HYDRODYNAMICS

Hydrodynamics is the study of fluids in motion.

Fluid Flow
The treatment of fluid in motion is greatly simplified under the following assumptions:
(i) The fluid is non-viscous i.e. internal friction between adjacent layers of fluid is negligible.
(ii) The fluid is incompressible i.e. the density remains constant
(iii) The fluid motion is steady i.e. the velocity, density, and pressure at each point remain constant.
(iv) The fluid flow is irrotational i.e. the fluid has no angular momentum about any point, implying
that there is no turbulence

A fluid that conforms to the conditions listed above is said to be an ideal fluid.
Laminar and Turbulent Flows
A fluid in motion can manifest either laminar (steady or regular) or turbulent flow. In laminar or
streamline flow, every particle of fluid passing a particular point follows the same path (called a
streamline) as the particles that passed that point earlier. Also, the direction in which the individual
fluid particles move is always the same as the direction in which the fluid as a whole move. On
the other hand, turbulent (or irregular) flow is characterized by the presence of whirls and eddies,
such as those in a cloud of cigarette smoke or at the foot of a waterfall. Turbulence usually occurs
at high speeds and when there are obstructions or sharp bends in the path of a fluid. The flow
around the wing of an aitplane is streamline below the wing, but turbulent above and behind it.

Equation of Continuity and Flow Rate

The figure above represents a fluid flowing through a pipe of non-uniform size. The particles in
the fluid moves along the streamlines in steady-state flow. At all points the velocity of the particle
is tangent to the streamline along which it moves.

1
In a small time interval t , the fluid at the bottom end of the pipe moves a distance x1  v1 t .
If A1 is the cross-sectional area in this region, then the mass contained in this shaded region is
m1  1 A1x1  1 A1v1 t . Similarly, the fluid that moves through the upper end of the pipe in
the time t has a mass m2   2 A2 x2   2 A2 v2 t . Since mass is conserved and because the
flow is steady, the mass that crosses A1 in a time t must equal the mass that crosses A2 in a time
t .

 m1  m2

1 A1v1t   2 A2 v2 t

1 A1v1   2 A2 v1 1

The expression above is called the equation of continuity. The equation proves the law of
conservation of mass in fluid dynamics. Since  is constant for the steady flow of an
incompressible fluid, the equation reduces to

A1v1  A2 v2 2

The product of the area and the fluid speed at all points along the pipe is constant.

1
Av  constant  A 
v
The speed is high where the tube is constricted or narrow and low where the tube is wide.

The product Q  Av , which has the dimensions of volume/time , is called the volume flux or flow
rate with S.I. unit m3/s.

The conditions Av  constant is equivalent to the fact that the amount of fluid which enters one
end of the tube in a given time interval equals the amount of fluid leaving the tube in the same
time interval.

Bernoulli’s Equation
As a fluid moves through a pipe of varying cross-section and elevation, the pressure will change
along the pipe. In 1738, the swiss physiscist Daniel Bernoulli (1700 – 1782) first derived a most
fundamental expression that relates the pressure to fluid speed and elevation. The result is a
consequence of energy conservation applied to ideal fluid.

Consider the flow through a non-uniform pipe in a time t , as shown below. The force on the
lower end of the fluid is p1 A1 , where p1 is the pressure a this point. The work done by this force
is W1  F1 x1  p1 A1x1  p1V . V is the volume of the lower shaded region. Similarly, the
work done on the fluid on the upper portion in the time t is given by W2   p 2 A2 x2   p2 V
. The same volume must flow through the two regions at the same t . W 2 is negative because the
fluid force opposes the displacement.

2
Therefore, the net work done on the fluid is

W  ( p1  p2 )V

Part of this work goes into changing the kinetic energy of the fluid and part goes into changing
the gravitational potential energy.

The change in kinetic energy of the fluid is given as:

1 1 1
K  mv22  mv12  m(v22  v12 )
2 2 2
1
K  V (v22  v12 )
2
The change in potential energy is given as:

U  mgy2  mgy1  mg ( y 2  y1 )

U  Vg ( y 2  y1 )
Applying the work-energy theorem, W  K  U

1
( p1  p 2 )V   (v22  v12 )V  g ( y 2  y1 )V
2
1
 (v22  v12 )  g ( y 2  y1 )
( p1  p 2 ) 
2
Rearranging terms, we have

1 2 1
p1  v1  gy1  p2  v22  gy 2 3a
2 2
The above is Bernoulli’s equation and is generally written as

1 2
p v  gy  constant 3b
2

3
Bernoulli’s equation says that the sum of the pressure (p), the kinetic energy per unit volume
1 2
 v  , and potential energy per unit volume ( gy ) has the same value at all points along a
2 
streamline.

