10, i.e., 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
(ii) The rivers of India
(iii) The vowels in the English alphabet, namely, a, e, i, o, u
(iv) Various kinds of triangles
(v) Prime factors of 210, namely, 2,3,5 and 7
(vi) The solution of the equation: x2 – 5x + 6 = 0, viz, 2 and 3.
We note that each of the above example is a well-defined collection of objects in

2024-25
2 MATHEMATICS

the sense that we can definitely decide whether a given particular object belongs to a
given collection or not. For example, we can say that the river Nile does not belong to
the collection of rivers of India. On the other hand, the river Ganga does belong to this
colleciton.
We give below a few more examples of sets used particularly in mathematics, viz.
N : the set of all natural numbers
Z : the set of all integers
Q : the set of all rational numbers
R : the set of real numbers
Z+ : the set of positive integers
Q+ : the set of positive rational numbers, and
R + : the set of positive real numbers.
The symbols for the special sets given above will be referred to throughout
this text.
Again the collection of five most renowned mathematicians of the world is not
well-defined, because the criterion for determining a mathematician as most renowned
may vary from person to person. Thus, it is not a well-defined collection.
We shall say that a set is a well-defined collection of objects.
The following points may be noted :
(i) Objects, elements and members of a set are synonymous terms.
(ii) Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, X, Y, Z, etc.
(iii) The elements of a set are represented by small letters a, b, c, x, y, z, etc.
If a is an element of a set A, we say that “ a belongs to A” the Greek symbol ∈
(epsilon) is used to denote the phrase ‘belongs to’. Thus, we write a ∈ A. If ‘b’ is not
an element of a set A, we write b ∉ A and read “b does not belong to A”.
Thus, in the set V of vowels in the English alphabet, a ∈ V but b ∉ V. In the set
P of prime factors of 30, 3 ∈ P but 15 ∉ P.
There are two methods of representing a set :
(i) Roster or tabular form
(ii) Set-builder form.
(i) In roster form, all the elements of a set are listed, the elements are being separated
by commas and are enclosed within braces { }. For example, the set of all even
positive integers less than 7 is described in roster form as {2, 4, 6}. Some more
examples of representing a set in roster form are given below :
(a) The set of all natural numbers which divide 42 is {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 42}.

2024-25
 SETS 3

ANote In roster form, the order in which the elements are listed is immaterial.
Thus, the above set can also be represented as {1, 3, 7, 21, 2, 6, 14, 42}.
(b) The set of all vowels in the English alphabet is {a, e, i, o, u}.
(c) The set of odd natural numbers is represented by {1, 3, 5, . . .}. The dots
tell us that the list of odd numbers continue indefinitely.

A Note It may be noted that while writing the set in roster form an element is not
generally repeated, i.e., all the elements are taken as distinct. For example, the set
of letters forming the word ‘SCHOOL’ is { S, C, H, O, L} or {H, O, L, C, S}. Here,
the order of listing elements has no relevance.
(ii) In set-builder form, all the elements of a set possess a single common property
which is not possessed by any element outside the set. For example, in the set
{a, e, i, o, u}, all the elements possess a common property, namely, each of them
is a vowel in the English alphabet, and no other letter possess this property. Denoting
this set by V, we write
V = {x : x is a vowel in English alphabet}
It may be observed that we describe the element of the set by using a symbol x
(any other symbol like the letters y, z, etc. could be used) which is followed by a colon
“ : ”. After the sign of colon, we write the characteristic property possessed by the
elements of the set and then enclose the whole description within braces. The above
description of the set V is read as “the set of all x such that x is a vowel of the English
alphabet”. In this description the braces stand for “the set of all”, the colon stands for
“such that”. For example, the set
A = {x : x is a natural number and 3 < x < 10} is read as “the set of all x such that
x is a natural number and x lies between 3 and 10.” Hence, the numbers 4, 5, 6,
7, 8 and 9 are the elements of the set A.
If we denote the sets described in (a), (b) and (c) above in roster form by A, B,
C, respectively, then A, B, C can also be represented in set-builder form as follows:
A= {x : x is a natural number which divides 42}
B= {y : y is a vowel in the English alphabet}
C= {z : z is an odd natural number}
Example 1 Write the solution set of the equation x2 + x – 2 = 0 in roster form.
Solution The given equation can be written as
(x – 1) (x + 2) = 0, i. e., x = 1, – 2
Therefore, the solution set of the given equation can be written in roster form as {1, – 2}.
Example 2 Write the set {x : x is a positive integer and x2 < 40} in the roster form.

2024-25
4 MATHEMATICS

Solution The required numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. So, the given set in the roster form
is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Example 3 Write the set A = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . . }in set-builder form.
Solution We may write the set A as
A = {x : x is the square of a natural number}
Alternatively, we can write
A = {x : x = n2, where n ∈ N}

1 2 3 4 5 6
Example 4 Write the set { , , , , , } in the set-builder form.
2 3 4 5 6 7
Solution We see that each member in the given set has the numerator one less than
the denominator. Also, the numerator begin from 1 and do not exceed 6. Hence, in the
set-builder form the given set is
 n 
x : x = , where n is a natural number and 1 ≤ n ≤ 6 
 n +1 
Example 5 Match each of the set on the left described in the roster form with the
same set on the right described in the set-builder form :
(i) {P, R, I, N, C, A, L} (a) { x : x is a positive integer and is a divisor of 18}
(ii) { 0 } (b) { x : x is an integer and x2 – 9 = 0}
(iii) {1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18} (c) {x : x is an integer and x + 1= 1}
(iv) {3, –3} (d) {x : x is a letter of the word PRINCIPAL}
Solution Since in (d), there are 9 letters in the word PRINCIPAL and two letters P and I
are repeated, so (i) matches (d). Similarly, (ii) matches (c) as x + 1 = 1 implies
x = 0. Also, 1, 2 ,3, 6, 9, 18 are all divisors of 18 and so (iii) matches (a). Finally, x2 – 9 = 0
implies x = 3, –3 and so (iv) matches (b).

EXERCISE 1.1
1. Which of the following are sets ? Justify your answer.
(i) The collection of all the months of a year beginning with the letter J.
(ii) The collection of ten most talented writers of India.
(iii) A team of eleven best-cricket batsmen of the world.
(iv) The collection of all boys in your class.
(v) The collection of all natural numbers less than 100.
(vi) A collection of novels written by the writer Munshi Prem Chand.
(vii) The collection of all even integers.

2024-25
 SETS 5

(viii) The collection of questions in this Chapter.

(ix) A collection of most dangerous animals of the world.
2. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Insert the appropriate symbol ∈ or ∉ in the blank
spaces:
(i) 5. . .A (ii) 8 . . . A (iii) 0. . .A
(iv) 4. . . A (v) 2. . .A (vi) 10. . .A
3. Write the following sets in roster form:
(i) A = {x : x is an integer and –3 ≤ x < 7}
(ii) B = {x : x is a natural number less than 6}
(iii) C = {x : x is a two-digit natural number such that the sum of its digits is 8}
(iv) D = {x : x is a prime number which is divisor of 60}
(v) E = The set of all letters in the word TRIGONOMETRY
(vi) F = The set of all letters in the word BETTER
4. Write the following sets in the set-builder form :
(i) (3, 6, 9, 12} (ii) {2,4,8,16,32} (iii) {5, 25, 125, 625}
(iv) {2, 4, 6, . . .} (v) {1,4,9, . . .,100}
5. List all the elements of the following sets :
(i) A = {x : x is an odd natural number}
1 9
(ii) B = {x : x is an integer, – <x< }
2 2
(iii) C = {x : x is an integer, x2 ≤ 4}
(iv) D = {x : x is a letter in the word “LOYAL”}
(v) E = {x : x is a month of a year not having 31 days}
(vi) F = {x : x is a consonant in the English alphabet which precedes k }.
6. Match each of the set on the left in the roster form with the same set on the right
described in set-builder form:
(i) {1, 2, 3, 6} (a) {x : x is a prime number and a divisor of 6}
(ii) {2, 3} (b) {x : x is an odd natural number less than 10}
(iii) {M,A,T,H,E,I,C,S} (c) {x : x is natural number and divisor of 6}
(iv) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} (d) {x : x is a letter of the word MATHEMATICS}.
1.3 The Empty Set
Consider the set
A = { x : x is a student of Class XI presently studying in a school }
We can go to the school and count the number of students presently studying in
Class XI in the school. Thus, the set A contains a finite number of elements.
We now write another set B as follows:

2024-25
6 MATHEMATICS

B = { x : x is a student presently studying in both Classes X and XI }

We observe that a student cannot study simultaneously in both Classes X and XI.
Thus, the set B contains no element at all.
Definition 1 A set which does not contain any element is called the empty set or the
null set or the void set.
According to this definition, B is an empty set while A is not an empty set. The
empty set is denoted by the symbol φ or { }.
We give below a few examples of empty sets.
(i) Let A = {x : 1 < x < 2, x is a natural number}. Then A is the empty set,
because there is no natural number between 1 and 2.
(ii) B = {x : x2 – 2 = 0 and x is rational number}. Then B is the empty set because
the equation x2 – 2 = 0 is not satisfied by any rational value of x.
(iii) C = {x : x is an even prime number greater than 2}.Then C is the empty set,
because 2 is the only even prime number.
(iv) D = { x : x2 = 4, x is odd }. Then D is the empty set, because the equation
x2 = 4 is not satisfied by any odd value of x.
1.4 Finite and Infinite Sets
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {a, b, c, d, e, g}
and C = { men living presently in different parts of the world}
We observe that A contains 5 elements and B contains 6 elements. How many elements
does C contain? As it is, we do not know the number of elements in C, but it is some
natural number which may be quite a big number. By number of elements of a set S,
we mean the number of distinct elements of the set and we denote it by n (S). If n (S)
is a natural number, then S is non-empty finite set.
Consider the set of natural numbers. We see that the number of elements of this
set is not finite since there are infinite number of natural numbers. We say that the set
of natural numbers is an infinite set. The sets A, B and C given above are finite sets
and n(A) = 5, n(B) = 6 and n(C) = some finite number.
Definition 2 A set which is empty or consists of a definite number of elements is
called finite otherwise, the set is called infinite.
Consider some examples :
(i) Let W be the set of the days of the week. Then W is finite.
(ii) Let S be the set of solutions of the equation x2 –16 = 0. Then S is finite.
(iii) Let G be the set of points on a line. Then G is infinite.
When we represent a set in the roster form, we write all the elements of the set
within braces { }. It is not possible to write all the elements of an infinite set within
braces { } because the numbers of elements of such a set is not finite. So, we represent

2024-25
 SETS 7

some infinite set in the roster form by writing a few elements which clearly indicate the
structure of the set followed ( or preceded ) by three dots.
For example, {1, 2, 3 . . .} is the set of natural numbers, {1, 3, 5, 7, . . .} is the set
of odd natural numbers, {. . .,–3, –2, –1, 0,1, 2 ,3, . . .} is the set of integers. All these
sets are infinite.

A Note All infinite sets cannot be described in the roster form. For example, the
set of real numbers cannot be described in this form, because the elements of this
set do not follow any particular pattern.
Example 6 State which of the following sets are finite or infinite :
(i) {x : x ∈ N and (x – 1) (x –2) = 0}
(ii) {x : x ∈ N and x2 = 4}
(iii) {x : x ∈ N and 2x –1 = 0}
(iv) {x : x ∈ N and x is prime}
(v) {x : x ∈ N and x is odd}
Solution (i) Given set = {1, 2}. Hence, it is finite.
(ii) Given set = {2}. Hence, it is finite.
(iii) Given set = φ. Hence, it is finite.
(iv) The given set is the set of all prime numbers and since set of prime
numbers is infinite. Hence the given set is infinite
(v) Since there are infinite number of odd numbers, hence, the given set is
infinite.
1.5 Equal Sets
Given two sets A and B, if every element of A is also an element of B and if every
element of B is also an element of A, then the sets A and B are said to be equal.
Clearly, the two sets have exactly the same elements.
Definition 3 Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same
elements and we write A = B. Otherwise, the sets are said to be unequal and we write
A ≠ B.
We consider the following examples :
(i) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 1, 4, 2}. Then A = B.
(ii) Let A be the set of prime numbers less than 6 and P the set of prime factors
of 30. Then A and P are equal, since 2, 3 and 5 are the only prime factors of
30 and also these are less than 6.

ANote A set does not change if one or more elements of the set are repeated.
For example, the sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 2, 1, 3, 3} are equal, since each

2024-25
8 MATHEMATICS

element of A is in B and vice-versa. That is why we generally do not repeat any

element in describing a set.
Example 7 Find the pairs of equal sets, if any, give reasons:
A = {0}, B = {x : x > 15 and x < 5},
C = {x : x – 5 = 0 }, D = {x: x2 = 25},
E = {x : x is an integral positive root of the equation x2 – 2x –15 = 0}.
Solution Since 0 ∈ A and 0 does not belong to any of the sets B, C, D and E, it
follows that, A ≠ B, A ≠ C, A ≠ D, A ≠ E.
Since B = φ but none of the other sets are empty. Therefore B ≠ C, B ≠ D
and B ≠ E. Also C = {5} but –5 ∈ D, hence C ≠ D.
Since E = {5}, C = E. Further, D = {–5, 5} and E = {5}, we find that, D ≠ E.
Thus, the only pair of equal sets is C and E.
Example 8 Which of the following pairs of sets are equal? Justify your answer.
(i) X, the set of letters in “ALLOY” and B, the set of letters in “LOYAL”.
(ii) A = {n : n ∈ Z and n2 ≤ 4} and B = {x : x ∈ R and x2 – 3x + 2 = 0}.
Solution (i) We have, X = {A, L, L, O, Y}, B = {L, O, Y, A, L}. Then X and B are
equal sets as repetition of elements in a set do not change a set. Thus,
X = {A, L, O, Y} = B
(ii) A = {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2}, B = {1, 2}. Since 0 ∈ A and 0 ∉ B, A and B are not equal sets.

EXERCISE 1.2
1. Which of the following are examples of the null set
(i) Set of odd natural numbers divisible by 2
(ii) Set of even prime numbers
(iii) { x : x is a natural numbers, x < 5 and x > 7 }
(iv) { y : y is a point common to any two parallel lines}
2. Which of the following sets are finite or infinite
(i) The set of months of a year
(ii) {1, 2, 3, . . .}
(iii) {1, 2, 3, . . .99, 100}
(iv) The set of positive integers greater than 100
(v) The set of prime numbers less than 99
3. State whether each of the following set is finite or infinite:
(i) The set of lines which are parallel to the x-axis
(ii) The set of letters in the English alphabet
(iii) The set of numbers which are multiple of 5

2024-25
 SETS 9

(iv) The set of animals living on the earth

(v) The set of circles passing through the origin (0,0)
4. In the following, state whether A = B or not:
(i) A = { a, b, c, d } B = { d, c, b, a }
(ii) A = { 4, 8, 12, 16 } B = { 8, 4, 16, 18}
(iii) A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} B = { x : x is positive even integer and x ≤ 10}
(iv) A = { x : x is a multiple of 10}, B = { 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, . . . }
5. Are the following pair of sets equal ? Give reasons.
(i) A = {2, 3}, B = {x : x is solution of x2 + 5x + 6 = 0}
(ii) A = { x : x is a letter in the word FOLLOW}
B = { y : y is a letter in the word WOLF}
6. From the sets given below, select equal sets :
A = { 2, 4, 8, 12}, B = { 1, 2, 3, 4}, C = { 4, 8, 12, 14}, D = { 3, 1, 4, 2}
E = {–1, 1}, F = { 0, a}, G = {1, –1}, H = { 0, 1}
1.6 Subsets
Consider the sets : X = set of all students in your school, Y = set of all students in your
class.
We note that every element of Y is also an element of X; we say that Y is a subset
of X. The fact that Y is subset of X is expressed in symbols as Y ⊂ X. The symbol ⊂
stands for ‘is a subset of’ or ‘is contained in’.
Definition 4 A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if every element of A is also an
element of B.
In other words, A ⊂ B if whenever a ∈ A, then a ∈ B. It is often convenient to
use the symbol “⇒” which means implies. Using this symbol, we can write the definiton
of subset as follows:
A ⊂ B if a ∈ A ⇒ a ∈ B
We read the above statement as “A is a subset of B if a is an element of A
implies that a is also an element of B”. If A is not a subset of B, we write A ⊄ B.
We may note that for A to be a subset of B, all that is needed is that every
element of A is in B. It is possible that every element of B may or may not be in A. If
it so happens that every element of B is also in A, then we shall also have B ⊂ A. In this
case, A and B are the same sets so that we have A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A ⇔ A = B, where
“⇔” is a symbol for two way implications, and is usually read as if and only if (briefly
written as “iff”).
It follows from the above definition that every set A is a subset of itself, i.e.,
A ⊂ A. Since the empty set φ has no elements, we agree to say that φ is a subset of
every set. We now consider some examples :

