Unit 4- NEUROBIOLOGY

▪ Basic of Neurons
▪ glial cells
▪ Brain and its parts
▪ Artificial neural networks,-concepts, and
differences with biological neural networks
▪ uses of ANN
▪ machine learning
▪ data mining in biology
The nervous system is a complex network of specialized cells, tissues, and organs that coordinate and
control various functions in the body. It is divided into two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS)
and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
1.Central Nervous System (CNS):
1. The central nervous system is the major control center of the body and consists of the brain and
spinal cord.
2. Brain: The brain is the most complex organ in the human body and is responsible for higher
functions such as thinking, memory, emotion, and voluntary muscle movement.
3. Spinal Cord: The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue that extends from
the brainstem to the lower back. It serves as a pathway for signals between the brain and the
rest of the body. The spinal cord also controls some reflexes independently of the brain.
2.Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
1. The peripheral nervous system is a network of nerves that extends from the central nervous
system to various parts of the body.
2. Nerves: Nerves are bundles of nerve fibers (axons) that transmit signals between the central
nervous system and the rest of the body. They can be classified into two main types:
1. Sensory (Afferent) Nerves: Transmit signals from sensory organs, such as the eyes, ears,
and skin, to the central nervous system.
2. Motor (Efferent) Nerves: Carry signals from the central nervous system to muscles and
glands, controlling motor functions and other activities.
3. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls
involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate. The ANS is
further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which often have
opposing effects to maintain balance (homeostasis) in the body.
4. Somatic Nervous System (SNS): A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls
voluntary movements and reflexes.
Nervous system
• The task of nervous system is to Neurotransmitters
coordinate the mental processes Neuropeptides
by which we perceive, act, learn
and remember.

• The human brain is a network

of billions of individual nerve
cells interconnected in systems
that construct our perceptions
of the external world, fix our
attention, and control the
machinery of our actions.

• The nervous system has two

classes of cells: nerve cells
(neurons) and glial cells (glia).
 Nerve cells- Neurons
Ø Nerve cells, or neurons, are fundamental units of the nervous system responsible
for transmitting signals.
Ø A typical neuron consists of four main regions:
1. The cell body (soma)
2. Dendrites 3. Axon and Presynaptic terminal.

Ø The cell body (soma) of a neuron gives rise to

cellular extensions called short dendrites and a
long axon, which conduct impulses. Dendrites
carry signals toward the cell body. While axons
transmit signals away.
Ø This organization facilitates efficient
communication within the nervous system.
Ø Neurons communicate with each other by
sending chemicals, called neurotransmitters,
across a tiny space called a synapse, between
the axons and dendrites of nearby neurons.
Neurotransmitters and neuropeptides are chemical messengers that play key roles in transmitting signals
within the nervous system.
Neurotransmitters:
1.Acetylcholine (ACh): Found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, ACh is involved in
muscle contraction, memory, and learning.
2.Dopamine: Plays a role in motivation, reward, and motor control. Imbalances in dopamine are
associated with conditions like Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia.
3.Serotonin: Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep. It is targeted by antidepressant medications.
4.Glutamate: Functions as an excitatory neurotransmitter, playing a crucial role in learning and memory.
Neuropeptides:
1.Endorphins: Act as natural painkillers and contribute to feelings of pleasure and well-being. They are
released during activities like exercise and stress.
2.Substance P: Involved in the transmission of pain signals and the regulation of mood.
3.Oxytocin: Known as the "love hormone," it plays a role in social bonding, trust, and maternal
behaviours.
4.Neuropeptide Y (NPY): Influences appetite, stress response, and cardiovascular function.
 Synapse
1.Axon endings (Output Zone) closely approach
dendrites or the cell body of the adjacent
neuron.
2.Transmission of electrical signals between
neurons involves neurotransmitters—chemicals
released by the first neuron that bind to
receptors on the second neuron.
3.The connection where neurotransmitters
bridge the gap between neurons is termed a
synapse.
4.The effectiveness of signal transmission
depends on multiple factors, including the
quantity of neurotransmitters available.
5.Other influential factors in signal transmission
include the number and arrangement of
receptors on the receiving neuron and the
amount of neurotransmitter reabsorbed.
 Action Potential (electrical signal)
ØA neuron receives input from other neurons (typically many thousands). All the input signals are
integrated. Once input exceeds a critical level, the neuron discharges a spike - an electrical pulse that
travels from the body, down the axon, to the next neuron(s) (or other receptors).
Ø This spiking event (an influx of sodium ions (Na+) into the neuron) is also called depolarization, and
is followed by a refractory period (resistant to a process or stimulus), during which the neuron is
unable to fire.
Ø The initial phase of depolarization involves a brief increase in positive charge inside the nerve cell. This
change is due to the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels, allowing sodium ions to rush into the
cell.
Ø This influx of positive ions results in the inside of the cell becoming less negative or more positive,
creating an action potential.