(i) When the flow is at a constant height y = constant i.e. y1  y 2 , then

1 2
p v  constant 4a
2
1 2 1
p1  v1  p 2  v22 4b
2 2
It means that the higher the speed, the lower the pressure, or vice versa. Since speed is related to
kinetic energy and pressure is associated with fluid height and therfore potential energy.

(ii) When the fluid is at rest, v1  v2  0 , the equation becomes

p  gy  constant 5a

p1  p 2  g ( y 2  y1 )  gh 5b

Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation

(i) The Venturi tube
The horizontal constricted pipe, known as a Venturi pipe, can be used to measure flow velocities
in an incompressible fluid. The flow velocity at point 2 can be determined if the pressure difference
p1  p 2 is known.

The pressure p1 is greater than the pressure p 2 , since v1  v 2 . The pipe is horizontal, therefore,
y1  y 2 .

1 2 1
p1  v1  p 2  v22 (i)
2 2

4
From the equation of continuity, A1v1  A2 v2
A
v1  2 v 2 (ii)
A1
Substituting (ii) into (i) gives
2
1 A  2 1
p1    2  v 2  p 2  v 22
2  A1  2
2
1 1 A 
p1  p 2  v 22    2  v 22
2 2  A1 
 1  A2  
2
2 1
p1  p 2  v 2       
 2 2  A1  

2( p1  p 2 ) 2p
v  A1  A1 6
 ( A1  A2 )
2 2
 ( A12  A22 )

(ii) Torricelli’s law (speed of efflux)

A tank containing a liquid of density  has a small hole in its side at a distance y1 from the
bottom. The air above the liquid is maintained at a pressure p. We can determine the speed at
which the fluid leaves the hole when the liquid level is a distance h above the tank.

It is assumed that the tank is large in cross-section compared to the hole. Therefore A2  A1 . This
means that the fluid will be approximately at rest at the top, point 2.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 and 2. p1  patm

1
p atm  v12  gy1  p  gy 2
2
1 2
v1  p  p atm  g ( y 2  y1 )
2
y 2  y1  h
1 2
v1  p  p atm  gh
2

5
 p  p atm gh 2( p  p atm )
v12     2 gh
1

1
 
2 2
2( p  p atm )
v1   2 gh 7


If A1 is the cross-sectional area of the hole, then the flow rate from the hole is given by A1v1 .

(i) When p is large compared with atmospheric pressure (and therefore the term 2 gh can be
neglected), the speed of efflux is mainly a function of p.

(ii) If the tank is open to the atmosphere, then p  patm and v1  2 gh . Therefore, the speed of
efflux for an open tank is equal to the speed acquired by a free falling body through a vertical
height h. This is known as Torricelli’s law.

Viscosity - Molecular properties of fluids

Viscosity is a term that describes internal friction in fluids. Viscous forces oppose the motion of
one portion or layer of a fluid relative to another. The more viscous a fluid the greater the force
required to cause one layer of fluid to slide past another. Viscous effects are important in the flow
of fluids in pipes, the flow of blood, the lubrication of engine parts e.t.c. Different fluids offer
different degrees of resistance to their motion.
Consider a plate of area A that is being pulled across layers of fluid L thick. The lower plate is
fixed.

For most fluids the force F needed to pull the plate at constant speed v is proportional to A and v
and inversely proportional to L. Thus

Av
F
L

Av
F 8
L
where  , the constant of proportionality, is called the viscosity of the fluid. The SI unit of viscosity
is Ns/m2, which is known as the poiseuille (PI).
Fluids that flow have lower viscosities than “thick’ liquids such as honey or motor oil. The
viscosity of gases is less than that of liquids, and the viscosity of water and light oils is less than
that of heavy oils and molasses.
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Viscosities of all fluids are strongly temperature dependent, increasing for gases and decreasing
for liquids as the temperature increases. The viscosity of a liquid decreases with temperature as its
molecules become less tightly bound together. One of the reasons a drop in body temperature is
so dangerous is that the viscosity of the blood is thereby increased, impeding its flow. The viscosity
of a gas, in contrast to that of a liquid, increases with temperature because the random of its
molecules increases with temperature thereby their collisions with one another.

Poiseuille’s law
Consider a fluid of viscosity  , moving through a cylindrical pipe of length l and internal radius
r, under the influence of a pressure difference p  p1  p 2 .