2024-25
10 MATHEMATICS

(i) The set Q of rational numbers is a subset of the set R of real numbes, and
we write Q ⊂ R.
(ii) If A is the set of all divisors of 56 and B the set of all prime divisors of 56,
then B is a subset of A and we write B ⊂ A.
(iii) Let A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {x : x is an odd natural number less than 6}. Then
A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A and hence A = B.
(iv) Let A = { a, e, i, o, u} and B = { a, b, c, d}. Then A is not a subset of B,
also B is not a subset of A.
Let A and B be two sets. If A ⊂ B and A ≠ B , then A is called a proper subset
of B and B is called superset of A. For example,
A = {1, 2, 3} is a proper subset of B = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
If a set A has only one element, we call it a singleton set. Thus,{ a } is a
singleton set.
Example 9 Consider the sets
φ, A = { 1, 3 }, B = {1, 5, 9}, C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
Insert the symbol ⊂ or ⊄ between each of the following pair of sets:
(i) φ . . . B (ii) A . . . B (iii) A . . . C (iv) B . . . C
Solution (i) φ ⊂ B as φ is a subset of every set.
(ii) A ⊄ B as 3 ∈ A and 3 ∉ B
(iii) A ⊂ C as 1, 3 ∈ A also belongs to C
(iv) B ⊂ C as each element of B is also an element of C.
Example 10 Let A = { a, e, i, o, u} and B = { a, b, c, d}. Is A a subset of B ? No.
(Why?). Is B a subset of A? No. (Why?)
Example 11 Let A, B and C be three sets. If A ∈ B and B ⊂ C, is it true that
A ⊂ C?. If not, give an example.
Solution No. Let A = {1}, B = {{1}, 2} and C = {{1}, 2, 3}. Here A ∈ B as A = {1}
and B ⊂ C. But A ⊄ C as 1 ∈ A and 1 ∉ C.
Note that an element of a set can never be a subset of itself.
1.6.1 Subsets of set of real numbers
As noted in Section 1.6, there are many important subsets of R. We give below the
names of some of these subsets.
The set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}
The set of integers Z = {. . ., –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
p
The set of rational numbers Q = { x : x = , p, q ∈ Z and q ≠ 0}
q

2024-25
 SETS 11

p
which is read “ Q is the set of all numbers x such that x equals the quotient
q , where
p and q are integers and q is not zero”. Members of Q include –5 (which can be
5 5 1 7 11
expressed as – ) , , 3 (which can be expressed as ) and – .
1 7 2 2 3
The set of irrational numbers, denoted by T, is composed of all other real numbers.
Thus T = {x : x ∈ R and x ∉ Q}, i.e., all real numbers that are not rational.
Members of T include 2 , 5 and π .
Some of the obvious relations among these subsets are:
N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q, Q ⊂ R, T ⊂ R, N ⊄ T.
1.6.2 Intervals as subsets of R Let a, b ∈ R and a < b. Then the set of real numbers
{ y : a < y < b} is called an open interval and is denoted by (a, b). All the points
between a and b belong to the open interval (a, b) but a, b themselves do not belong to
this interval.
The interval which contains the end points also is called closed interval and is
denoted by [ a, b ]. Thus
[ a, b ] = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}
We can also have intervals closed at one end and open at the other, i.e.,
[ a, b ) = {x : a ≤ x < b} is an open interval from a to b, including a but excluding b.
( a, b ] = { x : a < x ≤ b } is an open interval from a to b including b but excluding a.
These notations provide an alternative way of designating the subsets of set of
real numbers. For example , if A = (–3, 5) and B = [–7, 9], then A ⊂ B. The set [ 0, ∞)
defines the set of non-negative real numbers, while set ( – ∞, 0 ) defines the set of
negative real numbers. The set ( – ∞, ∞ ) describes the set of real numbers in relation
to a line extending from – ∞ to ∞.
On real number line, various types of intervals described above as subsets of R,
are shown in the Fig 1.1.

Fig 1.1

Here, we note that an interval contains infinitely many points.

For example, the set {x : x ∈ R, –5 < x ≤ 7}, written in set-builder form, can be
written in the form of interval as (–5, 7] and the interval [–3, 5) can be written in set-
builder form as {x : –3 ≤ x < 5}.

2024-25
12 MATHEMATICS

The number (b – a) is called the length of any of the intervals (a, b), [a, b],
[a, b) or (a, b].
1.7 Universal Set
Usually, in a particular context, we have to deal with the elements and subsets of a
basic set which is relevant to that particular context. For example, while studying the
system of numbers, we are interested in the set of natural numbers and its subsets such
as the set of all prime numbers, the set of all even numbers, and so forth. This basic set
is called the “Universal Set”. The universal set is usually denoted by U, and all its
subsets by the letters A, B, C, etc.
For example, for the set of all integers, the universal set can be the set of rational
numbers or, for that matter, the set R of real numbers. For another example, in human
population studies, the universal set consists of all the people in the world.

EXERCISE 1.3
1. Make correct statements by filling in the symbols ⊂ or ⊄ in the blank spaces :
(i) { 2, 3, 4 } . . . { 1, 2, 3, 4,5 } (ii) { a, b, c } . . . { b, c, d }
(iii) {x : x is a student of Class XI of your school}. . .{x : x student of your school}
(iv) {x : x is a circle in the plane} . . .{x : x is a circle in the same plane with
radius 1 unit}
(v) {x : x is a triangle in a plane} . . . {x : x is a rectangle in the plane}
(vi) {x : x is an equilateral triangle in a plane} . . . {x : x is a triangle in the same plane}
(vii) {x : x is an even natural number} . . . {x : x is an integer}
2. Examine whether the following statements are true or false:
(i) { a, b } ⊄ { b, c, a }
(ii) { a, e } ⊂ { x : x is a vowel in the English alphabet}
(iii) { 1, 2, 3 } ⊂ { 1, 3, 5 }
(iv) { a } ⊂ { a, b, c }
(v) { a } ∈ { a, b, c }
(vi) { x : x is an even natural number less than 6} ⊂ { x : x is a natural number
which divides 36}
3. Let A = { 1, 2, { 3, 4 }, 5 }. Which of the following statements are incorrect and why?
(i) {3, 4} ⊂ A (ii) {3, 4} ∈ A (iii) {{3, 4}} ⊂ A
(iv) 1 ∈ A (v) 1 ⊂ A (vi) {1, 2, 5} ⊂ A
(vii) {1, 2, 5} ∈ A (viii) {1, 2, 3} ⊂ A (ix) φ ∈ A
(x) φ ⊂ A (xi) {φ} ⊂ A
4. Write down all the subsets of the following sets
(i) {a} (ii) {a, b} (iii) {1, 2, 3} (iv) φ

2024-25
 SETS 13

5. Write the following as intervals :

(i) {x : x ∈ R, – 4 < x ≤ 6} (ii) {x : x ∈ R, – 12 < x < –10}
(iii) {x : x ∈ R, 0 ≤ x < 7} (iv) {x : x ∈ R, 3 ≤ x ≤ 4}
6. Write the following intervals in set-builder form :
(i) (– 3, 0) (ii) [6 , 12] (iii) (6, 12] (iv) [–23, 5)
7. What universal set(s) would you propose for each of the following :
(i) The set of right triangles. (ii) The set of isosceles triangles.
8. Given the sets A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6} and C = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, which of the
following may be considered as universal set (s) for all the three sets A, B and C
(i) {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(ii) φ
(iii) {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
(iv) {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
1.8 Venn Diagrams
Most of the relationships between sets can be
represented by means of diagrams which are known
as Venn diagrams. Venn diagrams are named after
the English logician, John Venn (1834-1883). These
diagrams consist of rectangles and closed curves
usually circles. The universal set is represented
usually by a rectangle and its subsets by circles.
In Venn diagrams, the elements of the sets are
written in their respective circles (Figs 1.2 and 1.3) Fig 1.2
Illustration 1 In Fig 1.2, U = {1,2,3, ..., 10} is the
universal set of which
A = {2,4,6,8,10} is a subset.
Illustration 2 In Fig 1.3, U = {1,2,3, ..., 10} is the
universal set of which
A = {2,4,6,8,10} and B = {4, 6} are subsets,
and also B ⊂ A.
Fig 1.3
The reader will see an extensive use of the
Venn diagrams when we discuss the union, intersection and difference of sets.
1.9 Operations on Sets
In earlier classes, we have learnt how to perform the operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division on numbers. Each one of these operations was performed
on a pair of numbers to get another number. For example, when we perform the
operation of addition on the pair of numbers 5 and 13, we get the number 18. Again,
performing the operation of multiplication on the pair of numbers 5 and 13, we get 65.

2024-25
14 MATHEMATICS

Similarly, there are some operations which when performed on two sets give rise to
another set. We will now define certain operations on sets and examine their properties.
Henceforth, we will refer all our sets as subsets of some universal set.
1.9.1 Union of sets Let A and B be any two sets. The union of A and B is the set
which consists of all the elements of A and all the elements of B, the common elements
being taken only once. The symbol ‘∪’ is used to denote the union. Symbolically, we
write A ∪ B and usually read as ‘A union B’.
Example 12 Let A = { 2, 4, 6, 8} and B = { 6, 8, 10, 12}. Find A ∪ B.
Solution We have A ∪ B = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}
Note that the common elements 6 and 8 have been taken only once while writing
A ∪ B.
Example 13 Let A = { a, e, i, o, u } and B = { a, i, u }. Show that A ∪ B = A
Solution We have, A ∪ B = { a, e, i, o, u } = A.
This example illustrates that union of sets A and its subset B is the set A
itself, i.e., if B ⊂ A, then A ∪ B = A.
Example 14 Let X = {Ram, Geeta, Akbar} be the set of students of Class XI, who are
in school hockey team. Let Y = {Geeta, David, Ashok} be the set of students from
Class XI who are in the school football team. Find X ∪ Y and interpret the set.
Solution We have, X ∪ Y = {Ram, Geeta, Akbar, David, Ashok}. This is the set of
students from Class XI who are in the hockey team or the football team or both.
Thus, we can define the union of two sets as follows:
Definition 5 The union of two sets A and B is the set C which consists of all those
elements which are either in A or in B (including
those which are in both). In symbols, we write.
A ∪ B = { x : x ∈A or x ∈B }
The union of two sets can be represented by
a Venn diagram as shown in Fig 1.4.
The shaded portion in Fig 1.4 represents A ∪ B.
Some Properties of the Operation of Union
(i) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (Commutative law) Fig 1.4
(ii) ( A ∪ B ) ∪ C = A ∪ ( B ∪ C)
(Associative law )
(iii) A ∪ φ = A (Law of identity element, φ is the identity of ∪)

2024-25
 SETS 15

(iv) A ∪ A = A (Idempotent law)

(v) U ∪ A = U (Law of U)
1.9.2 Intersection of sets The intersection of sets A and B is the set of all elements
which are common to both A and B. The symbol ‘∩’ is used to denote the intersection.
The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all those elements which belong to
both A and B. Symbolically, we write A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
Example 15 Consider the sets A and B of Example 12. Find A ∩ B.
Solution We see that 6, 8 are the only elements which are common to both A and B.
Hence A ∩ B = { 6, 8 }.
Example 16 Consider the sets X and Y of Example 14. Find X ∩ Y.
Solution We see that element ‘Geeta’ is the only element common to both. Hence,
X ∩ Y = {Geeta}.
Example 17 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and B = { 2, 3, 5, 7 }. Find A ∩ B and
hence show that A ∩ B = B.
Solution We have A ∩ B = { 2, 3, 5, 7 } = B. We
note that B ⊂ A and that A ∩ B = B.
Definition 6 The intersection of two sets A and B
is the set of all those elements which belong to both
A and B. Symbolically, we write
A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
The shaded portion in Fig 1.5 indicates the Fig 1.5
intersection of A and B.
If A and B are two sets such that A ∩ B = φ, then U
A and B are called disjoint sets.
For example, let A = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } and
B = { 1, 3, 5, 7 }. Then A and B are disjoint sets, A B
because there are no elements which are common to
A and B. The disjoint sets can be represented by
means of Venn diagram as shown in the Fig 1.6
In the above diagram, A and B are disjoint sets. Fig 1.6
Some Properties of Operation of Intersection
(i) A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative law).
(ii) ( A ∩ B ) ∩ C = A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) (Associative law).
(iii) φ ∩ A = φ, U ∩ A = A (Law of φ and U).
(iv) A ∩ A = A (Idempotent law)

2024-25
16 MATHEMATICS

(v) A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ C ) (Distributive law ) i. e.,

∩ distributes over ∪
This can be seen easily from the following Venn diagrams [Figs 1.7 (i) to (v)].

(i) (iii)

(ii) (iv)

(v)
Figs 1.7 (i) to (v)

1.9.3 Difference of sets The difference of the sets A and B in this order is the set
of elements which belong to A but not to B. Symbolically, we write A – B and read as
“A minus B”.
Example 18 Let A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 }. Find A – B and B – A.
Solution We have, A – B = { 1, 3, 5 }, since the elements 1, 3, 5 belong to A but
not to B and B – A = { 8 }, since the element 8 belongs to B and not to A.
We note that A – B ≠ B – A.

2024-25
 SETS 17

Example 19 Let V = { a, e, i, o, u } and

B = { a, i, k, u}. Find V – B and B – V
Solution We have, V – B = { e, o }, since the elements
e, o belong to V but not to B and B – V = { k }, since
the element k belongs to B but not to V.
We note that V – B ≠ B – V. Using the set-
builder notation, we can rewrite the definition of Fig 1.8
difference as
A – B = { x : x ∈ A and x ∉ B }
The difference of two sets A and B can be
represented by Venn diagram as shown in Fig 1.8.
The shaded portion represents the difference of
the two sets A and B.
Remark The sets A – B, A ∩ B and B – A are
mutually disjoint sets, i.e., the intersection of any of Fig 1.9
these two sets is the null set as shown in Fig 1.9.

EXERCISE 1.4
1. Find the union of each of the following pairs of sets :
(i) X = {1, 3, 5} Y = {1, 2, 3}
(ii) A = [ a, e, i, o, u} B = {a, b, c}
(iii) A = {x : x is a natural number and multiple of 3}
B = {x : x is a natural number less than 6}
(iv) A = {x : x is a natural number and 1 < x ≤ 6 }
B = {x : x is a natural number and 6 < x < 10 }
(v) A = {1, 2, 3}, B = φ
2. Let A = { a, b }, B = {a, b, c}. Is A ⊂ B ? What is A ∪ B ?
3. If A and B are two sets such that A ⊂ B, then what is A ∪ B ?
4. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6}, C = {5, 6, 7, 8 }and D = { 7, 8, 9, 10 }; find
(i) A ∪ B (ii) A ∪ C (iii) B ∪ C (iv) B ∪ D
(v) A ∪ B ∪ C (vi) A ∪ B ∪ D (vii) B ∪ C ∪ D
5. Find the intersection of each pair of sets of question 1 above.
6. If A = { 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 }, B = {7, 9, 11, 13}, C = {11, 13, 15}and D = {15, 17}; find
(i) A ∩ B (ii) B ∩ C (iii) A ∩ C ∩ D
(iv) A ∩ C (v) B ∩ D (vi) A ∩ (B ∪ C)
(vii) A ∩ D (viii) A ∩ (B ∪ D) (ix) ( A ∩ B ) ∩ ( B ∪ C )
(x) ( A ∪ D) ∩ ( B ∪ C)

2024-25
18 MATHEMATICS

7. If A = {x : x is a natural number }, B = {x : x is an even natural number}

C = {x : x is an odd natural number}andD = {x : x is a prime number }, find
(i) A ∩ B (ii) A ∩ C (iii) A ∩ D
(iv) B ∩ C (v) B ∩ D (vi) C ∩ D
8. Which of the following pairs of sets are disjoint
(i) {1, 2, 3, 4} and {x : x is a natural number and 4 ≤ x ≤ 6 }
(ii) { a, e, i, o, u } and { c, d, e, f }
(iii) {x : x is an even integer } and {x : x is an odd integer}
9. If A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21}, B = { 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 },
C = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 }, D = {5, 10, 15, 20 }; find
(i) A – B (ii) A – C (iii) A – D (iv) B – A
(v) C – A (vi) D – A (vii) B – C (viii) B – D
(ix) C – B (x) D – B (xi) C – D (xii) D – C
10. If X= { a, b, c, d } and Y = { f, b, d, g}, find
(i) X – Y (ii) Y – X (iii) X ∩ Y
11. If R is the set of real numbers and Q is the set of rational numbers, then what is
R – Q?
12. State whether each of the following statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
(i) { 2, 3, 4, 5 } and { 3, 6} are disjoint sets.
(ii) { a, e, i, o, u } and { a, b, c, d }are disjoint sets.
(iii) { 2, 6, 10, 14 } and { 3, 7, 11, 15} are disjoint sets.
(iv) { 2, 6, 10 } and { 3, 7, 11} are disjoint sets.
1.10 Complement of a Set
Let U be the universal set which consists of all prime numbers and A be the subset of
U which consists of all those prime numbers that are not divisors of 42. Thus,
A = {x : x ∈ U and x is not a divisor of 42 }. We see that 2 ∈ U but 2 ∉ A, because
2 is divisor of 42. Similarly, 3 ∈ U but 3 ∉ A, and 7 ∈ U but 7 ∉ A. Now 2, 3 and 7 are
the only elements of U which do not belong to A. The set of these three prime numbers,
i.e., the set {2, 3, 7} is called the Complement of A with respect to U, and is denoted by
A′. So we have A′ = {2, 3, 7}. Thus, we see that
A′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A }. This leads to the following definition.
Definition 7 Let U be the universal set and A a subset of U. Then the complement of
A is the set of all elements of U which are not the elements of A. Symbolically, we
write A′ to denote the complement of A with respect to U. Thus,
A′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A }. Obviously A′ = U – A
We note that the complement of a set A can be looked upon, alternatively, as the
difference between a universal set U and the set A.