Outside

• Action potential is the result of the depolarization of neurons.

• The process of depolarization is a key event that leads to the
generation and propagation of an action potential along the
length of a neuron.
Inside
1.Axon's Signal Range:
Ø Axons can transmit electrical signals over distances ranging from
0.1 mm to 3 m.
2.Action Potentials - Quick and Intense:
Ø Action potentials, the rapid electrical signals along axons, have a
swift duration of about 1 ms and an amplitude of 100 mV.
3.Neuronal Response to Stimuli:
Ø Neurons respond to stimuli and conduct impulses due to the
establishment of a membrane potential across the cell
membrane.
4.Ion Distribution Imbalance:
Ø Unequal distribution of ions on either side of the nerve cell
membrane creates a membrane potential.
5.Resting Membrane Potential - Slight Negative Bias:
• At rest, cells are more negative inside the cell than outside.
• Illustrating with a voltmeter, the inside of a neuron is slightly negative
(-70 mV) compared to the outside. The neuron is more polarized at -70
mV than at -55 mV.

Ø A membrane potential of -70 millivolts is more negatively charged than a membrane potential of
-55 millivolts.
Ø The initial phase of depolarization involves a brief increase in positive charge inside the nerve
cell. This change is due to the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels, allowing sodium ions
to rush into the cell.
Ø This influx of positive ions results in the inside of the cell becoming less negative or more
positive, creating an action potential.
 Feature Depolarization Repolarization

Membrane potential becomes less Restoration of membrane potential

Definition
negative or positive to resting state

Ion Movement Sodium ions (Na+) enter the cell Potassium ions (K+) leave the cell

Voltage-gated sodium channels Voltage-gated potassium channels

Ion Channels Involved
open open

Becomes less negative or positive Returns to resting state (e.g., +30

Membrane Potential
(e.g., -70 mV to +30 mV) mV back to -70 mV)

Allows the cell to recover and

Role in Action Potential Initiates the action potential prepares for subsequent action
potentials
 FEATURE RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL ACTION POTENTIAL

Definition The membrane potential of a neuron at A rapid change in membrane potential,

rest. typically initiated by a stimulus.
Voltage Approximately -70 mV in neurons. Depolarization phase increases voltage,
approx. -55mv and sometimes reaching
around +30 mV
Ion movement Limited ion movement; maintained by Involves rapid ion movement (Na+, K+)
Na+/K+ pumps. across the membrane.
Triggering event No specific triggering event; baseline Triggered by a threshold stimulus or
state. excitatory input.
Direction of Typically remains constant unless Rapid and temporary change from negative to
Change influenced. positive.
Active transport Maintained by active transport (Na+/K+ Involves passive ion channels and voltage-
Involvement pumps). gated channel
Duration Persistent; exists as long as the neuron Short-lived; occurs in milliseconds (1-2
is at rest. milliseconds).
Role in Serves as a baseline for responsiveness. Transmits signals over long distances along
Signalling the neuron.
Example: Neuron at rest between action potentials. Spike in membrane potential during a nerve
impulse.
Depolarization Not applicable; no rapid changes. Depolarization followed by repolarization
and phases.
Repolarization
 Supporting Cells (Neuroglial Cells) in the CNS
• Neuroglia – usually only refers to supporting cells in the CNS, but can be used for PNS

• Glial cells have branching processes and a central cell body

• Outnumber neurons 10 to 1 & make up half the mass of the brain

• Different types of neuroglia have varying capacities for mitosis.

• Astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, and Schwann cells are generally capable of mitosis,

q While oligodendrocytes in the CNS

have limited mitotic activity.
q The ability of neuroglial cells to
undergo mitosis is crucial for the
maintenance, repair, and
regeneration of the nervous
system.
 Glial cells (non-neuronal cells)
Ø In the CNS (which includes the brain and spinal
cord), glial cells are particularly abundant. The main
types of glial cells in the CNS are astrocytes,
oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells.
Ø In the PNS (which includes nerves and ganglia
outside the CNS), the main types of glial cells are
Schwann cells (which myelinate peripheral nerve
fibers) and satellite cells (which support neurons in
ganglia).
Ø Therefore, while glial cells are present in both the
CNS and PNS, the CNS generally has a higher
concentration and a more diverse array of glial cell
types.
 Types of Glial Cells in the CNS: Astrocytes,
Oligodendrocytes, and Microglia
v Astrocytes: Most abundant glial cell
type, irregular star-shaped cell bodies .
v Take up and release ions to
control the environment
around neurons

v Recapture and recycle

neurotransmitters

v Involved with synapse

formation in developing neural
tissue

v Produce molecules necessary

for neural growth

v Propagate calcium signals that

may be involved in memory
v Oligodendrocytes: Have few
branches.
v Wrap their cell processes around
axons in CNS
v Produce myelin sheaths for rapid
conduction of nerve impulses

v Schwann cells surround axons in the PNS

and form myelin sheath around axons of
the PNS.
Ø Microglia: Smallest and least
abundant.
Ø Microglia cells are a type of glial cell
found in the central nervous system
that play a critical role in maintaining
homeostasis and supporting the health
of neurons.
Ø They are the most abundant type of
glial cell in the brain, accounting for
about 10-20% of all cells in the central
nervous system.

Ø Microglia cells are involved in

various functions, including
phagocytosis….. calcium
signaling, and the release of
cytokines, chemokines, and
growth factors.
 Figure 2. The Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) is a

Figure 1. In the brain, there are 3 main selective wall of cells and surrounding blood vessels

glial cell types that support neurons to keep that protects the brain from foreign invaders by

our brain healthy: preventing their entry.

a) astrocytes help communication Ø Microglia act as the immune cells of the brain.

between neurons, Inactive microglia (in yellow) survey the

b) oligodendrocytes create conditions for environment.

the information to be transmitted faster, Ø When they detect invaders, they become

and c) microglia act as the immune activated (in orange) and change their shape by

system of the brain. flattening and shortening their arms so that they
can clean up the invaders.
 Neural Networks in the Brain
The brain is not a homogeneous
organ.
At the largest anatomical scale, we
distinguish cortex, midbrain,
brainstem, and cerebellum.
Each of these can be hierarchically
subdivided into many regions, and
areas within each region, either
according to the anatomical structure
of the neural networks within it, or
according to the function performed
by them.

In addition to these long-range

connections, neurons also link up
with many thousands of their
neighbors.
In this way they form very dense,
complex local networks.
 Disorders of the Nervous System
• Multiple sclerosis – common cause of neural disability
–Varies widely in intensity among those affected
–Cause is incompletely understood
–An autoimmune disease
• Immune system attacks the myelin around axons in the CNS
▪ Alzheimer’s Disease:
▪ Age-associated disorder
▪ Loss of memory, cognition,
and executive performances
▪ Deposits of amyloid
plaques and neurofibrillary
tangles that interfere with
neuronal functions
▪ Loss of cholinergic
neuronal functions
▪ Parkinson’s Disease: Alzheimer’s Disease
▪ Age-associated disorder
▪ Rigidity and incoordination
interfering with mobility
▪ Loss of dopaminergic
neuronal functions