The average flow rate Q  Av in m3/s, depends on the characteristics of the fluid and the pipe as
well as on the pressure difference between the ends of the pipe. Poiseuille’s law gives a relationship
for the flow rate as
 r 4 p
Q 9
8l

The variation of Q with r4 is remarkable: halving the radius of a pipe reduces Q by a factor of 16
if p is constant, Hence, the radius of the pipe plays a far more important role than its length does
with respect to fluid resistance.

Reynolds Number
Whether a fluid’s flow is laminar or turbulent depends on the velocity of the fluid. The onset of
turbulence can be determined by a dimensionless factor called the Reynolds number.

vD
Re  10

Where  is the density of the fluid and v is the velocity of the fluid flowing through a pipe of
diameter D.

(i) Re  2000 : Flow is laminar

(ii) 2000  Re  3000 : Flow is stable. Flow is laminar, but any small disturbance in the flow will
cause turbulence to immediately set in.
(iii) Re  3000 : Flow is turbulent

Terminal Velocity and Stokes’ Law

Experiments have shown that when a small object, such as a steel ball-bearing, is dropped into a
viscous liquid like glycerine it accelerates at first, but its velocity soon reaches a steady value
known as the terminal velocity. At this point, the viscous force (drag) and buoyant force (upthrust)

7
of the liquid on the object acting upwards are together equal to the object’s weight acting
downwards. Hence the resultant force on the object is zero.

For a sphere of radius r dropped into a viscous liquid of coefficient of viscosity  having a velocity
v at an instant, the frictional force F is proportional to the product of r,  and v.

F  krv

In 1850 George Gabriel Stokes showed mathematically that the constant k was 6 and obtained
the formula

F  6rv 11

Consider a sphere of radius r (m) moving through a liquid at terminal velocity v t (ms-1).

Given the following:

Density of sphere material  
Density of liquid   l
4
Volume of sphere  r 3
3
The forces acting on the sphere are as follows:
4
W  weight of the sphere  mass of sphere  g  r 3 g
3
4 3 4
U  upthrust  weight of fluid displaced  weight of a volume r of the liquid  r 3  l g
3 3
(since a body displaces its own volume of liquid)

F  viscous (frictional) force  6rv

W  U  F  ma
When terminal velocity is attained, a  0 v  vt .
W  U  F  0

F  W U

8
 4 4
6rvt  r 3 g  r 3  l g
3 3
4 3
6rvt  r g (    l )
3
2 g (    l )r 2
vt  12
9

Surface Tension
The surface of a liquid behaves like a membrane under tension. Thus a steel sewing needle placed
horizontally on the surface of some water in a container does not sink even though its density is
nearly eight times that of water. The needle rests in a depression in the water surface just as if that
surface were a sheet of rubber stretched across the container. Since the surface of a liquid acts like
an elastic skin, the surface is in a state of tension. The force S in the liquid supports the weight W
of the needle. Another common observation of surface tension is the tendency of a liquid drop to
assume a spherical shape, just as an inflated balloon does. The surface tension,  , of a liquid is
defined as the force per unit length acting in the surface at right angles to one side of a line drawn
in the surface.

The surface tension of a liquid is caused by the fact that molecules on the surface of a liquid are
acted on by a net inward force whereas those inside the liquid are acted on forces in all directions.
Since the surface molecules are all being pulled in all directions, the surface tends to contract to
the minimum possible area.

A liquid surface has a certain potential energy due to surface tension, just as any object under
tension does. This energy is proportional to the surface area A.

PE =  A
The constant of proportionality  is the surface tension of the liquid.

In order to expand a liquid surface by an area A , a force F parallel to the surface is applied along
a line of length L perpendicular to F. When the line is moved a distance s , A  Ls and the
work done will increase the potential energy of the surface by  PE.

9
  PE  Fs  Ls
F
  13
L
Hence, surface tension,  , of a liquid is defined as the force per unit length acting in the surface
at right angles to one side of a line drawn in the surface.  can be expressed in N/m or J/m2.

Surface tension generally decreases with temperature. The high surface tension is useful for many
small creatures, such as the insects that walk on the surface of a pond and the larvae that are
suspended from the surface while they develop. A surfactant is a substance whose addition to a
liquid reduces its surface tension. An example of a surfactant is detergent. Surfactants are also
called “wetting agents’ because they allow water solution to spread uniformly over a surface
instead of forming into separate droplets.