2024-25
 SETS 19

Example 20 Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Find A′.

Solution We note that 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 are the only elements of U which do not belong to
A. Hence A′ = { 2, 4, 6, 8,10 }.
Example 21 Let U be universal set of all the students of Class XI of a coeducational
school and A be the set of all girls in Class XI. Find A′.
Solution Since A is the set of all girls, A′ is clearly the set of all boys in the class.

ANote If A is a subset of the universal set U, then its complement A′ is also a

subset of U.
Again in Example 20 above, we have A′ = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 }
Hence (A′ )′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A′}
= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = A
It is clear from the definition of the complement that for any subset of the universal
set U, we have ( A′ )′ = A

Now, we want to find the results for ( A ∪ B )′ and A′ ∩ B′ in the followng

example.
Example 22 Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A = {2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}.
Find A′, B′ , A′ ∩ B′, A ∪ B and hence show that ( A ∪ B )′ = A′ ∩ B′.
Solution Clearly A′ = {1, 4, 5, 6}, B′ = { 1, 2, 6 }. Hence A′ ∩ B′ = { 1, 6 }
Also A ∪ B = { 2, 3, 4, 5 }, so that (A ∪ B )′ = { 1, 6 }
( A ∪ B )′ = { 1, 6 } = A′ ∩ B′
It can be shown that the above result is true in general. If A and B are any two
subsets of the universal set U, then
( A ∪ B )′ = A′ ∩ B′. Similarly, ( A ∩ B )′ = A′ ∪ B′ . These two results are stated
in words as follows :
The complement of the union of two sets is
the intersection of their complements and the
complement of the intersection of two sets is the
union of their complements. These are called De
Morgan’s laws. These are named after the
mathematician De Morgan.
The complement A′ of a set A can be represented
by a Venn diagram as shown in Fig 1.10. Fig 1.10
The shaded portion represents the complement of the set A.

2024-25
20 MATHEMATICS

Some Properties of Complement Sets

1. Complement laws: (i) A ∪ A′ = U (ii) A ∩ A′ = φ
2. De Morgan’s law: (i) (A ∪ B)´ = A′ ∩ B′ (ii) (A ∩ B )′ = A′ ∪ B′
3. Law of double complementation : (A′ )′ = A
4. Laws of empty set and universal set φ′ = U and U′ = φ.
These laws can be verified by using Venn diagrams.

EXERCISE 1.5
1. Let U = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }, A = { 1, 2, 3, 4}, B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } and
C = { 3, 4, 5, 6 }. Find (i) A′ (ii) B′ (iii) (A ∪ C)′ (iv) (A ∪ B)′ (v) (A′)′
(vi) (B – C)′
2. If U = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}, find the complements of the following sets :
(i) A = {a, b, c} (ii) B = {d, e, f, g}
(iii) C = {a, c, e, g} (iv) D = { f, g, h, a}
3. Taking the set of natural numbers as the universal set, write down the complements
of the following sets:
(i) {x : x is an even natural number} (ii) { x : x is an odd natural number }
(iii) {x : x is a positive multiple of 3} (iv) { x : x is a prime number }
(v) {x : x is a natural number divisible by 3 and 5}
(vi) { x : x is a perfect square } (vii) { x : x is a perfect cube}
(viii) { x : x + 5 = 8 } (ix) { x : 2x + 5 = 9}
(x) { x : x ≥ 7 } (xi) { x : x ∈ N and 2x + 1 > 10 }
4. If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }, A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = { 2, 3, 5, 7}. Verify that
(i) (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′ (ii) (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′
5. Draw appropriate Venn diagram for each of the following :
(i) (A ∪ B)′, (ii) A′ ∩ B′, (iii) (A ∩ B)′, (iv) A′ ∪ B′
6. Let U be the set of all triangles in a plane. If A is the set of all triangles with at
least one angle different from 60°, what is A′?
7. Fill in the blanks to make each of the following a true statement :
(i) A ∪ A′ = . . . (ii) φ′ ∩ A = . . .
(iii) A ∩ A′ = . . . (iv) U′ ∩ A = . . .

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 23 Show that the set of letters needed to spell “ CATARACT ” and the
set of letters needed to spell “ TRACT” are equal.
Solution Let X be the set of letters in “CATARACT”. Then
X = { C, A, T, R }

2024-25
 SETS 21

Let Y be the set of letters in “ TRACT”. Then

Y = { T, R, A, C, T } = { T, R, A, C }
Since every element in X is in Y and every element in Y is in X. It follows that X = Y.
Example 24 List all the subsets of the set { –1, 0, 1 }.
Solution Let A = { –1, 0, 1 }. The subset of A having no element is the empty
set φ. The subsets of A having one element are { –1 }, { 0 }, { 1 }. The subsets of
A having two elements are {–1, 0}, {–1, 1} ,{0, 1}. The subset of A having three
elements of A is A itself. So, all the subsets of A are φ, {–1}, {0}, {1}, {–1, 0}, {–1, 1},
{0, 1} and {–1, 0, 1}.
Example 25 Show that A ∪ B = A ∩ B implies A = B
Solution Let a ∈ A. Then a ∈ A ∪ B. Since A ∪ B = A ∩ B , a ∈ A ∩ B. So a ∈ B.
Therefore, A ⊂ B. Similarly, if b ∈ B, then b ∈ A ∪ B. Since
A ∪ B = A ∩ B, b ∈ A ∩ B. So, b ∈ A. Therefore, B ⊂ A. Thus, A = B
Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 1
1. Decide, among the following sets, which sets are subsets of one and another:
A = { x : x ∈ R and x satisfy x2 – 8x + 12 = 0 },
B = { 2, 4, 6 }, C = { 2, 4, 6, 8, . . . }, D = { 6 }.
2. In each of the following, determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is
true, prove it. If it is false, give an example.
(i) If x ∈ A and A ∈ B , then x ∈ B
(ii) If A ⊂ B and B ∈ C , then A ∈ C
(iii) If A ⊂ B and B ⊂ C , then A ⊂ C
(iv) If A ⊄ B and B ⊄ C , then A ⊄ C
(v) If x ∈ A and A ⊄ B , then x ∈ B
(vi) If A ⊂ B and x ∉ B , then x ∉ A
3. Let A, B, and C be the sets such that A ∪ B = A ∪ C and A ∩ B = A ∩ C. Show
that B = C.
4. Show that the following four conditions are equivalent :
(i) A ⊂ B(ii) A – B = φ (iii) A ∪ B = B (iv) A ∩ B = A
5. Show that if A ⊂ B, then C – B ⊂ C – A.
6. Show that for any sets A and B,
A = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A – B ) and A ∪ ( B – A ) = ( A ∪ B )
7. Using properties of sets, show that
(i) A ∪ ( A ∩ B ) = A (ii) A ∩ ( A ∪ B ) = A.
8. Show that A ∩ B = A ∩ C need not imply B = C.

2024-25
22 MATHEMATICS

9. Let A and B be sets. If A ∩ X = B ∩ X = φ and A ∪ X = B ∪ X for some set

X, show that A = B.
(Hints A = A ∩ ( A ∪ X ) , B = B ∩ ( B ∪ X ) and use Distributive law )
10. Find sets A, B and C such that A ∩ B, B ∩ C and A ∩ C are non-empty
sets and A ∩ B ∩ C = φ.

Summary
This chapter deals with some basic definitions and operations involving sets. These
are summarised below:
® A set is a well-defined collection of objects.
® A set which does not contain any element is called empty set.
® A set which consists of a definite number of elements is called finite set,
otherwise, the set is called infinite set.
® Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements.
® A set A is said to be subset of a set B, if every element of A is also an element
of B. Intervals are subsets of R.
® union of two sets A and B is the set of all those elements which are either
The
in A or in B.
® The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all elements which are
common. The difference of two sets A and B in this order is the set of elements
which belong to A but not to B.
® The complement of a subset A of universal set U is the set of all elements of U
which are not the elements of A.
® For any two sets A and B, (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′ and ( A ∩ B )′ = A′ ∪ B′

Historical Note
The modern theory of sets is considered to have been originated largely by the
German mathematician Georg Cantor (1845-1918). His papers on set theory
appeared sometimes during 1874 to 1897. His study of set theory came when he
was studying trigonometric series of the form a1 sin x + a2 sin 2x + a3 sin 3x + ...
He published in a paper in 1874 that the set of real numbers could not be put into
one-to-one correspondence wih the integers. From 1879 onwards, he publishd
several papers showing various properties of abstract sets.

2024-25
 SETS 23

Cantor’s work was well received by another famous mathematician Richard

Dedekind (1831-1916). But Kronecker (1810-1893) castigated him for regarding
infinite set the same way as finite sets. Another German mathematician Gottlob
Frege, at the turn of the century, presented the set theory as principles of logic.
Till then the entire set theory was based on the assumption of the existence of the
set of all sets. It was the famous Englih Philosopher Bertand Russell (1872-
1970 ) who showed in 1902 that the assumption of existence of a set of all sets
leads to a contradiction. This led to the famous Russell’s Paradox. Paul R.Halmos
writes about it in his book ‘Naïve Set Theory’ that “nothing contains everything”.
The Russell’s Paradox was not the only one which arose in set theory.
Many paradoxes were produced later by several mathematicians and logicians.
As a consequence of all these paradoxes, the first axiomatisation of set theory
was published in 1908 by Ernst Zermelo. Another one was proposed by Abraham
Fraenkel in 1922. John Von Neumann in 1925 introduced explicitly the axiom of
regularity. Later in 1937 Paul Bernays gave a set of more satisfactory
axiomatisation. A modification of these axioms was done by Kurt Gödel in his
monograph in 1940. This was known as Von Neumann-Bernays (VNB) or Gödel-
Bernays (GB) set theory.
Despite all these difficulties, Cantor’s set theory is used in present day
mathematics. In fact, these days most of the concepts and results in mathematics
are expressed in the set theoretic language.

—v —

2024-25
 Chapter 2
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

vMathematics is the indispensable instrument of

all physical research. – BERTHELOT v

2.1 Introduction
Much of mathematics is about finding a pattern – a
recognisable link between quantities that change. In our
daily life, we come across many patterns that characterise
relations such as brother and sister, father and son, teacher
and student. In mathematics also, we come across many
relations such as number m is less than number n, line l is
parallel to line m, set A is a subset of set B. In all these, we
notice that a relation involves pairs of objects in certain
order. In this Chapter, we will learn how to link pairs of
objects from two sets and then introduce relations between
the two objects in the pair. Finally, we will learn about G . W. Leibnitz
special relations which will qualify to be functions. The (1646–1716)
concept of function is very important in mathematics since it captures the idea of a
mathematically precise correspondence between one quantity with the other.
2.2 Cartesian Products of Sets
Suppose A is a set of 2 colours and B is a set of 3 objects, i.e.,
A = {red, blue}and B = {b, c, s},
where b, c and s represent a particular bag, coat and shirt, respectively.
How many pairs of coloured objects can be made from these two sets?
Proceeding in a very orderly manner, we can see that there will be 6
distinct pairs as given below:
(red, b), (red, c), (red, s), (blue, b), (blue, c), (blue, s).
Thus, we get 6 distinct objects (Fig 2.1).
Let us recall from our earlier classes that an ordered pair of elements Fig 2.1
taken from any two sets P and Q is a pair of elements written in small

2024-25
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 25

brackets and grouped together in a particular order, i.e., (p,q), p ∈ P and q ∈ Q . This
leads to the following definition:
Definition 1 Given two non-empty sets P and Q. The cartesian product P × Q is the
set of all ordered pairs of elements from P and Q, i.e.,
P × Q = { (p,q) : p ∈ P, q ∈ Q }
If either P or Q is the null set, then P × Q will also be empty set, i.e., P × Q = φ
From the illustration given above we note that
A × B = {(red,b), (red,c), (red,s), (blue,b), (blue,c), (blue,s)}.
Again, consider the two sets:
A = {DL, MP, KA}, where DL, MP, KA represent Delhi,
Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka, respectively and B = {01,02, 03
03}representing codes for the licence plates of vehicles issued 02
by DL, MP and KA . 01
If the three states, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka
were making codes for the licence plates of vehicles, with the DL MP KA
restriction that the code begins with an element from set A,
Fig 2.2
which are the pairs available from these sets and how many such
pairs will there be (Fig 2.2)?
The available pairs are:(DL,01), (DL,02), (DL,03), (MP,01), (MP,02), (MP,03),
(KA,01), (KA,02), (KA,03) and the product of set A and set B is given by
A × B = {(DL,01), (DL,02), (DL,03), (MP,01), (MP,02), (MP,03), (KA,01), (KA,02),
(KA,03)}.
It can easily be seen that there will be 9 such pairs in the Cartesian product, since
there are 3 elements in each of the sets A and B. This gives us 9 possible codes. Also
note that the order in which these elements are paired is crucial. For example, the code
(DL, 01) will not be the same as the code (01, DL).
As a final illustration, consider the two sets A= {a1, a2} and
B = {b1, b2, b3, b4} (Fig 2.3).
A × B = {( a1, b1), (a1, b2), (a1, b3), (a1, b4), (a2, b1), (a2, b2),
(a2, b3), (a2, b4)}.
The 8 ordered pairs thus formed can represent the position of points in
the plane if A and B are subsets of the set of real numbers and it is
obvious that the point in the position (a1, b2) will be distinct from the point
Fig 2.3
in the position (b2, a1).
Remarks
(i) Two ordered pairs are equal, if and only if the corresponding first elements
are equal and the second elements are also equal.

2024-25
26 MATHEMATICS

(ii) If there are p elements in A and q elements in B, then there will be pq

elements in A × B, i.e., if n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then n(A × B) = pq.
(iii) If A and B are non-empty sets and either A or B is an infinite set, then so is
A × B.
(iv) A × A × A = {(a, b, c) : a, b, c ∈ A}. Here (a, b, c) is called an ordered
triplet.

Example 1 If (x + 1, y – 2) = (3,1), find the values of x and y.

Solution Since the ordered pairs are equal, the corresponding elements are equal.
Therefore x + 1 = 3 and y – 2 = 1.
Solving we get x = 2 and y = 3.
Example 2 If P = {a, b, c} and Q = {r}, form the sets P × Q and Q × P.
Are these two products equal?
Solution By the definition of the cartesian product,
P × Q = {(a, r), (b, r), (c, r)} and Q × P = {(r, a), (r, b), (r, c)}
Since, by the definition of equality of ordered pairs, the pair (a, r) is not equal to the pair
(r, a), we conclude that P × Q ≠ Q × P.
However, the number of elements in each set will be the same.
Example 3 Let A = {1,2,3}, B = {3,4} and C = {4,5,6}. Find
(i) A × (B ∩ C) (ii) (A × B) ∩ (A × C)
(iii) A × (B ∪ C) (iv) (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
Solution (i) By the definition of the intersection of two sets, (B ∩ C) = {4}.
Therefore, A × (B ∩ C) = {(1,4), (2,4), (3,4)}.
(ii) Now (A × B) = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,3), (3,4)}
and (A × C) = {(1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6)}
Therefore, (A × B) ∩ (A × C) = {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)}.
(iii) Since, (B ∪ C) = {3, 4, 5, 6}, we have
A × (B ∪ C) = {(1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (3,3),
(3,4), (3,5), (3,6)}.
(iv) Using the sets A × B and A × C from part (ii) above, we obtain
(A × B) ∪ (A × C) = {(1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6),
(3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6)}.