Parkinson’s Disease
 List of neurodegenerative diseases
• Alexander's disease • Narcolepsy
• Alper's disease • Neuroborreliosis
• Alzheimer's disease • Parkinson's disease
• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis • Pelizaeus-Merzbacher Disease
• Ataxia telangiectasia • Pick's disease
• Batten disease (also known as • Primary lateral sclerosis
Spielmeyer-Vogt-Sjogren-Batten • Prion diseases
disease) • Refsum's disease
• Bovine spongiform encephalopathy • Schilder's disease
(BSE)
• Subacute combined degeneration
• Canavan disease of spinal cord secondary to
• Cockayne syndrome Pernicious Anaemia
• Corticobasal degeneration • Schizophrenia
• Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease • Spielmeyer-Vogt-Sjogren-Batten
• Huntington's disease disease (also known as Batten
• HIV-associated dementia disease)
• Kennedy's disease • Spinocerebellar ataxia (multiple
• Krabbe's disease types with varying characteristics)
• Lewy body dementia • Spinal muscular atrophy
• Machado-Joseph disease • Steele-Richardson-Olszewski
(Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3) disease
• Multiple sclerosis • Tabes dorsalis
• Multiple System Atrophy
Ø A neural network is a method in artificial intelligence that teaches computers to

process data in a way that is inspired by the human brain.

Ø It is a type of machine learning process, called D E E P L E A R N I N G , that uses

interconnected nodes or neurons in a layered structure that resembles the human

brain.
q In the realm of artificial intelligence, we use a method (neural networks) inspired by
the way the human brain processes information.
q Interconnected Nodes or Neurons: This refers to the artificial nodes or neurons in the
layers of a neural network.
q In the context of artificial neural networks, these nodes are mathematical units that
process and transmit information, and they are inspired by the interconnected neurons
in the human brain.
q However, it's important to note that the analogy is conceptual, and the nodes in
artificial neural networks don't function in the same way as biological neurons.
q Artificial neural networks, a key component of machine learning and artificial
intelligence, draw inspiration from the structure and functioning of the biological
neural networks in the brain.
 Computer-based Neural Networks
• The brain's network of neurons forms a massively parallel information
processing system. This contrasts with conventional computers, in
which a single processor executes a single series of instructions.

• Despite of being built with very slow hardware, the brain has quite
remarkable capabilities:
– its performance tends to degrade gracefully under partial damage. In contrast,
most programs and engineered systems are brittle: if you remove some arbitrary
parts, very likely the whole will cease to function.
– it can learn (reorganize itself) from experience.
– this means that partial recovery from damage is possible if healthy units can
learn to take over the functions previously carried out by the damaged areas.
– it performs massively parallel computations extremely efficiently. For example,
complex visual perception occurs within less than 100 ms, that is, 10 processing
steps!
– it supports our intelligence and self-awareness. (Nobody knows yet how this
occurs.)
 COMPUTER-BASED NEURAL NETWORKS

1.Inspired by Biological Neural Networks:

• Computer-based neural networks are inspired by the structure and function of the human
brain's neural networks.
• Example: Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) mimic the interconnected neurons in the
brain to process information.
2.Parallel Processing:
• Neural networks in computers perform parallel processing, allowing them to handle
multiple tasks simultaneously.
• Example: Training a neural network to recognize images involves parallel processing of
numerous data points.
3.Learning from Data:
• Neural networks learn from data through a process of adjusting weights and biases.
• Example: In natural language processing, a neural network can learn to understand and
generate human-like text by training on vast datasets.
4.Adaptability and Generalization:
• Neural networks demonstrate adaptability to various tasks and can generalize patterns
from training data to make predictions on new, unseen data.
• Example: A neural network trained on diverse images can recognize and categorize new
images it has never seen before.
5.Deep Learning:
• Deep learning involves neural networks with multiple layers (deep neural networks),
enabling them to learn hierarchical representations of data.
• Example: Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) in image recognition have multiple
layers to extract features at different levels of abstraction.
6. Pattern Recognition:
• Neural networks excel at pattern recognition, making them suitable for tasks such as
image and speech recognition.
• Example: Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) can recognize patterns in sequences,
making them useful for tasks like language modeling and speech generation.
7. Non-linearity and Complex Relationships:
• Neural networks introduce non-linearities, allowing them to model complex relationships
in data.
• Example: In financial prediction, neural networks can capture intricate patterns in
market data that may not be apparent through linear models.
8. Transfer Learning:
• Neural networks can leverage knowledge gained from one task to improve performance
on a related task.
• Example: Pre-training a neural network on a large dataset for a general task (e.g.,
language modeling) and then fine-tuning it for a specific task (e.g., sentiment analysis).
9. Limitations and Interpretability:
• Challenges include the "black box" nature of neural networks, making it difficult to
interpret their decision-making processes.
• Example: Understanding why a neural network made a specific prediction in healthcare
applications may be challenging due to the complexity of the model.
10. Continual Advancements:
• Ongoing research continually advances the field of computer-based neural networks,
improving their efficiency, interpretability, and performance across various applications.
• Example: Transformer models, like BERT and GPT, have demonstrated significant
advancements in natural language understanding and generation.
 Applications of Neural Networks
1. Image Recognition in Defense:
§ How it Works: Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are employed for tasks like
object detection and facial recognition. These networks consist of layers that
automatically learn and identify patterns in images. For defense applications, CNNs can
be used to recognize objects, track targets, and analyze satellite imagery.
2. Speech Recognition in Banking:
§ How it Works: Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) and Deep Neural Networks (DNNs)
are often used for speech recognition. RNNs process sequential data, making them
suitable for speech, while DNNs excel at feature extraction. In banking, speech
recognition is applied in voice-activated assistants for customer service and voice
authentication for security.
3. Financial Forecasting in Financial Sector:
§ How it Works: Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, a type of recurrent neural
network, are commonly used for time-series forecasting. These networks can capture
long-term dependencies in data. In financial forecasting, LSTMs analyze historical
market data to predict future trends, aiding in investment decisions.
4. Manufacturing Process Control:
§ How it Works: Supervised learning algorithms, such as Support Vector Machines
(SVM) or neural networks, can be used for process control. By training on historical
data, these models can predict optimal parameters for manufacturing processes,
ensuring efficiency and quality. For example, in a chemical manufacturing plant, a
model can predict optimal temperature and pressure settings.
5. Autonomous Vehicles in Automotive Industry:
§ How it Works: Deep Learning models, particularly Convolutional Neural Networks
(CNNs) and Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs), are essential for autonomous vehicles.
CNNs process visual input from cameras for object detection, while RNNs handle
sequential data like sensor information. The models learn to interpret their
surroundings, make decisions, and control the vehicle, ensuring safe navigation.
• Mathematics: Nonparametric statistical analysis and regression.

• Medical: Breast cancer cell analysis, EEG and ECG analysis, prosthesis design, optimization of
transplant times, hospital expense reduction, hospital quality improvement, emergency room
test advisement

• Neurobiology: Modeling models of how the brain works, neuron-level, higher levels: vision,
hearing, etc. Overlaps with cognitive folks.

• Oil and Gas: Exploration

• Philosophy: Can human souls/behavior be explained in terms of symbols, or does it require

something lower level, like a neurally based model?

• Robotics: Trajectory control, forklift robot, manipulator controllers, vision systems

• Speech: Speech recognition, speech compression, vowel classification, text to speech

synthesis

• Securities: Market analysis, automatic bond rating, stock trading advisory systems

• Telecommunications: Image and data compression, automated information services, real-

time translation of spoken language, customer payment processing systems

• Transportation: Truck brake diagnosis systems, vehicle scheduling, routing systems

 MACHINE LEARNING
• Machine Learning is the field of study that
gives computers the capability to learn without
being explicitly programmed.