Capillarity
Water rises in a capillary tube when it is immersed in a container of water. The narrower the tube,
the greater the height to which the water rises. On the hand, when a capillary tube is placed inside
mercury, the liquid is depressed below the outside level. The depression increases as the diameter
of the capillary tube decreases. This phenomenon is called capillarity. Capillarity is responsible
for the ability of blotting paper and cloth fibers to absorb water. Two forces account for capillarity:
Cohesion, which is the attractive force between molecules of a liquid, and adhesion, which is the
attractive force a solid exert on liquid molecules.

If the adhesive forces exceed the cohesive forces (e.g. between water and glass), then the liquid
tends to stick to the solid and will rise in a capillary tube of that material. As a result, the liquid
surface is concave, with an angle of contact  that is characteristic of the liquid-solid contact. For
water and clean glass,   0 , which is true for any liquid that “wets” a solid surface (i.e. adhesion
is greater than cohesion). For kerosene and glass,   26o , which shows that the adhesion is just a
little above cohesion for this liquid-solid contact. If cohesion is greater than adhesion, for example,
between mercury and glass, the liquid level in a capillary tube is lower than the level of the
surrounding liquid. The liquid surface in the tube is convex, with a contact angle greater than 90 o
(   140o for mercury and glass).

In (a) above, the upward force on the liquid column is exerted by the vertical component F cos
of the surface tension of the ring of liquid that sticks to the tube at the top of the column. If the
inner radius of the tube is r, the ring is 2r in length, and the surface tension force is

F  L  2r

10
The downward force is the weight of the elevated liquid, which is w  gV  g (r 2 ) , where 
is the density of the liquid and r 2 h its volume.

 F cos  w

2r cos  gr 2 h

2 cos
h 14
gr

Equation (14) shows that the greater the surface tension  of the liquid, the greater its adhesion to
the tube (i.e.  is small and cos  is large), the narrower the tube, and the smaller the liquid density,
the higher the liquid column. The same formula applies when cohesion is greater than adhesion.
For this   90 o , hence cos  is negative, and also h is negative.

Examples:
1. A man observes that 0.24 m3 of water flows out of a horizontal pipe in 1 min. If the inner
diameter of the pipe is 0.05 m, calculate the speed of water in pipe.
Solution:
Flow rate is R  Av
R  0.24 m3/min  4  10 3 m3/s
A  r 2   (0.05m 2) 2  2 10 3 m 2
R 4  10 3 m 3 /s
v    2 m/s
A 2  10 3 m 2
2. An ideal fluid flows at 4.0m/s in a horizontal circular pipe. If the pipe narrows to half of its
original radius. (a) what is the flow speed in narrow section? (b) If the fluid is water and the
pressure at the narrow section is 1.8  105 Pa. What is the pressure at the wide section?
Solution:
r
(a) v1  12m / s , r2  1 , v2  ?
2
A1v1 r12 v1 r12 v1
v2    2
A2 r22 r2
r12 v1 v1
v2  2
  4v1 = 4  4 m/s = 16m/s
 r1  14
 
2
The pipe narrows to half of its original radius and the speed increases by a factor of 4.

(b)   1.0  103 kg/m3, p2  1.8 10 Pa, v1  40 m/s

5

v 2  16 m/s p1  ?
since the fluid is flowing horizontally, y is constant, therefore

p1  12 v12  p2  12 v22

11
 
p1  p2  12  v2  v1
2 2

  
p1  1.8 105 Pa  12 1.0 103 kg/m 3 16m/s  4m/s  3.0 105 Pa
2 2

The speed is lower but the pressure is higher in the wide section.

3. A pipe of internal diameter 0.04 m is joined to another pipe of internal diameter 0.05 m. If the
resultant pipe is horizontal and the rate of flow of water in the pipe is 4  10-3 m3/s, find the pressure
drop between the two pipes.
Solution:
Let subscripts 1 and 2 indicate quantities belonging to points in the smaller and bigger pipe
respectively. From Bernoulli’s equation
p1  12 v12  p2  12 v22
 v12  v22 
1
p 2  p1 
2
Also, from the equation of continuity, the rate of flow is
A1v1  A2 v2  4 10 3 m3s 1
4  10 3 m 3 s 1 4  10 3 m 3 s 1
v1    3.18ms 1
A1  (0.04 2) m
2 2

4  10 3 m 3 s 1 4  10 3 m 3s 1
v2    2.04ms 1
A2  (0.05 2) m
2 2

p  p 2  p1   1000kg/m 3 (3.18m/s) 2  (2.04m/s) 2   2975.4Pa

1
2

4. The horizontal pipe shown below has a cross-sectional area of 40 cm2 at the wider portions and
10 cm2 at the constriction. Water is flowing in the pipe, and the discharge from the pipe is 6  10-3
m3/s. Find (a) the flow speeds at the wide and narrow portions; (b) the pressure difference between
these portions; (c) the difference in height between the mercury columns in the U-shaped tube.
Solution:

6  10 3 m 3 s 1 6  10 3 m 3 s 1
(a) v1   4
 1.5ms 1
A1 40  10 m 2

6  10 3 m 3s 1 6  10 3 m 3 s 1
v2    6.0ms 1
A2 
10  10 m 4 2

(b) Since the pipe is horizontal, y1  y 2

p1  12 v12  p2  12 v22

12
  v22  v12    1000kg/m 3 (6.0m/s 2 ) 2  (1.5m/s 2 ) 2   16875Pa
1 1
p1  p 2 
2 2

Δp
(c) Δp  hg  h 
ρg
Δp 16875Pa
h   0.124m
ρg 13600kg/m 3  10m/s 2

5. Find the pressure gradient needed to pump 16,000 cm3 of water at 20 oC per minute through a
pipe 6 mm in radius. Take the viscosity of the water at 20 oC to be 1.0  10 3 .Ns/m2.
Solution:
Flow rate R  16,000 cm3/min  2.67 104 m3/s

P 8R 8(1.0  10 3 )(2.67  10 4 m 2 s 1 )

 4   525 Pa/m
L r  (6  10 3 m) 4

6. Ethyl alcohol rises 14.2 mm in a capillary of radius 0.4 mm. The contact angle is 0 o. Find the
surface tension of ethyl alcohol. Density of ethyl alcohol is 7.9  102 kg/m3.
Solution:
h  14.2 mm  1.42  10-2 m; r  4  10-4 m;   0 o ;   7.9  10 2 kg/m3

2 cos
h
gr
hgr (1.42  10 2 m)(7.9  10 2 kgm 3 )(9.8ms 2 )(4  10 4 m)
    2.20  10 4 N/m
2 cos 2 cos 0

7. Find the radius of a capillary in which water at 20 oC rises 20 mm. (Density of water is 1000
kg/m3 and surface tension of water at 20 oC is 0.073 N/m).
Solution:
h  20 mm  2.0  10-2 m;   0 o ;   1000 kg/m3

2 cos
h
gr
2 cos (2)(0.073Nm 1 )(1)
r   7.45  10  4 m  0.745mm
gh 3 2 2
(1000kgm )(9.8ms )(2.0  10 m)

Exercises
1. At one point in a pipeline, the speed of water is 3 m/s and the gauge pressure is 5  104 Pa.
Calculate the gauge pressure at a second point in the pipeline, 11 m lower than the first, if the pipe
diameter at the second point is twice that at the first. (Density of water is 1000 kg/m3).
2. A horizontal pipe 10.0 cm in diameter has a smooth reduction to a pipe 5.00 cm in diameter. If
the pressure of the water in the larger pipe is 8.00  104 Pa and the pressure in the smaller pipe is
6.00  104 Pa, at what rate does water flow through the pipe?

13
3. A large water tank is completely filled with water. The tank is 3.0 m high and its surface is open.
If a small hole is made on one side of the tank at a height of 0.8 m, calculate the speed with which
the water comes out of the pipe.
4. A typical capillary is 1 mm long and has radius of 2  m. (a) If the pressure difference between
its end is 2.66  103 N/m2, find the average speed of the blood that flows through such a caplliary.
(b) If it pumps 80 cm3 of blood through a person’s body per second, how many capillaries does
the body have? (Viscosity of blood  1.2  10-3 PI).
5. The capillaries in a tree are typically 0.02 mm in radius. If the contact angle is 0 o, find the
maximum height to which water can rise in a tree under the influence of surface tension alone.
(Density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and surface tension of water at 20 oC is 0.073 N/m).
6. A glass capillary whose radius is 0.5 mm is dipped in a dish of mercury, whose surface tension
is 0.44 N/m. The contact angle is 140 oC. Find the height of the mercury in the capillary relative
to the mercury surface in the dish. (Density of mercury is 13.6  103 kg/m3).
7. A large artery in a dog has an inner radius of 4.00 × 10-3 m. Blood flows through the artery at
the rate of 1.00 × 10-6 m3.s-1. The blood has a viscosity of 2.084 × 10-3 Pa.s and a density of
1.06 × 103 kg.m-3. Calculate:
(i) The average blood velocity in the artery.
(ii) The pressure drop in a 0.100 m segment of the artery.
(iii) The Reynolds number for the blood flow.

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