2024-25
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 27

Example 4 If P = {1, 2}, form the set P × P × P.

Solution We have, P × P × P = {(1,1,1), (1,1,2), (1,2,1), (1,2,2), (2,1,1), (2,1,2), (2,2,1),
(2,2,2)}.
Example 5 If R is the set of all real numbers, what do the cartesian products R × R
and R × R × R represent?
Solution The Cartesian product R × R represents the set R × R={(x, y) : x, y ∈ R}
which represents the coordinates of all the points in two dimensional space and the
cartesian product R × R × R represents the set R × R × R ={(x, y, z) : x, y, z ∈ R}
which represents the coordinates of all the points in three-dimensional space.

Example 6 If A × B ={(p, q),(p, r), (m, q), (m, r)}, find A and B.
Solution A = set of first elements = {p, m}
B = set of second elements = {q, r}.

EXERCISE 2.1
x 2 5 1
1. If  + 1, y –  =  ,  , find the values of x and y.
3 3 3 3
2. If the set A has 3 elements and the set B = {3, 4, 5}, then find the number of
elements in (A×B).
3. If G = {7, 8} and H = {5, 4, 2}, find G × H and H × G.
4. State whether each of the following statements are true or false. If the statement
is false, rewrite the given statement correctly.
(i) If P = {m, n} and Q = { n, m}, then P × Q = {(m, n),(n, m)}.
(ii) If A and B are non-empty sets, then A × B is a non-empty set of ordered
pairs (x, y) such that x ∈ A and y ∈ B.
(iii) If A = {1, 2}, B = {3, 4}, then A × (B ∩ φ) = φ.
5. If A = {–1, 1}, find A × A × A.
6. If A × B = {(a, x),(a , y), (b, x), (b, y)}. Find A and B.
7. Let A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4}, C = {5, 6} and D = {5, 6, 7, 8}. Verify that
(i) A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C). (ii) A × C is a subset of B × D.
8. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 4}. Write A × B. How many subsets will A × B have?
List them.
9. Let A and B be two sets such that n(A) = 3 and n(B) = 2. If (x, 1), (y, 2), (z, 1)
are in A × B, find A and B, where x, y and z are distinct elements.

2024-25
28 MATHEMATICS

10. The Cartesian product A × A has 9 elements among which are found (–1, 0) and
(0,1). Find the set A and the remaining elements of A × A.
2.3 Relations
Consider the two sets P = {a, b, c} and Q = {Ali, Bhanu, Binoy, Chandra, Divya}.
The cartesian product of
P and Q has 15 ordered pairs which
can be listed as P × Q = {(a, Ali),
(a,Bhanu), (a, Binoy), ..., (c, Divya)}.
We can now obtain a subset of
P × Q by introducing a relation R
between the first element x and the
second element y of each ordered pair Fig 2.4
(x, y) as
R= { (x,y): x is the first letter of the name y, x ∈ P, y ∈ Q}.
Then R = {(a, Ali), (b, Bhanu), (b, Binoy), (c, Chandra)}
A visual representation of this relation R (called an arrow diagram) is shown
in Fig 2.4.
Definition 2 A relation R from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B is a subset of
the cartesian product A × B. The subset is derived by describing a relationship between
the first element and the second element of the ordered pairs in A × B. The second
element is called the image of the first element.
Definition 3 The set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R from a set
A to a set B is called the domain of the relation R.
Definition 4 The set of all second elements in a relation R from a set A to a set B is
called the range of the relation R. The whole set B is called the codomain of the
relation R. Note that range ⊂ codomain.
Remarks (i) A relation may be represented algebraically either by the Roster
method or by the Set-builder method.
(ii) An arrow diagram is a visual representation of a relation.
Example 7 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Define a relation R from A to A by
R = {(x, y) : y = x + 1 }
(i) Depict this relation using an arrow diagram.
(ii) Write down the domain, codomain and range of R.
Solution (i) By the definition of the relation,
R = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4), (4,5), (5,6)}.

2024-25
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 29

The corresponding arrow diagram is

shown in Fig 2.5.
(ii) We can see that the
domain ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5,}
Similarly, the range = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
and the codomain = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Fig 2.5
Example 8 The Fig 2.6 shows a relation
between the sets P and Q. Write this relation (i) in set-builder form, (ii) in roster form.
What is its domain and range?
Solution It is obvious that the relation R is
“x is the square of y”.
(i) In set-builder form, R = {(x, y): x
is the square of y, x ∈ P, y ∈ Q}
(ii) In roster form, R = {(9, 3),
(9, –3), (4, 2), (4, –2), (25, 5), (25, –5)} Fig 2.6
The domain of this relation is {4, 9, 25}.
The range of this relation is {– 2, 2, –3, 3, –5, 5}.
Note that the element 1 is not related to any element in set P.
The set Q is the codomain of this relation.

A Note The total number of relations that can be defined from a set A to a set B
is the number of possible subsets of A × B. If n(A ) = p and n(B) = q, then
n (A × B) = pq and the total number of relations is 2pq.
Example 9 Let A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 4}. Find the number of relations from A to B.
Solution We have,
A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4)}.
Since n (A×B ) = 4, the number of subsets of A×B is 24. Therefore, the number of
relations from A into B will be 24.
Remark A relation R from A to A is also stated as a relation on A.

EXERCISE 2.2
1. Let A = {1, 2, 3,...,14}. Define a relation R from A to A by
R = {(x, y) : 3x – y = 0, where x, y ∈ A}. Write down its domain, codomain and
range.

2024-25
30 MATHEMATICS

2. Define a relation R on the set N of natural numbers by R = {(x, y) : y = x + 5,

x is a natural number less than 4; x, y ∈N}. Depict this relationship using roster
form. Write down the domain and the range.
3. A = {1, 2, 3, 5} and B = {4, 6, 9}. Define a relation R from A to B by
R = {(x, y): the difference between x and y is odd; x ∈ A, y ∈ B}. Write R in
roster form.
4. The Fig2.7 shows a relationship
between the sets P and Q. Write this
relation
(i) in set-builder form (ii) roster form.
What is its domain and range?
5. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}. Let R be the
relation on A defined by Fig 2.7
{(a, b): a , b ∈A, b is exactly divisible by a}.
(i) Write R in roster form
(ii) Find the domain of R
(iii) Find the range of R.
6. Determine the domain and range of the relation R defined by
R = {(x, x + 5) : x ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}}.
7. Write the relation R = {(x, x3) : x is a prime number less than 10} in roster form.
8. Let A = {x, y, z} and B = {1, 2}. Find the number of relations from A to B.
9. Let R be the relation on Z defined by R = {(a,b): a, b ∈ Z, a – b is an integer}.
Find the domain and range of R.
2.4 Functions
In this Section, we study a special type of relation called function. It is one of the most
important concepts in mathematics. We can, visualise a function as a rule, which produces
new elements out of some given elements. There are many terms such as ‘map’ or
‘mapping’ used to denote a function.
Definition 5 A relation f from a set A to a set B is said to be a function if every
element of set A has one and only one image in set B.
In other words, a function f is a relation from a non-empty set A to a non-empty
set B such that the domain of f is A and no two distinct ordered pairs in f have the
same first element.
If f is a function from A to B and (a, b) ∈ f, then f (a) = b, where b is called the
image of a under f and a is called the preimage of b under f.

2024-25
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 31

The function f from A to B is denoted by f: A à B.

Looking at the previous examples, we can easily see that the relation in Example 7 is
not a function because the element 6 has no image.
Again, the relation in Example 8 is not a function because the elements in the
domain are connected to more than one images. Similarly, the relation in Example 9 is
also not a function. (Why?) In the examples given below, we will see many more
relations some of which are functions and others are not.
Example 10 Let N be the set of natural numbers and the relation R be defined on
N such that R = {(x, y) : y = 2x, x, y ∈ N}.
What is the domain, codomain and range of R? Is this relation a function?
Solution The domain of R is the set of natural numbers N. The codomain is also N.
The range is the set of even natural numbers.
Since every natural number n has one and only one image, this relation is a
function.
Example 11 Examine each of the following relations given below and state in each
case, giving reasons whether it is a function or not?
(i) R = {(2,1),(3,1), (4,2)}, (ii) R = {(2,2),(2,4),(3,3), (4,4)}
(iii) R = {(1,2),(2,3),(3,4), (4,5), (5,6), (6,7)}
Solution (i) Since 2, 3, 4 are the elements of domain of R having their unique images,
this relation R is a function.
(ii) Since the same first element 2 corresponds to two different images 2
and 4, this relation is not a function.
(iii) Since every element has one and only one image, this relation is a
function.
Definition 6 A function which has either R or one of its subsets as its range is called
a real valued function. Further, if its domain is also either R or a subset of R, it is
called a real function.
Example 12 Let N be the set of natural numbers. Define a real valued function
f : Nà N by f (x) = 2x + 1. Using this definition, complete the table given below.
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y f (1) = ... f (2) = ... f (3) = ... f (4) = ... f (5) = ... f (6) = ... f (7) = ...
Solution The completed table is given by
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y f (1) = 3 f (2) = 5 f (3) = 7 f (4) = 9 f (5) = 11 f (6) = 13 f (7) =15

2024-25
32 MATHEMATICS

2.4.1 Some functions and their graphs

(i) Identity function Let R be the set of real numbers. Define the real valued
function f : R → R by y = f(x) = x for each x ∈ R. Such a function is called the
identity function. Here the domain and range of f are R. The graph is a straight line as
shown in Fig 2.8. It passes through the origin.

Fig 2.8
(ii) Constant function Define the function f: R → R by y = f (x) = c, x ∈ R where
c is a constant and each x ∈ R. Here domain of f is R and its range is {c}.

Fig 2.9

2024-25
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 33

The graph is a line parallel to x-axis. For example, if f(x)=3 for each x∈R, then its
graph will be a line as shown in the Fig 2.9.
(iii) Polynomial function A function f : R → R is said to be polynomial function if
for each x in R, y = f (x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ...+ an xn, where n is a non-negative
integer and a0, a1, a2,...,an∈R.
The functions defined by f(x) = x3 – x2 + 2, and g(x) = x4 + 2 x are some examples
2
of polynomial functions, whereas the function h defined by h(x) = x 3 + 2x is not a
polynomial function.(Why?)
Example 13 Define the function f: R → R by y = f(x) = x2, x ∈ R. Complete the
Table given below by using this definition. What is the domain and range of this function?
Draw the graph of f.
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
y = f(x) = x2
Solution The completed Table is given below:
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
2
y = f (x) = x 16 9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16
2
Domain of f = {x : x∈R}. Range of f = {x : x ∈ R}. The graph of f is given
by Fig 2.10

Fig 2.10

2024-25
34 MATHEMATICS

Example 14 Draw the graph of the function f :R → R defined by f (x) = x3, x∈R.
Solution We have
f(0) = 0, f(1) = 1, f(–1) = –1, f(2) = 8, f(–2) = –8, f(3) = 27; f(–3) = –27, etc.
Therefore, f = {(x,x3): x∈R}.
The graph of f is given in Fig 2.11.

Fig 2.11
f (x )
(iv) Rational functions are functions of the type , where f(x) and g(x) are
g (x)
polynomial functions of x defined in a domain, where g(x) ≠ 0.
1
Example 15 Define the real valued function f : R – {0} → R defined by f (x) = ,
x
x ∈ R –{0}. Complete the Table given below using this definition. What is the domain
and range of this function?

x –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0.25 0.5 1 1.5 2

1
y = ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
x
Solution The completed Table is given by
x –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0.25 0.5 1 1.5 2

1
y= – 0.5 – 0.67 –1 – 2 4 2 1 0.67 0.5
x

2024-25
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 35

The domain is all real numbers except 0 and its range is also all real numbers
except 0. The graph of f is given in Fig 2.12.

Fig 2.12

(v) The Modulus function The function

f: R→R defined by f(x) = |x| for each
x ∈R is called modulus function. For each
non-negative value of x, f(x) is equal to x.
But for negative values of x, the value of
f(x) is the negative of the value of x, i.e.,

 x,x ≥ 0
f (x) = 
 − x,x < 0
The graph of the modulus function is given
in Fig 2.13.
(vi) Signum function The function
f:R→R defined by
Fig 2.13
1,if x > 0

f (x ) = 0,if x = 0
−1,if x < 0


2024-25
36 MATHEMATICS

is called the signum function. The domain of the signum function is R and the range is
the set {–1, 0, 1}. The graph of the signum function is given by the Fig 2.14.

Fig 2.14

(vii) Greatest integer function

The function f: R → R defined
by f(x) = [x], x ∈R assumes the
value of the greatest integer, less
than or equal to x. Such a function
is called the greatest integer
function.
From the definition of [x], we
can see that
[x] = –1 for –1 ≤ x < 0
[x] = 0 for 0 ≤ x < 1
[x] = 1 for 1 ≤ x < 2
[x] = 2 for 2 ≤ x < 3 and
so on.
Fig 2.15
The graph of the function is
shown in Fig 2.15.
2.4.2 Algebra of real functions In this Section, we shall learn how to add two real
functions, subtract a real function from another, multiply a real function by a scalar
(here by a scalar we mean a real number), multiply two real functions and divide one
real function by another.
(i) Addition of two real functions Let f : X → R and g : X → R be any two real
functions, where X ⊂ R. Then, we define (f + g): X → R by
(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x), for all x ∈ X.

2024-25
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 37

(ii) Subtraction of a real function from another Let f : X → R and g: X → R be

any two real functions, where X ⊂ R. Then, we define (f – g) : X → R by
(f–g) (x) = f(x) –g(x), for all x ∈ X.
(iii) Multiplication by a scalar Let f : X→R be a real valued function and α be a
scalar. Here by scalar, we mean a real number. Then the product α f is a function from
X to R defined by (α f ) (x) = α f (x), x ∈X.
(iv) Multiplication of two real functions The product (or multiplication) of two real
functions f:X → R and g:X → R is a function fg:X → R defined by
(fg) (x) = f(x) g(x), for all x ∈ X.
This is also called pointwise multiplication.
(v) Quotient of two real functions Let f and g be two real functions defined from
f
X→R, where X ⊂ R. The quotient of f by g denoted by
g is a function defined by ,

 f  f ( x)
  ( x) = , provided g(x) ≠ 0, x ∈ X
g g ( x)
2
Example 16 Let f(x) = x and g(x) = 2x + 1 be two real functions.Find
 f 
(f + g) (x), (f –g) (x), (fg) (x),   ( x ) .
g
Solution We have,
2 2
(f + g) (x) = x + 2x + 1, (f –g) (x) = x – 2x – 1,

2  f  3 2 x2 1
(fg) (x) = x (2x + 1) = 2x + x ,   ( x ) = ,x ≠ −
g 2x + 1 2
Example 17 Let f(x) = x and g(x) = x be two functions defined over the set of non-
 f 
negative real numbers. Find (f + g) (x), (f – g) (x), (fg) (x) and   (x).
g
Solution We have
(f + g) (x) = x + x, (f – g) (x) = x –x,
3  f  x –
1

(fg) x = x( x ) = x2 and  g  ( x ) = = x 2,x≠0

  x

2024-25
38 MATHEMATICS

EXERCISE 2.3
1. Which of the following relations are functions? Give reasons. If it is a function,
determine its domain and range.
(i) {(2,1), (5,1), (8,1), (11,1), (14,1), (17,1)}
(ii) {(2,1), (4,2), (6,3), (8,4), (10,5), (12,6), (14,7)}
(iii) {(1,3), (1,5), (2,5)}.
2. Find the domain and range of the following real functions:
(i) f(x) = – x (ii) f(x) = 9 − x2 .
3. A function f is defined by f(x) = 2x –5. Write down the values of
(i) f (0), (ii) f (7), (iii) f (–3).
4. The function ‘t’ which maps temperature in degree Celsius into temperature in
9C
degree Fahrenheit is defined by t(C) = + 32.
5
Find (i) t(0) (ii) t(28) (iii) t(–10) (iv) The value of C, when t(C) = 212.
5. Find the range of each of the following functions.
(i) f (x) = 2 – 3x, x ∈ R, x > 0.
(ii) f (x) = x2 + 2, x is a real number.
(iii) f (x) = x, x is a real number.

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 18 Let R be the set of real numbers.
Define the real function
f: R→R by f(x) = x + 10
and sketch the graph of this function.
Solution Here f(0) = 10, f(1) = 11, f(2) = 12, ...,
f(10) = 20, etc., and
f(–1) = 9, f(–2) = 8, ..., f(–10) = 0 and so on.
Therefore, shape of the graph of the given
function assumes the form as shown in Fig 2.16.
Remark The function f defined by f(x) = mx + c ,
x ∈ R, is called linear function, where m and c are
constants. Above function is an example of a linear
Fig 2.16
function.

2024-25
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 39

Example 19 Let R be a relation from Q to Q defined by R = {(a,b): a,b ∈ Q and

a – b ∈ Z}. Show that
(i) (a,a) ∈ R for all a ∈ Q
(ii) (a,b) ∈ R implies that (b, a) ∈ R
(iii) (a,b) ∈ R and (b,c) ∈ R implies that (a,c) ∈R
Solution (i) Since, a – a = 0 ∈ Z, if follows that (a, a) ∈ R.
(ii) (a,b) ∈ R implies that a – b ∈ Z. So, b – a ∈ Z. Therefore,
(b, a) ∈ R
(iii) (a, b) and (b, c) ∈ R implies that a – b ∈ Z. b – c ∈ Z. So,
a – c = (a – b) + (b – c) ∈ Z. Therefore, (a,c) ∈ R
Example 20 Let f = {(1,1), (2,3), (0, –1), (–1, –3)} be a linear function from Z into Z.
Find f(x).
Solution Since f is a linear function, f (x) = mx + c. Also, since (1, 1), (0, – 1) ∈ R,
f (1) = m + c = 1 and f (0) = c = –1. This gives m = 2 and f(x) = 2x – 1.

x2 + 3x + 5
Example 21 Find the domain of the function f ( x ) =
x2 − 5x + 4
2
Solution Since x –5x + 4 = (x – 4) (x –1), the function f is defined for all real numbers
except at x = 4 and x = 1. Hence the domain of f is R – {1, 4}.
Example 22 The function f is defined by
1− x, x < 0

1 , x=0
f (x) = 
 x + 1, x > 0

Draw the graph of f (x).
Solution Here, f(x) = 1 – x, x < 0, this gives
f(– 4) = 1 – (– 4) = 5;
f(– 3) =1 – (– 3) = 4,
f(– 2) = 1 – (– 2) = 3
f(–1) = 1 – (–1) = 2; etc,
and f(1) = 2, f (2) = 3, f (3) = 4
f(4) = 5 and so on for f(x) = x + 1, x > 0.
Thus, the graph of f is as shown in Fig 2.17 Fig 2.17

2024-25
40 MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 2

 x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
2
1. The relation f is defined by f (x) = 
3 x,3 ≤ x ≤10

 x 2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
The relation g is defined by g ( x) = 
3x , 2 ≤ x ≤ 10
Show that f is a function and g is not a function.
2 f (1.1) – f (1)
2. If f (x) = x , find .
(1.1 – 1)

x2 + 2 x + 1
3. Find the domain of the function f (x) = .
x 2 – 8 x + 12
4. Find the domain and the range of the real function f defined by f (x) = ( x − 1) .
5. Find the domain and the range of the real function f defined by f (x) = x – 1 .

 x2  
6. Let f =  x ,  : x ∈ R  be a function from R into R. Determine the range
 1 + x 
2

of f.
7. Let f, g : R→R be defined, respectively by f(x) = x + 1, g(x) = 2x – 3. Find
f
f + g, f – g and
g.
8. Let f = {(1,1), (2,3), (0,–1), (–1, –3)} be a function from Z to Z defined by
f(x) = ax + b, for some integers a, b. Determine a, b.
2
9. Let R be a relation from N to N defined by R = {(a, b) : a, b ∈N and a = b }. Are
the following true?
(i) (a,a) ∈ R, for all a ∈ N (ii) (a,b) ∈ R, implies (b,a) ∈ R
(iii) (a,b) ∈ R, (b,c) ∈ R implies (a,c) ∈ R.
Justify your answer in each case.
10. Let A ={1,2,3,4}, B = {1,5,9,11,15,16} and f = {(1,5), (2,9), (3,1), (4,5), (2,11)}
Are the following true?
(i) f is a relation from A to B (ii) f is a function from A to B.
Justify your answer in each case.

2024-25
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 41

11. Let f be the subset of Z × Z defined by f = {(ab, a + b) : a, b ∈ Z}. Is f a

function from Z to Z? Justify your answer.
12. Let A = {9,10,11,12,13} and let f : A→N be defined by f (n) = the highest prime
factor of n. Find the range of f.

Summary
In this Chapter, we studied about relations and functions.The main features of
this Chapter are as follows:
® Ordered pair A pair of elements grouped together in a particular order.
® Cartesian product A × B of two sets A and B is given by
A × B = {(a, b): a ∈ A, b ∈ B}
In particular R × R = {(x, y): x, y ∈ R}
and R × R × R = {(x, y, z): x, y, z ∈ R}
® If (a, b) = (x, y), then a = x and b = y.
® If n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then n(A × B) = pq.
®A×φ=φ
® In general, A × B ≠ B × A.
® Relation A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the cartesian
product A × B obtained by describing a relationship between the first element
x and the second element y of the ordered pairs in A × B.
® The image of an element x under a relation R is given by y, where (x, y) ∈ R,
® The domain of R is the set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a
relation R.
® The range of the relation R is the set of all second elements of the ordered
pairs in a relation R.
® Function A function f from a set A to a set B is a specific type of relation for
which every element x of set A has one and only one image y in set B.
We write f: A→B, where f(x) = y.
® A is the domain and B is the codomain of f.

2024-25
42 MATHEMATICS

® The range of the function is the set of images.

® A real function has the set of real numbers or one of its subsets both as its
domain and as its range.
® Algebra of functions For functions f : X → R and g : X → R, we have
(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g(x), x ∈ X
(f – g) (x) = f (x) – g(x), x ∈ X
(f.g) (x) = f (x) .g (x), x ∈ X
(kf) (x) = k ( f (x) ), x ∈ X, where k is a real number.
f f ( x)
  (x) = g ( x ) , x ∈ X, g(x) ≠ 0
g

Historical Note
The word FUNCTION first appears in a Latin manuscript “Methodus
tangentium inversa, seu de fuctionibus” written by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz
(1646-1716) in 1673; Leibnitz used the word in the non-analytical sense. He
considered a function in terms of “mathematical job” – the “employee” being
just a curve.
On July 5, 1698, Johan Bernoulli, in a letter to Leibnitz, for the first time
deliberately assigned a specialised use of the term function in the analytical
sense. At the end of that month, Leibnitz replied showing his approval.
Function is found in English in 1779 in Chambers’ Cyclopaedia: “The
term function is used in algebra, for an analytical expression any way compounded
of a variable quantity, and of numbers, or constant quantities”.

—v —

2024-25
 Chapter 3
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
vA mathematician knows how to solve a problem,
he can not solve it. – MILNE v

3.1 Introduction
The word ‘trigonometry’ is derived from the Greek words
‘trigon’ and ‘metron’ and it means ‘measuring the sides of
a triangle’. The subject was originally developed to solve
geometric problems involving triangles. It was studied by
sea captains for navigation, surveyor to map out the new
lands, by engineers and others. Currently, trigonometry is
used in many areas such as the science of seismology,
designing electric circuits, describing the state of an atom,
predicting the heights of tides in the ocean, analysing a
musical tone and in many other areas.
In earlier classes, we have studied the trigonometric Arya Bhatt
ratios of acute angles as the ratio of the sides of a right (476-550)
angled triangle. We have also studied the trigonometric identities and application of
trigonometric ratios in solving the problems related to heights and distances. In this
Chapter, we will generalise the concept of trigonometric ratios to trigonometric functions
and study their properties.
3.2 Angles
Angle is a measure of rotation of a given ray about its initial point. The original ray is
Vertex

Fig 3.1

2024-25
44 MATHEMATICS

called the initial side and the final position of the ray after rotation is called the
terminal side of the angle. The point of rotation is called the vertex. If the direction of
rotation is anticlockwise, the angle is said to be positive and if the direction of rotation
is clockwise, then the angle is negative (Fig 3.1).
The measure of an angle is the amount of
rotation performed to get the terminal side from
the initial side. There are several units for
measuring angles. The definition of an angle Fig 3.2
suggests a unit, viz. one complete revolution from the position of the initial side as
indicated in Fig 3.2.
This is often convenient for large angles. For example, we can say that a rapidly
spinning wheel is making an angle of say 15 revolution per second. We shall describe
two other units of measurement of an angle which are most commonly used, viz.
degree measure and radian measure.
th
 1 
3.2.1 Degree measure If a rotation from the initial side to terminal side is   of
 360 
a revolution, the angle is said to have a measure of one degree, written as 1°. A degree is
divided into 60 minutes, and a minute is divided into 60 seconds . One sixtieth of a degree is
called a minute, written as 1′, and one sixtieth of a minute is called a second, written as 1″.
Thus, 1° = 60′, 1′ = 60″
Some of the angles whose measures are 360°,180°, 270°, 420°, – 30°, – 420° are
shown in Fig 3.3.

Fig 3.3

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 45

3.2.2 Radian measure There is another unit for measurement of an angle, called
the radian measure. Angle subtended at the centre by an arc of length 1 unit in a
unit circle (circle of radius 1 unit) is said to have a measure of 1 radian. In the Fig
3.4(i) to (iv), OA is the initial side and OB is the terminal side. The figures show the
1 1
angles whose measures are 1 radian, –1 radian, 1 radian and –1 radian.
2 2

(i) (ii)
(iii)

(iv)
Fig 3.4 (i) to (iv)
We know that the circumference of a circle of radius 1 unit is 2π. Thus, one
complete revolution of the initial side subtends an angle of 2π radian.
More generally, in a circle of radius r, an arc of length r will subtend an angle of
1 radian. It is well-known that equal arcs of a circle subtend equal angle at the centre.
Since in a circle of radius r, an arc of length r subtends an angle whose measure is 1
l
radian, an arc of length l will subtend an angle whose measure is radian. Thus, if in
r
a circle of radius r, an arc of length l subtends an angle θ radian at the centre, we have
l
θ = or l = r θ.
r

2024-25
46 MATHEMATICS

P
3.2.3 Relation between radian and real numbers
2
Consider the unit circle with centre O. Let A be any point
on the circle. Consider OA as initial side of an angle.
Then the length of an arc of the circle will give the radian 1
measure of the angle which the arc will subtend at the
centre of the circle. Consider the line PAQ which is
1 A 0
tangent to the circle at A. Let the point A represent the O
real number zero, AP represents positive real number and
AQ represents negative real numbers (Fig 3.5). If we
−1
rope the line AP in the anticlockwise direction along the
circle, and AQ in the clockwise direction, then every real
number will correspond to a radian measure and −2
conversely. Thus, radian measures and real numbers can Fig 3.5 Q
be considered as one and the same.

3.2.4 Relation between degree and radian Since a circle subtends at the centre
an angle whose radian measure is 2π and its degree measure is 360°, it follows that
2π radian = 360° or π radian = 180°
The above relation enables us to express a radian measure in terms of degree
measure and a degree measure in terms of radian measure. Using approximate value
22
of π as , we have
7
180°
1 radian = = 57° 16′ approximately.
π

π
Also 1° = radian = 0.01746 radian approximately.
180

The relation between degree measures and radian measure of some common angles
are given in the following table:

Degree 30° 45° 60° 90° 180° 270° 360°

π π π π 3π
Radian π 2π
6 4 3 2 2

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 47

Notational Convention
Since angles are measured either in degrees or in radians, we adopt the convention
that whenever we write angle θ°, we mean the angle whose degree measure is θ and
whenever we write angle β, we mean the angle whose radian measure is β.
Note that when an angle is expressed in radians, the word ‘radian’ is frequently
π π
omitted. Thus, π = 180° and = 45° are written with the understanding that π and
4 4
are radian measures. Thus, we can say that
π
180 ×
Radian measure = Degree measure

180
Degree measure = × Radian measure
π
Example 1 Convert 40° 20′ into radian measure.
Solution We know that 180° = π radian.
1 π 121 121π
Hence 40° 20′ = 40 degree = × radian = radian.
3 180 3 540
121π
Therefore 40° 20′ = radian.
540
Example 2 Convert 6 radians into degree measure.
Solution We know that π radian = 180°.
180 1080 × 7
Hence 6 radians = × 6 degree = degree
π 22
7 7 × 60
= 343 degree = 343° + minute [as 1° = 60′]
11 11
2
= 343° + 38′ + minute [as 1′ = 60″]
11
= 343° + 38′ + 10.9″ = 343°38′ 11″ approximately.
Hence 6 radians = 343° 38′ 11″ approximately.
Example 3 Find the radius of the circle in which a central angle of 60° intercepts an
22
arc of length 37.4 cm (use π = ).
7

2024-25
48 MATHEMATICS

60π π
Solution Here l = 37.4 cm and θ = 60° = radian =
180 3
l
Hence, by r = , we have
θ
37.4×3 37.4×3×7
r= = = 35.7 cm
π 22
Example 4 The minute hand of a watch is 1.5 cm long. How far does its tip move in
40 minutes? (Use π = 3.14).
Solution In 60 minutes, the minute hand of a watch completes one revolution. Therefore,
2 2
in 40 minutes, the minute hand turns through of a revolution. Therefore, θ = × 360°
3 3
4π
or radian. Hence, the required distance travelled is given by
3
4π
l = r θ = 1.5 × cm = 2π cm = 2 × 3.14 cm = 6.28 cm.
3
Example 5 If the arcs of the same lengths in two circles subtend angles 65°and 110°
at the centre, find the ratio of their radii.
Solution Let r1 and r2 be the radii of the two circles. Given that
π 13π
θ1 = 65° = × 65 = radian
180 36
π 22π
and θ2 = 110° = × 110 = radian
180 36
Let l be the length of each of the arc. Then l = r1θ1 = r2θ2, which gives
13π 22π r1 22
× r1 = × r2 , i.e., r =
36 36 2 13
Hence r1 : r2 = 22 : 13.

EXERCISE 3.1
1. Find the radian measures corresponding to the following degree measures:
(i) 25° (ii) – 47°30′ (iii) 240° (iv) 520°

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 49

2. Find the degree measures corresponding to the following radian measures

22
(Use π = ).
7
11 5π 7π
(i) (ii) – 4 (iii) (iv)
16 3 6
3. A wheel makes 360 revolutions in one minute. Through how many radians does
it turn in one second?
4. Find the degree measure of the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of
22
radius 100 cm by an arc of length 22 cm (Use π = ).
7
5. In a circle of diameter 40 cm, the length of a chord is 20 cm. Find the length of
minor arc of the chord.
6. If in two circles, arcs of the same length subtend angles 60° and 75° at the
centre, find the ratio of their radii.
7. Find the angle in radian through which a pendulum swings if its length is 75 cm
and th e tip describes an arc of length
(i) 10 cm (ii) 15 cm (iii) 21 cm
3.3 Trigonometric Functions
In earlier classes, we have studied trigonometric ratios for acute angles as the ratio of
sides of a right angled triangle. We will now extend the definition of trigonometric
ratios to any angle in terms of radian measure and study them as trigonometric functions.
Consider a unit circle with centre
at origin of the coordinate axes. Let
P (a, b) be any point on the circle with
angle AOP = x radian, i.e., length of arc
AP = x (Fig 3.6).
We define cos x = a and sin x = b
Since ∆OMP is a right triangle, we have
OM2 + MP2 = OP2 or a2 + b2 = 1
Thus, for every point on the unit circle,
we have
a2 + b2 = 1 or cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
Since one complete revolution
subtends an angle of 2π radian at the
π
centre of the circle, ∠AOB = , Fig 3.6
2

2024-25
50 MATHEMATICS

3π π
∠AOC = π and ∠AOD = . All angles which are integral multiples of are called
2 2
quadrantal angles. The coordinates of the points A, B, C and D are, respectively,
(1, 0), (0, 1), (–1, 0) and (0, –1). Therefore, for quadrantal angles, we have
cos 0° = 1 sin 0° = 0,
π π
cos =0 sin =1
2 2
cosπ = − 1 sinπ = 0
3π 3π
cos =0 sin = –1
2 2
cos 2π = 1 sin 2π = 0
Now, if we take one complete revolution from the point P, we again come back to
same point P. Thus, we also observe that if x increases (or decreases) by any integral
multiple of 2π, the values of sine and cosine functions do not change. Thus,
sin (2nπ + x) = sin x , n ∈ Z , cos (2nπ + x) = cos x , n ∈ Z
Further, sin x = 0, if x = 0, ± π, ± 2π , ± 3π, ..., i.e., when x is an integral multiple of π
π 3π 5π
and cos x = 0, if x = ± ,± ,± , ... i.e., cos x vanishes when x is an odd
2 2 2
π
multiple of . Thus
2
π, where n is any integer
sin x = 0 implies x = nπ,
π
cos x = 0 implies x = (2n + 1) , where n is any integer.
2
We now define other trigonometric functions in terms of sine and cosine functions:
1
cosec x = , x ≠ nπ, where n is any integer.
sin x
1 π
sec x = , x ≠ (2n + 1) , where n is any integer.
cos x 2
sin x π
tan x = , x ≠ (2n +1) , where n is any integer.
cos x 2
cos x
cot x = , x ≠ n π, where n is any integer.
sin x

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 51

We have shown that for all real x, sin2 x + cos2 x = 1

It follows that

1 + tan2 x = sec2 x (why?)

1 + cot2 x = cosec2 x (why?)

In earlier classes, we have discussed the values of trigonometric ratios for 0°,
30°, 45°, 60° and 90°. The values of trigonometric functions for these angles are same
as that of trigonometric ratios studied in earlier classes. Thus, we have the following
table:
π π π π 3π
0° π 2π
6 4 3 2 2
1 1 3
sin 0 1 0 –1 0
2 2 2
3 1 1
cos 1 0 –1 0 1
2 2 2
1 not not
tan 0 1 3 0 0
3 defined defined

The values of cosec x, sec x and cot x

are the reciprocal of the values of sin x,
cos x and tan x, respectively.
3.3.1 Sign of trigonometric functions
Let P (a, b) be a point on the unit circle
with centre at the origin such that
∠AOP = x. If ∠AOQ = – x, then the
coordinates of the point Q will be (a, –b)
(Fig 3.7). Therefore
cos (– x) = cos x
and sin (– x) = – sin x
Since for every point P (a, b) on
the unit circle, – 1 ≤ a ≤ 1 and Fig 3.7

2024-25
52 MATHEMATICS

– 1 ≤ b ≤ 1, we have – 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 and –1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 for all x. We have learnt in

π
previous classes that in the first quadrant (0 < x < ) a and b are both positive, in the
2
π
second quadrant ( < x <π) a is negative and b is positive, in the third quadrant
2
3π 3π
(π < x < ) a and b are both negative and in the fourth quadrant ( < x < 2π) a is
2 2
positive and b is negative. Therefore, sin x is positive for 0 < x < π, and negative for
π π 3π
π < x < 2π. Similarly, cos x is positive for 0 < x < , negative for < x < and also
2 2 2
3π
positive for < x < 2π. Likewise, we can find the signs of other trigonometric
2

functions in different quadrants. In fact, we have the following table.

I II III IV

sin x + + – –

cos x + – – +

tan x + – + –

cosec x + + – –

sec x + – – +

cot x + – + –

3.3.2 Domain and range of trigonometric functions From the definition of sine
and cosine functions, we observe that they are defined for all real numbers. Further,
we observe that for each real number x,
– 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1 and – 1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1
Thus, domain of y = sin x and y = cos x is the set of all real numbers and range
is the interval [–1, 1], i.e., – 1 ≤ y ≤ 1.

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 53

1
Since cosec x =
sin x , the domain of y = cosec x is the set { x : x ∈ R and
x ≠ n π, n ∈ Z} and range is the set {y : y ∈ R, y ≥ 1 or y ≤ – 1}. Similarly, the domain
π
of y = sec x is the set {x : x ∈ R and x ≠ (2n + 1)
, n ∈ Z} and range is the set
2
{y : y ∈ R, y ≤ – 1or y ≥ 1}. The domain of y = tan x is the set {x : x ∈ R and
π
x ≠ (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z} and range is the set of all real numbers. The domain of
2
y = cot x is the set {x : x ∈ R and x ≠ n π, n ∈ Z} and the range is the set of all real
numbers.
π
We further observe that in the first quadrant, as x increases from 0 to , sin x
2
π
increases from 0 to 1, as x increases from to π, sin x decreases from 1 to 0. In the
2
3π
third quadrant, as x increases from π to , sin x decreases from 0 to –1and finally, in
2
3π
the fourth quadrant, sin x increases from –1 to 0 as x increases from to 2π.
2
Similarly, we can discuss the behaviour of other trigonometric functions. In fact, we
have the following table:

I quadrant II quadrant III quadrant IV quadrant

sin increases from 0 to 1 decreases from 1 to 0 decreases from 0 to –1 increases from –1 to 0

cos decreases from 1 to 0 decreases from 0 to – 1 increases from –1 to 0 increases from 0 to 1

tan increases from 0 to ∞ increases from –∞to 0 increases from 0 to ∞ increases from –∞to 0

cot decreases from ∞ to 0 decreases from 0 to–∞ decreases from ∞ to 0 decreases from 0to –∞

sec increases from 1 to ∞ increases from –∞to–1 decreases from –1to–∞ decreases from ∞ to 1

cosec decreases from ∞ to 1 increases from 1 to ∞ increases from –∞to–1 decreases from–1to–∞

Remark In the above table, the statement tan x increases from 0 to ∞ (infinity) for
π π
0<x< simply means that tan x increases as x increases for 0 < x < and
2 2

2024-25
54 MATHEMATICS

π
assumes arbitraily large positive values as x approaches to . Similarly, to say that
2
cosec x decreases from –1 to – ∞ (minus infinity) in the fourth quadrant means that
3π
cosec x decreases for x ∈ ( , 2π) and assumes arbitrarily large negative values as
2
x approaches to 2π. The symbols ∞ and – ∞ simply specify certain types of behaviour
of functions and variables.
We have already seen that values of sin x and cos x repeats after an interval of
2π. Hence, values of cosec x and sec x will also repeat after an interval of 2π. We

Fig 3.8

Fig 3.9

Fig 3.10 Fig 3.11

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 55

Fig 3.12 Fig 3.13

shall see in the next section that tan (π + x) = tan x. Hence, values of tan x will repeat
after an interval of π. Since cot x is reciprocal of tan x, its values will also repeat after
an interval of π. Using this knowledge and behaviour of trigonometic functions, we can
sketch the graph of these functions. The graph of these functions are given above:

Example 6 If cos x = – 3 , x lies in the third quadrant, find the values of other five
5
trigonometric functions.
3 5
Solution Since cos x = − , we have sec x = −
5 3
2 2 2 2
Now sin x + cos x = 1, i.e., sin x = 1 – cos x
9 16
or sin2 x = 1 – =
25 25
4
Hence sin x = ±
5
Since x lies in third quadrant, sin x is negative. Therefore
4
sin x = –
5
which also gives
5
cosec x = –
4

2024-25
56 MATHEMATICS

Further, we have
sin x 4 cos x 3
tan x = = and cot x = = .
cos x 3 sin x 4
5
Example 7 If cot x = – , x lies in second quadrant, find the values of other five
12
trigonometric functions.

5 12
Solution Since cot x = – , we have tan x = –
12 5
144 169
Now sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x = 1 + =
25 25
13
Hence sec x = ±
5
Since x lies in second quadrant, sec x will be negative. Therefore
13
sec x = – ,
5
which also gives
5
cos x = −
13
Further, we have
12 5 12
sin x = tan x cos x = (– ) × (– )=
5 13 13
1 13
and cosec x = = .
sin x 12

31π
Example 8 Find the value of sin .
3
Solution We know that values of sin x repeats after an interval of 2π. Therefore

31π π π 3
sin = sin (10π + ) = sin = .
3 3 3 2

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 57

Example 9 Find the value of cos (–1710°).

Solution We know that values of cos x repeats after an interval of 2π or 360°.
Therefore, cos (–1710°) = cos (–1710° + 5 × 360°)
= cos (–1710° + 1800°) = cos 90° = 0.

EXERCISE 3.2
Find the values of other five trigonometric functions in Exercises 1 to 5.

1
1. cos x = – , x lies in third quadrant.
2
3
2. sin x = , x lies in second quadrant.
5
3
3. cot x = , x lies in third quadrant.
4
13
4. sec x = , x lies in fourth quadrant.
5
5
5. tan x = – , x lies in second quadrant.
12
Find the values of the trigonometric functions in Exercises 6 to 10.
6. sin 765° 7. cosec (– 1410°)
19π 11π
8. tan 9. sin (– )
3 3
15π
10. cot (– )
4
3.4 Trigonometric Functions of Sum and Difference of Two Angles
In this Section, we shall derive expressions for trigonometric functions of the sum and
difference of two numbers (angles) and related expressions. The basic results in this
connection are called trigonometric identities. We have seen that

1. sin (– x) = – sin x
2. cos (– x) = cos x
We shall now prove some more results:

2024-25
58 MATHEMATICS

3. cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y

Consider the unit circle with centre at the origin. Let x be the angle P4OP1and y be
the angle P1OP2. Then (x + y) is the angle P4OP2. Also let (– y) be the angle P4OP3.
Therefore, P 1 , P 2 , P 3 and P 4 will have the coordinates P 1 (cos x, sin x),
P2 [cos (x + y), sin (x + y)], P3 [cos (– y), sin (– y)] and P4 (1, 0) (Fig 3.14).

Fig 3.14
Consider the triangles P1OP3 and P2OP4. They are congruent (Why?). Therefore,
P1P3 and P2P4 are equal. By using distance formula, we get
P 1P 32 = [cos x – cos (– y)]2 + [sin x – sin(–y]2
= (cos x – cos y)2 + (sin x + sin y)2
= cos2 x + cos2 y – 2 cos x cos y + sin2 x + sin2 y + 2sin x sin y
= 2 – 2 (cos x cos y – sin x sin y) (Why?)
Also, P 2P 42 = [1 – cos (x + y)] 2 + [0 – sin (x + y)]2
= 1 – 2cos (x + y) + cos2 (x + y) + sin2 (x + y)
= 2 – 2 cos (x + y)

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 59

Since P 1 P 3 = P2P4, we have P1P32 = P2P42.

Therefore, 2 –2 (cos x cos y – sin x sin y) = 2 – 2 cos (x + y).
Hence cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y
4 . cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
Replacing y by – y in identity 3, we get
cos (x + (– y)) = cos x cos (– y) – sin x sin (– y)
or cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
π
5. cos ( – x ) = sin x
2
π
If we replace x by and y by x in Identity (4), we get
2
π π π
cos ( − x ) = cos cos x + sin sin x = sin x.
2 2 2
π
6. sin ( – x ) = cos x
2
Using the Identity 5, we have
π π  π 
sin (− x ) = cos  −  − x   = cos x.
2 2  2 
7. sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
We know that
π   π 
sin (x + y) = cos  − (x + y )  = cos  ( − x) − y 
2   2 
π π
= cos ( − x ) cos y + sin ( − x) sin y
2 2
= sin x cos y + cos x sin y
8. sin (x – y) = sin x cos y – cos x sin y
If we replace y by –y, in the Identity 7, we get the result.
9. By taking suitable values of x and y in the identities 3, 4, 7 and 8, we get the
following results:
π π
cos ( + x ) = – sin x sin ( + x ) = cos x
2 2
π – x) = – cos x
cos (π π – x) = sin x
sin (π

2024-25
60 MATHEMATICS

π + x) = – cos x
cos (π π + x) = – sin x
sin (π
cos (2ππ – x) = cos x sin (2ππ – x) = – sin x
Similar results for tan x, cot x, sec x and cosec x can be obtained from the results of sin
x and cos x.
π
10. If none of the angles x, y and (x + y) is an odd multiple of , then
2
tan x + tan y
tan (x + y) =
1 – tan x tan y

π
Since none of the x, y and (x + y) is an odd multiple of , it follows that cos x,
2
cos y and cos (x + y) are non-zero. Now
sin( x + y ) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
tan (x + y) = = .
cos( x + y ) cos x cos y − sin x sin y
Dividing numerator and denominator by cos x cos y, we have

sin x cos y cos x sin y

+
cos x cos y cos x cos y
tan (x + y) =
cos x cos y sin x sin y
−
cos x cos y cos x cos y

tan x + tan y
= 1 – tan x tan y

tan x – tan y
11. tan ( x – y) =
1 + tan x tan y
If we replace y by – y in Identity 10, we get
tan (x – y) = tan [x + (– y)]
tan x + tan (− y ) tan x − tan y
= =
1 − tan x tan ( − y ) 1+ tan x tan y
12. If none of the angles x, y and (x + y) is a multiple of π, then
cot x cot y – 1
cot ( x + y) =
cot y + cot x

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 61

Since, none of the x, y and (x + y) is multiple of π, we find that sin x sin y and
sin (x + y) are non-zero. Now,
cos ( x + y ) cos x cos y – sin x sin y
cot ( x + y) = =
sin ( x + y ) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
Dividing numerator and denominator by sin x sin y, we have
cot x cot y – 1
cot (x + y) =
cot y + cot x

cot x cot y + 1
13. cot (x – y) = if none of angles x, y and x–y is a multiple of π
cot y – cot x
If we replace y by –y in identity 12, we get the result

2 2 2
1 – tan 2 x
2
14. cos 2x = cos x – sin x = 2 cos x – 1 = 1 – 2 sin x =
1 + tan 2 x
We know that
cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y
Replacing y by x, we get
cos 2x = cos2x – sin2 x
= cos2 x – (1 – cos2 x) = 2 cos2x – 1
Again, cos 2x = cos2 x – sin2 x
= 1 – sin2 x – sin2 x = 1 – 2 sin2 x.

2
cos2 x − sin 2 x
2
We have cos 2x = cos x – sin x =
cos2 x + sin 2 x
Dividing numerator and denominator by cos2 x, we get
1 – tan 2 x π
cos 2x = 2 ,
x ≠ n π + , where n is an integer
1 + tan x 2

2tan x π
15. sin 2x = 2 sinx cos x = 2 x ≠ n π + , where n is an integer
1 + tan x 2
We have
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
Replacing y by x, we get sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x.
2sin x cos x
Again sin 2x =
cos2 x + sin 2 x

2024-25
62 MATHEMATICS

Dividing each term by cos2 x, we get

2tan x
sin 2x =
1 +tan 2 x

2tan x π
16. tan 2x = 2 if 2 x ≠ n π + , where n is an integer
1 – tan x 2
We know that
tan x + tan y
tan (x + y) = 1 – tan x tan y

2 tan x
Replacing y by x , we get tan 2 x =
1− tan 2 x
17. sin 3x = 3 sin x – 4 sin3 x
We have,
sin 3x = sin (2x + x)
= sin 2x cos x + cos 2x sin x
= 2 sin x cos x cos x + (1 – 2sin2 x) sin x
= 2 sin x (1 – sin2 x) + sin x – 2 sin3 x
= 2 sin x – 2 sin3 x + sin x – 2 sin3 x
= 3 sin x – 4 sin3 x
18. cos 3x = 4 cos3 x – 3 cos x
We have,
cos 3x = cos (2x +x)
= cos 2x cos x – sin 2x sin x
= (2cos2 x – 1) cos x – 2sin x cos x sin x
= (2cos2 x – 1) cos x – 2cos x (1 – cos2 x)
= 2cos3 x – cos x – 2cos x + 2 cos3 x
= 4cos3 x – 3cos x.
3 tan x – tan 3 x π
19. tan 3 x = if 3 x ≠ n π + , where n is an integer
1 – 3tan 2 x 2
We have tan 3x =tan (2x + x)
2tan x
+ tan x
tan 2 x + tan x 1 – tan 2 x
= =
1 – tan 2 x tan x 1 – 2tan x . tan x
1 – tan 2 x

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 63

2tan x + tan x – tan 3 x 3 tan x – tan 3 x

= =
1 – tan 2 x – 2tan 2 x 1 – 3tan 2 x

x+ y x– y
20. (i) cos x + cos y = 2cos cos
2 2
x+ y x– y
(ii) cos x – cos y = – 2sin sin
2 2
x+ y x– y
(iii) sin x + sin y = 2sin cos
2 2
x+ y x– y
(iv) sin x – sin y = 2cos sin
2 2
We know that
cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y ... (1)
and cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y ... (2)
Adding and subtracting (1) and (2), we get
cos (x + y) + cos(x – y) = 2 cos x cos y ... (3)
and cos (x + y) – cos (x – y) = – 2 sin x sin y ... (4)
Further sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y ... (5)
and sin (x – y) = sin x cos y – cos x sin y ... (6)
Adding and subtracting (5) and (6), we get
sin (x + y) + sin (x – y) = 2 sin x cos y ... (7)
sin (x + y) – sin (x – y) = 2cos x sin y ... (8)
Let x + y = θ and x – y = φ. Therefore
 θ+ φ   θ−φ 
x =  and y =  
 2   2 
Substituting the values of x and y in (3), (4), (7) and (8), we get
 θ+φ   θ −φ 
cos θ + cos φ = 2 cos   cos  
 2   2 

θ+φ θ – φ
cos θ – cos φ = – 2 sin   sin  
 2   2 

 θ+φ   θ−φ 
sin θ + sin φ = 2 sin   cos  
 2   2 

2024-25
64 MATHEMATICS

 θ+φ   θ−φ 
sin θ – sin φ = 2 cos   sin  
 2   2 
Since θ and φ can take any real values, we can replace θ by x and φ by y.
Thus, we get
x+ y x− y x+ y x− y
cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos ; cos x – cos y = – 2 sin sin ,
2 2 2 2
x+ y x− y x+ y x− y
sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos ; sin x – sin y = 2 cos sin .
2 2 2 2
Remark As a part of identities given in 20, we can prove the following results:
21. (i) 2 cos x cos y = cos (x + y) + cos (x – y)
(ii) –2 sin x sin y = cos (x + y) – cos (x – y)
(iii) 2 sin x cos y = sin (x + y) + sin (x – y)
(iv) 2 cos x sin y = sin (x + y) – sin (x – y).
Example 10 Prove that
π π 5π π
3sin sec − 4sin cot =1
6 3 6 4
Solution We have
π π 5π π
L.H.S. = 3sin sec − 4sin cot
6 3 6 4
1  π π
=3× × 2 – 4 sin  π −  × 1 = 3 – 4 sin
2  6 6
1
=3–4× = 1 = R.H.S.
2
Example 11 Find the value of sin 15°.
Solution We have
sin 15° = sin (45° – 30°)
= sin 45° cos 30° – cos 45° sin 30°
1 3 1 1 3 –1
= × − × = .
2 2 2 2 2 2
13 π
Example 12 Find the value of tan .
12

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 65

Solution We have
13 π  π π π π
tan = tan  π +  = tan = tan  − 
12  12  12 4 6

π π 1−
1
tan − tan
4 6 3 = 3 −1 = 2 − 3
= =
π π 1 3 +1
1 + tan tan 1+
4 6 3

Example 13 Prove that

sin ( x + y ) tan x + tan y
=
sin ( x − y ) tan x − tan y .

Solution We have
sin (x + y) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
L.H.S. = =
sin (x − y ) sin x cos y − cos x sin y
Dividing the numerator and denominator by cos x cos y, we get
sin ( x + y ) tan x + tan y
=
sin ( x − y ) tan x − tan y .

Example 14 Show that

tan 3 x tan 2 x tan x = tan 3x – tan 2 x – tan x
Solution We know that 3x = 2x + x
Therefore, tan 3x = tan (2x + x)
tan 2 x + tan x
or tan 3x =
1– tan 2 x tan x
or tan 3x – tan 3x tan 2x tan x = tan 2x + tan x
or tan 3x – tan 2x – tan x = tan 3x tan 2x tan x
or tan 3x tan 2x tan x = tan 3x – tan 2x – tan x.
Example 15 Prove that
π  π 
cos  + x  + cos  − x  = 2 cos x
4  4 
Solution Using the Identity 20(i), we have

2024-25
66 MATHEMATICS

π  π 
L.H.S. = cos  + x  + cos  − x 
4  4 

π π  π π 
 4 +x+ 4 −x  4 + x – ( 4 − x) 
= 2cos   cos  
 2   2 
   

π 1
= 2 cos cos x = 2 × cos x = 2 cos x = R.H.S.
4 2

cos 7 x + cos 5 x
Example 16 Prove that = cot x
sin 7 x – sin 5 x

Solution Using the Identities 20 (i) and 20 (iv), we get

7 x + 5x 7 x − 5x
2cos cos cos x
2 2 = cot x = R.H.S.
L.H.S. = =
7 x + 5x 7 x − 5x sin x
2cos sin
2 2

sin 5 x − 2sin 3x + sin x

Example 17 Prove that = = tan x
cos5 x − cos x

Solution We have

sin 5 x − 2sin 3 x + sin x sin 5 x + sin x − 2sin 3x

L.H.S. = =
cos5 x − cos x cos5 x − cos x

2sin 3 x cos 2 x − 2sin 3 x sin 3 x (cos 2 x − 1)

= =–
– 2sin 3x sin 2x sin 3x sin 2x

1− cos 2 x 2sin 2 x
= = = tan x = R.H.S.
sin 2 x 2sin x cos x

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 67

EXERCISE 3.3
Prove that:
π π π 1 π 7π π 3
1. sin2 + cos2 – tan2 = – 2. 2sin2 + cosec2 cos 2 =
6 3 4 2 6 6 3 2
π 5π π 2 3π π π
3. cot
2
+ cosec + 3tan 2 = 6 4. 2sin + 2cos 2 + 2sec 2 = 10
6 6 6 4 4 3
5. Find the value of:
(i) sin 75° (ii) tan 15°

Prove the following:

π  π  π  π 
6. cos  − x  cos  − y  − sin  − x  sin  − y  = sin ( x + y )
 4   4   4   4 

π 
tan  + x  2
 4  =  1 + tan x cos (π + x) cos ( − x )
7.   8. = cot 2 x
π   1 − tan x π 
tan  − x  sin (π − x) cos  + x 
4  2 

 3π    3π  
9. cos  + x  cos (2 π + x)  cot  − x  + cot (2π + x)  = 1
 2    2  
10. sin (n + 1)x sin (n + 2)x + cos (n + 1)x cos (n + 2)x = cos x
 3π   3π 
11. cos  + x  − cos  − x  = − 2 sin x
 4   4 
12. sin2 6x – sin2 4x = sin 2x sin 10x 13. cos2 2x – cos2 6x = sin 4x sin 8x
14. sin2 x + 2 sin 4x + sin 6x = 4 cos2 x sin 4x
15. cot 4x (sin 5x + sin 3x) = cot x (sin 5x – sin 3x)
cos 9 x − cos 5 x sin 2 x sin 5x + sin 3 x
16. =− 17. = tan 4 x
sin 17 x − sin 3 x cos 10 x cos 5x + cos 3 x
sin x − sin y x−y sin x + sin 3 x
18. = tan 19. = tan 2 x
cos x + cos y 2 cos x + cos 3 x
sin x − sin 3x cos 4 x + cos 3x + cos 2 x
20. = 2 sin x 21. = cot 3x
2
sin x − cos x
2
sin 4 x + sin 3x + sin 2 x

2024-25
68 MATHEMATICS

22. cot x cot 2x – cot 2x cot 3x – cot 3x cot x = 1

4tan x (1 − tan 2 x)
23. tan 4 x = 24. cos 4x = 1 – 8sin2 x cos2 x
1 − 6 tan 2 x + tan 4 x

25. cos 6x = 32 cos6 x – 48cos4 x + 18 cos2 x – 1

Miscellaneous Examples
3 12
Example 18 If sin x = , cos y = − , where x and y both lie in second quadrant,
5 13
find the value of sin (x + y).
Solution We know that
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y ... (1)
9 16
Now cos2 x = 1 – sin2 x = 1 – =
25 25
4
Therefore cos x = ± .
5
Since x lies in second quadrant, cos x is negative.
4
Hence cos x = −
5
144 25
Now sin2y = 1 – cos2y = 1 – =
169 169
5
i.e. sin y = ± .
13
5
Since y lies in second quadrant, hence sin y is positive. Therefore, sin y = . Substituting
13
the values of sin x, sin y, cos x and cos y in (1), we get
3  12   4  5 36 20 56
sin( x + y ) = ×  −  +  − × = − − =− .
5  13   5  13 65 65 65
Example 19 Prove that
x 9x 5x
cos 2 x cos − cos 3 x cos = sin 5 x sin .
2 2 2
Solution We have

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 69

1  x 9x 
L.H.S. =  2cos 2 x cos − 2cos cos 3x 
2  2 2 

1  x  x  9x   9x 
=  cos  2 x +  + cos  2 x −  − cos  + 3x  − cos  − 3x  
2  2  2  2   2 
1 5x 3x 15x 3x  1  5x 15x 
 cos + cos − cos − cos  =  cos − cos
2 
=
2 2 2 2 2  2 2

  5 x 15 x   5 x 15 x 
1  2 + 2   2 − 2 
 −2sin   sin  
= 2  2   2 
    

 5x  5x
= − sin 5x sin  −  = sin 5x sin = R.H.S.
 2 2
π
Example 20 Find the value of tan .
8
π π
Solution Let x = . Then 2 x = .
8 4
2 tan x
Now tan 2 x = 2
1 − tan x
π
2tan
π 8
tan =
or 4 1 − tan 2 π
8

π 2y
Let y = tan . Then 1 =
8 1− y2
or y2 + 2y – 1 = 0

−2 ± 2 2
Therefore y= = − 1± 2
2

2024-25
70 MATHEMATICS

π π
Since lies in the first quadrant, y = tan is positve. Hence
8 8
π
tan = 2 −1 .
8

3 3π x x x
Example 21 If tan x = , π < x < , find the value of sin , cos and tan .
4 2 2 2 2
3π
Solution Since π < x < , cos x is negative.
2
π x 3π
Also < < .
2 2 4
x x
Therefore, sin is positive and cos is negative.
2 2
9 25
Now sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x = 1 + =
16 16
16 4
Therefore cos2 x = or cos x = – (Why?)
25 5
x 4 9
Now 2 sin 2 = 1 – cos x = 1 + = .
2 5 5
x 9
Therefore sin2 =
2 10
x 3
or sin = (Why?)
2 10
x 4 1
Again 2cos2 = 1+ cos x = 1 − =
2 5 5
x 1
Therefore cos2 =
2 10
x 1
or cos =− (Why?)
2 10

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 71
x
sin  − 10 
x 2 3
Hence tan = = ×  = – 3.
2 x 10  1 
cos
2
Example 22
 π  π 3
Prove that cos2 x + cos2  x +  + cos 2  x −  = .
 3  3 2

Solution We have

 2π   2π 
1 + cos  2 x +  1 + cos  2 x − 
L.H.S. = 1 + cos 2 x +  3 
+  3  .
2 2 2

1  2π   2π  
 3 + cos 2 x + cos  2 x +  + cos  2 x − 
3  
=
2  3  

1 2π 
=  3 + cos 2 x + 2cos 2 x cos 
2 3

1  π 
=  3 + cos 2 x + 2cos 2 x cos  π −  
2  3 

1 π
=  3 + cos 2 x − 2cos 2 x cos 
2 3
1 3
= [3 + cos 2x − cos 2 x ] = = R.H.S.
2 2

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 3

Prove that:
π 9π 3π 5π
1. 2 cos cos + cos + cos =0
13 13 13 13
2. (sin 3x + sin x) sin x + (cos 3x – cos x) cos x = 0
x+ y
3. (cos x + cos y)2 + (sin x – sin y)2 = 4 cos2
2

2024-25
72 MATHEMATICS

x −y
4. (cos x – cos y)2 + (sin x – sin y)2 = 4 sin2
2
5. sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + sin 7x = 4 cos x cos 2x sin 4x
(sin 7x + sin 5x ) + (sin 9x + sin 3x )
6. = tan 6x
(cos 7x + cos 5x ) + (cos 9x + cos 3x )
x 3x
7. sin 3x + sin 2x – sin x = 4sin x cos cos
2 2
x x x
Find sin , cos and tan in each of the following :
2 2 2
4 1
8. tan x = − , x in quadrant II 9. cos x = − , x in quadrant III
3 3
1
10. sin x = , x in quadrant II
4

Summary
® If in a circle of radius r, an arc of length l subtends an angle of θ radians, then
l=rθ
π
® Radian measure = × Degree measure
180
180
® Degree measure = π × Radian measure
® cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
® 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x
® 1 + cot2 x = cosec2 x
® cos (2nπ + x) = cos x
® sin (2nπ + x) = sin x
® sin (– x) = – sin x
® cos (– x) = cos x
® cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y
® cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
π
® cos ( 2 − x ) = sin x

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 73

π
® sin ( 2 − x ) = cos x
® sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
® sin (x – y) = sin x cos y – cos x sin y
π  π 
® cos  2 + x  = – sin x sin  + x  = cos x
2 
cos (π – x) = – cos x sin (π – x) = sin x
cos (π + x) = – cos x sin (π + x) = – sin x
cos (2π – x) = cos x sin (2π – x) = – sin x

π
® If none of the angles x, y and (x ± y) is an odd multiple of 2
, then

tan x + tan y
tan (x + y) =
1 − tan x tan y
tan x − tan y
® tan (x – y) = 1 + tan x tan y
® If none of the angles x, y and (x ± y) is a multiple of π, then
cot x cot y − 1
cot (x + y) = cot y + cot x

cot x cot y + 1
® cot (x – y) = cot y − cot x

1 – tan 2 x
® cos 2x = cos2 x – sin2 x = 2cos2 x – 1 = 1 – 2 sin2 x = 1 + tan 2 x

2 tan x
® sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x =
1 + tan 2 x

2tanx
® tan 2x = 1 − tan 2 x
® sin 3x = 3sin x – 4sin3 x
® cos 3x = 4cos3 x – 3cos x

2024-25
74 MATHEMATICS

3tan x − tan 3 x
® tan 3x = 1− 3tan 2 x

x+ y x− y
® (i) cos x + cos y = 2cos cos
2 2
x+ y x− y
(ii) cos x – cos y = – 2sin sin
2 2
x+ y x− y
(iii) sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2
x+ y x− y
(iv) sin x – sin y = 2cos sin
2 2
® (i) 2cos x cos y = cos ( x + y) + cos ( x – y)
(ii) – 2sin x sin y = cos (x + y) – cos (x – y)
(iii) 2sin x cos y = sin (x + y) + sin (x – y)
(iv) 2 cos x sin y = sin (x + y) – sin (x – y).

Historical Note
The study of trigonometry was first started in India. The ancient Indian
Mathematicians, Aryabhatta (476), Brahmagupta (598), Bhaskara I (600) and
Bhaskara II (1114) got important results. All this knowledge first went from
India to middle-east and from there to Europe. The Greeks had also started the
study of trigonometry but their approach was so clumsy that when the Indian
approach became known, it was immediately adopted throughout the world.
In India, the predecessor of the modern trigonometric functions, known as
the sine of an angle, and the introduction of the sine function represents the main
contribution of the siddhantas (Sanskrit astronomical works) to the history of
mathematics.
Bhaskara I (about 600) gave formulae to find the values of sine functions
for angles more than 90°. A sixteenth century Malayalam work Yuktibhasa
(period) contains a proof for the expansion of sin (A + B). Exact expression for
sines or cosines of 18°, 36°, 54°, 72°, etc., are given by
Bhaskara II.

2024-25
 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 75

The symbols sin–1 x, cos–1 x, etc., for arc sin x, arc cos x, etc., were
suggested by the astronomer Sir John F.W. Hersehel (1813) The names of Thales
(about 600 B.C.) is invariably associated with height and distance problems. He
is credited with the determination of the height of a great pyramid in Egypt by
measuring shadows of the pyramid and an auxiliary staff (or gnomon) of known
height, and comparing the ratios:
H h
= = tan (sun’s altitude)
S s
Thales is also said to have calculated the distance of a ship at sea through
the proportionality of sides of similar triangles. Problems on height and distance
using the similarity property are also found in ancient Indian works.

—v —

2024-25
 Chapter 5
LINEAR INEQUALITIES

vMathematics is the art of saying many things in many

different ways. – MAXWELLv

5.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, we have studied equations in one variable and two variables and also
solved some statement problems by translating them in the form of equations. Now a
natural question arises: ‘Is it always possible to translate a statement problem in the
form of an equation? For example, the height of all the students in your class is less
than 160 cm. Your classroom can occupy atmost 60 tables or chairs or both. Here we
get certain statements involving a sign ‘<’ (less than), ‘>’ (greater than), ‘≤’ (less than
or equal) and ≥ (greater than or equal) which are known as inequalities.
In this Chapter, we will study linear inequalities in one and two variables. The
study of inequalities is very useful in solving problems in the field of science, mathematics,
statistics, economics, psychology, etc.

5.2 Inequalities
Let us consider the following situations:
(i) Ravi goes to market with ` 200 to buy rice, which is available in packets of 1kg. The
price of one packet of rice is ` 30. If x denotes the number of packets of rice, which he
buys, then the total amount spent by him is ` 30x. Since, he has to buy rice in packets
only, he may not be able to spend the entire amount of ` 200. (Why?) Hence
30x < 200 ... (1)
Clearly the statement (i) is not an equation as it does not involve the sign of equality.
(ii) Reshma has ` 120 and wants to buy some registers and pens. The cost of one
register is ` 40 and that of a pen is ` 20. In this case, if x denotes the number of
registers and y, the number of pens which Reshma buys, then the total amount spent by
her is ` (40x + 20y) and we have
40x + 20y ≤ 120 ... (2)

2024-25
90 MATHEMATICS

Since in this case the total amount spent may be upto ` 120. Note that the statement (2)
consists of two statements
40x + 20y < 120 ... (3)
and 40x + 20y = 120 ... (4)
Statement (3) is not an equation, i.e., it is an inequality while statement (4) is an equation.

Definition 1 Two real numbers or two algebraic expressions related by the symbol
‘<’, ‘>’, ‘≤’ or ‘≥’ form an inequality.
Statements such as (1), (2) and (3) above are inequalities.
3 < 5; 7 > 5 are the examples of numerical inequalities while
x < 5; y > 2; x ≥ 3, y ≤ 4 are some examples of literal inequalities.
3 < 5 < 7 (read as 5 is greater than 3 and less than 7), 3 < x < 5 (read as x is greater
than or equal to 3 and less than 5) and 2 < y < 4 are the examples of double inequalities.
Some more examples of inequalities are:
ax + b < 0 ... (5)
ax + b > 0 ... (6)
ax + b ≤ 0 ... (7)
ax + b ≥ 0 ... (8)
ax + by < c ... (9)
ax + by > c ... (10)
ax + by ≤ c ... (11)
ax + by ≥ c ... (12)
ax + bx + c ≤ 0
2
... (13)
ax2 + bx + c > 0 ... (14)
Inequalities (5), (6), (9), (10) and (14) are strict inequalities while inequalities (7), (8),
(11), (12), and (13) are slack inequalities. Inequalities from (5) to (8) are linear
inequalities in one variable x when a ≠ 0, while inequalities from (9) to (12) are linear
inequalities in two variables x and y when a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0.
Inequalities (13) and (14) are not linear (in fact, these are quadratic inequalities
in one variable x when a ≠ 0).
In this Chapter, we shall confine ourselves to the study of linear inequalities in one
and two variables only.

2024-25
 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 91

5.3 Algebraic Solutions of Linear Inequalities in One Variable and their

Graphical Representation
Let us consider the inequality (1) of Section 6.2, viz, 30x < 200
Note that here x denotes the number of packets of rice.
Obviously, x cannot be a negative integer or a fraction. Left hand side (L.H.S.) of this
inequality is 30x and right hand side (RHS) is 200. Therefore, we have
For x = 0, L.H.S. = 30 (0) = 0 < 200 (R.H.S.), which is true.
For x = 1, L.H.S. = 30 (1) = 30 < 200 (R.H.S.), which is true.
For x = 2, L.H.S. = 30 (2) = 60 < 200, which is true.
For x = 3, L.H.S. = 30 (3) = 90 < 200, which is true.
For x = 4, L.H.S. = 30 (4) = 120 < 200, which is true.
For x = 5, L.H.S. = 30 (5) = 150 < 200, which is true.
For x = 6, L.H.S. = 30 (6) = 180 < 200, which is true.
For x = 7, L.H.S. = 30 (7) = 210 < 200, which is false.
In the above situation, we find that the values of x, which makes the above
inequality a true statement, are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6. These values of x, which make above
inequality a true statement, are called solutions of inequality and the set {0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
is called its solution set.
Thus, any solution of an inequality in one variable is a value of the variable
which makes it a true statement.
We have found the solutions of the above inequality by trial and error method
which is not very efficient. Obviously, this method is time consuming and sometimes
not feasible. We must have some better or systematic techniques for solving inequalities.
Before that we should go through some more properties of numerical inequalities and
follow them as rules while solving the inequalities.
You will recall that while solving linear equations, we followed the following rules:
Rule 1 Equal numbers may be added to (or subtracted from) both sides of an equation.
Rule 2 Both sides of an equation may be multiplied (or divided) by the same non-zero
number.
In the case of solving inequalities, we again follow the same rules except with a
difference that in Rule 2, the sign of inequality is reversed (i.e., ‘<‘ becomes ‘>’, ≤’
becomes ‘≥’ and so on) whenever we multiply (or divide) both sides of an inequality by
a negative number. It is evident from the facts that
3 > 2 while – 3 < – 2,
– 8 < – 7 while (– 8) (– 2) > (– 7) (– 2) , i.e., 16 > 14.

2024-25
92 MATHEMATICS

Thus, we state the following rules for solving an inequality:

Rule 1 Equal numbers may be added to (or subtracted from) both sides of an inequality
without affecting the sign of inequality.
Rule 2 Both sides of an inequality can be multiplied (or divided) by the same positive
number. But when both sides are multiplied or divided by a negative number, then the
sign of inequality is reversed.
Now, let us consider some examples.
Example 1 Solve 30 x < 200 when
(i) x is a natural number, (ii) x is an integer.
Solution We are given 30 x < 200
30 x 200
or < (Rule 2), i.e., x < 20 / 3.
30 30
(i) When x is a natural number, in this case the following values of x make the
statement true.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
The solution set of the inequality is {1,2,3,4,5,6}.
(ii) When x is an integer, the solutions of the given inequality are
..., – 3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
The solution set of the inequality is {...,–3, –2,–1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Example 2 Solve 5x – 3 < 3x +1 when
(i) x is an integer, (ii) x is a real number.
Solution We have, 5x –3 < 3x + 1
or 5x –3 + 3 < 3x +1 +3 (Rule 1)
or 5x < 3x +4
or 5x – 3x < 3x + 4 – 3x (Rule 1)
or 2x < 4
or x < 2 (Rule 2)
(i) When x is an integer, the solutions of the given inequality are
..., – 4, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1
(ii) When x is a real number, the solutions of the inequality are given by x < 2,
i.e., all real numbers x which are less than 2. Therefore, the solution set of
the inequality is x ∈ (– ∞, 2).
We have considered solutions of inequalities in the set of natural numbers, set of
integers and in the set of real numbers. Henceforth, unless stated otherwise, we shall
solve the inequalities in this Chapter in the set of real numbers.

2024-25
 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 93

Example 3 Solve 4x + 3 < 6x +7.

Solution We have, 4x + 3 < 6x + 7
or 4x – 6x < 6x + 4 – 6x
or – 2x < 4 or x > – 2
i.e., all the real numbers which are greater than –2, are the solutions of the given
inequality. Hence, the solution set is (–2, ∞).

5 – 2x x
Example 4 Solve ≤ –5.
3 6
Solution We have
5 – 2x x
≤ –5
3 6
or 2 (5 – 2x) ≤ x – 30.
or 10 – 4x ≤ x – 30
or – 5x ≤ – 40, i.e., x ≥ 8
Thus, all real numbers x which are greater than or equal to 8 are the solutions of the
given inequality, i.e., x ∈ [8, ∞).
Example 5 Solve 7x + 3 < 5x + 9. Show the graph of the solutions on number line.
Solution We have 7x + 3 < 5x + 9 or
2x < 6 or x < 3
The graphical representation of the solutions are given in Fig 5.1.

Fig 5.1

3x − 4 x + 1
Example 6 Solve ≥ −1 . Show the graph of the solutions on number line.
2 4
Solution We have
3x − 4 x + 1
≥ −1
2 4
3x − 4 x − 3
or ≥
2 4
or 2 (3x – 4) ≥ (x – 3)

2024-25
94 MATHEMATICS

or 6x – 8 ≥ x – 3
or 5x ≥ 5 or x ≥ 1
The graphical representation of solutions is given in Fig 5.2.

Fig 5.2

Example 7 The marks obtained by a student of Class XI in first and second terminal
examination are 62 and 48, respectively. Find the minimum marks he should get in the
annual examination to have an average of at least 60 marks.
Solution Let x be the marks obtained by student in the annual examination. Then
62 + 48 + x
≥ 60
3
or 110 + x ≥ 180
or x ≥ 70
Thus, the student must obtain a minimum of 70 marks to get an average of at least
60 marks.
Example 8 Find all pairs of consecutive odd natural numbers, both of which are larger
than 10, such that their sum is less than 40.
Solution Let x be the smaller of the two consecutive odd natural number, so that the
other one is x +2. Then, we should have
x > 10 ... (1)
and x + ( x + 2) < 40 ... (2)
Solving (2), we get
2x + 2 < 40
i.e., x < 19 ... (3)
From (1) and (3), we get
10 < x < 19
Since x is an odd number, x can take the values 11, 13, 15, and 17. So, the required
possible pairs will be
(11, 13), (13, 15), (15, 17), (17, 19)

2024-25
 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 95

EXERCISE 5.1
1. Solve 24x < 100, when
(i) x is a natural number. (ii) x is an integer.
2. Solve – 12x > 30, when
(i) x is a natural number. (ii) x is an integer.
3. Solve 5x – 3 < 7, when
(i) x is an integer. (ii) x is a real number.
4. Solve 3x + 8 >2, when
(i) x is an integer. (ii) x is a real number.
Solve the inequalities in Exercises 5 to 16 for real x.
5. 4x + 3 < 5x + 7 6. 3x – 7 > 5x – 1
7. 3(x – 1) ≤ 2 (x – 3) 8. 3 (2 – x) ≥ 2 (1 – x)
x x x x
9. x + + < 11 10. > +1
2 3 3 2
3( x − 2) 5(2 − x) 1  3x  1
11. ≤ 12.  + 4  ≥ ( x − 6)
5 3 2 5  3
13. 2 (2x + 3) – 10 < 6 (x – 2) 14. 37 – (3x + 5) > 9x – 8 (x – 3)
x (5 x − 2) (7 x − 3) (2 x −1) (3 x − 2) (2 − x )
15. < − 16. ≥ −
4 3 5 3 4 5
Solve the inequalities in Exercises 17 to 20 and show the graph of the solution in each
case on number line
17. 3x – 2 < 2x + 1 18. 5x – 3 > 3x – 5
x (5 x – 2) (7 x – 3)
19. 3 (1 – x) < 2 (x + 4) 20. ≥ –
2 3 5
21. Ravi obtained 70 and 75 marks in first two unit test. Find the minimum marks he
should get in the third test to have an average of at least 60 marks.
22. To receive Grade ‘A’ in a course, one must obtain an average of 90 marks or
more in five examinations (each of 100 marks). If Sunita’s marks in first four
examinations are 87, 92, 94 and 95, find minimum marks that Sunita must obtain
in fifth examination to get grade ‘A’ in the course.
23. Find all pairs of consecutive odd positive integers both of which are smaller than
10 such that their sum is more than 11.
24. Find all pairs of consecutive even positive integers, both of which are larger than
5 such that their sum is less than 23.

2024-25
96 MATHEMATICS

25. The longest side of a triangle is 3 times the shortest side and the third side is 2 cm
shorter than the longest side. If the perimeter of the triangle is at least 61 cm, find
the minimum length of the shortest side.
26. A man wants to cut three lengths from a single piece of board of length 91cm.
The second length is to be 3cm longer than the shortest and the third length is to
be twice as long as the shortest. What are the possible lengths of the shortest
board if the third piece is to be at least 5cm longer than the second?
[Hint: If x is the length of the shortest board, then x , (x + 3) and 2x are the
lengths of the second and third piece, respectively. Thus, x + (x + 3) + 2x ≤ 91 and
2x ≥ (x + 3) + 5].
Miscellaneous Examples
Example 9 Solve – 8 ≤ 5x – 3 < 7.
Solution In this case, we have two inequalities, – 8 ≤ 5x – 3 and 5x – 3 < 7, which we
will solve simultaneously. We have – 8 ≤ 5x –3 < 7
or –5 ≤ 5x < 10 or –1 ≤ x < 2
5 – 3x
Example 10 Solve – 5 ≤ ≤ 8.
2
5 – 3x
Solution We have –5 ≤ ≤8
2
or –10 ≤ 5 – 3x ≤ 16 or – 15 ≤ – 3x ≤ 11
11
or 5≥x≥–
3
–11
which can be written as ≤ x ≤5
3
Example 11 Solve the system of inequalities:
3x – 7 < 5 + x ... (1)
11 – 5 x ≤ 1 ... (2)
and represent the solutions on the number line.
Solution From inequality (1), we have
3x – 7 < 5 + x
or x<6 ... (3)
Also, from inequality (2), we have
11 – 5 x ≤ 1
or – 5 x ≤ – 10 i.e., x ≥ 2 ... (4)

2024-25
 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 97

If we draw the graph of inequalities (3) and (4) on the number line, we see that the
values of x, which are common to both, are shown by bold line in Fig 5.3.

Fig 5.3
Thus, solution of the system are real numbers x lying between 2 and 6 including 2, i.e.,
2≤x<6
Example 12 In an experiment, a solution of hydrochloric acid is to be kept between
30° and 35° Celsius. What is the range of temperature in degree Fahrenheit if conversion
5
formula is given by C = (F – 32), where C and F represent temperature in degree
9
Celsius and degree Fahrenheit, respectively.
Solution It is given that 30 < C < 35.
5
Putting C= (F – 32), we get
9
5
30 < (F – 32) < 35,
9
9 9
or × (30) < (F – 32) < × (35)
5 5
or 54 < (F – 32) < 63
or 86 < F < 95.
Thus, the required range of temperature is between 86° F and 95° F.
Example 13 A manufacturer has 600 litres of a 12% solution of acid. How many litres
of a 30% acid solution must be added to it so that acid content in the resulting mixture
will be more than 15% but less than 18%?
Solution Let x litres of 30% acid solution is required to be added. Then
Total mixture = (x + 600) litres
Therefore 30% x + 12% of 600 > 15% of (x + 600)
and 30% x + 12% of 600 < 18% of (x + 600)
30 x 12 15
or + (600) > (x + 600)
100 100 100

2024-25
98 MATHEMATICS

30 x 12 18
and + (600) < (x + 600)
100 100 100
or 30x + 7200 > 15x + 9000
and 30x + 7200 < 18x + 10800
or 15x > 1800 and 12x < 3600
or x > 120 and x < 300,
i.e. 120 < x < 300
Thus, the number of litres of the 30% solution of acid will have to be more than
120 litres but less than 300 litres.

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 5

Solve the inequalities in Exercises 1 to 6.
1. 2 ≤ 3x – 4 ≤ 5 2. 6 ≤ – 3 (2x – 4) < 12
7x 3( x − 2 )
3. –3≤4− ≤ 18 4. −15 < ≤0
2 5
3x ( 3x +11 )
5. −12 < 4 − ≤2 6. 7 ≤ ≤ 11 .
−5 2
Solve the inequalities in Exercises 7 to 10 and represent the solution graphically on
number line.
7. 5x + 1 > – 24, 5x – 1 < 24
8. 2 (x – 1) < x + 5, 3 (x + 2) > 2 – x
9. 3x – 7 > 2 (x – 6) , 6 – x > 11 – 2x
10. 5 (2x – 7) – 3 (2x + 3) ≤ 0 , 2x + 19 ≤ 6x + 47 .
11. A solution is to be kept between 68° F and 77° F. What is the range in temperature
in degree Celsius (C) if the Celsius / Fahrenheit (F) conversion formula is given by
9
F= C + 32 ?
5
12. A solution of 8% boric acid is to be diluted by adding a 2% boric acid solution to
it. The resulting mixture is to be more than 4% but less than 6% boric acid. If we
have 640 litres of the 8% solution, how many litres of the 2% solution will have to
be added?

2024-25
 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 99

13. How many litres of water will have to be added to 1125 litres of the 45% solution
of acid so that the resulting mixture will contain more than 25% but less than 30%
acid content?
14. IQ of a person is given by the formula
MA
IQ = × 100,
CA
where MA is mental age and CA is chronological age. If 80 ≤ IQ ≤ 140 for a group of
12 years old children, find the range of their mental age.

Summary
® Two real numbers or two algebraic expressions related by the symbols <, >, ≤
or ≥ form an inequality.
® Equal numbers may be added to (or subtracted from ) both sides of an inequality.
® Both sides of an inequality can be multiplied (or divided ) by the same positive
number. But when both sides are multiplied (or divided) by a negative number,
then the inequality is reversed.
® The values of x, which make an inequality a true statement, are called solutions
of the inequality.
® represent x < a (or x > a) on a number line, put a circle on the number a and
To
dark line to the left (or right) of the number a.
® To represent x ≤ a (or x ≥ a) on a number line, put a dark circle on the number
a and dark the line to the left (or right) of the number x.

—v —

2024-25