• Machine learning and statistics are closely

knit.
 TYPES
• Supervised machine learning algorithms require
external assistance.
• The external assistance is usually through a human
expert who provides curated input for the desired
output to predict accuracy in algorithm training.
• The expert or data scientist determines the features
or patterns that the model would use. Once the
training is completed, then it can be applied to test
another data for the prediction and classification. It is
supervised because the algorithm learns from the
training data set akin to a teacher supervising the
learning process of a student
• e.g., decision tree, support vector machine, and neural
network.
 TYPES
• Unsupervised learning algorithms infer patterns from
data without a dependent variable or known labels.
• In unsupervised learning algorithms no external
assistance is required.
• The computer program automatically searches the
feature or pattern form the data and groups them into
clusters.
• When we introduce new data for the prediction, then it
uses previously learned features to classify the data.
This method is very useful in the era of big data
because it requires huge amount of training data.
• E.g.,Clustering and principle component analysis
• Regression and Classification are types
of supervised learning algorithms while
Clustering is a type of unsupervised
algorithm.
 Regression
• When the output variable is continuous,
then it is a regression problem whereas
when it contains discrete values, it is a
classification problem
• The ultimate goal of the regression
algorithm is to plot a best-fit line or a
curve between the data. The three main
metrics that are used for evaluating the
trained regression model are variance,
bias and error
 Classification
• For any given input, the classification
algorithms help in the prediction of the class
of the output variable. There can be multiple
types of classifications like binary
classification, multi-class classification, etc. It
depends upon the number of classes in the
output variable.
• The classification techniques help make
predictions about the target values’ category
based on any input provided. Usually, the
term “classification” is used to narrate the
predictive modeling in which the sample
 Clustering
• Clustering is a type of unsupervised
machine learning algorithm. It is used to
group data points having similar
characteristics as clusters.
• the data points in the same cluster
should exhibit similar properties and
the points in different clusters should be
as dissimilar as possible.
 SUPERVISED UNSUPERVISED
LEARNING LEARNING

Uses Known and Uses Unknown Data as

Input Data
Labeled Data as input input

Computational Less Computational

Very Complex
Complexity Complexity

Uses Real Time Analysis

Real Time Uses off-line analysis
of Data

Number of Classes are Number of Classes are

Number of Classes
known not known

Accurate and Reliable Moderate Accurate and

Accuracy of Results
Results Reliable Results
 Deep Learning
• Deep learning is a more recent subfield of
machine learning that is the extension of
neural network. In deep learning “deep” refers
to the number of layers through which data is
transformed. So, deep learning is similar to
neural network with multi-layers. These multi-
layers nodes try to mimic how the human brain
thinks to solve the problems.
 Applications of ML
• The ML algorithms are used for selecting relevant features in
biological data which are high dimensional in nature
• The second major application of ML in biology has been
found in classification of biological data
• Third major ML application in bioinformatics is clustering of
biological data like gene data
 Examples of Application of ML
• Structure prediction of proteins-the use of machine
learning in structure prediction has pushed the
accuracy from 70% to more than 80%.
• Stroke diagnosis- Machine learning methods for the
analysis of neuroimaging data are used to help
diagnose stroke. Historically multiple approaches to this
problem involved neural networks.
• Machine learning and AI are being used extensively by
hospitals and health service providers to improve
patient satisfaction, deliver personalized treatments,
make accurate predictions and enhance the quality of
life. It is also being used to make clinical trials more
efficient and help speed up the process of drug
discovery and delivery
DATAMINING IN BIOLOGY
• Data mining refers to extracting or “mining”
knowledge from large amounts of data. Data Mining
(DM) is the science of finding new interesting
patterns and relationship in huge amount of data.
• It is defined as “the process of discovering
meaningful new correlations, patterns, and trends by
digging into large amounts of data stored in
warehouses”.
• Data mining is also sometimes called Knowledge
Discovery in Databases (KDD). Data mining is not
specific to any industry. It requires intelligent
technologies and the willingness to explore the
possibility of hidden knowledge that resides in the
data.
• primary goals of data mining, in practice,
– prediction and description.
The main tasks well suited for data mining, all of which involves
mining meaningful new patterns from the data, are:
• Classification: Classification is learning a function that maps
(classifies) a data item into one of several predefined classes.
• Estimation: Given some input data, coming up with a value for some
unknown continuous variable.
• Prediction: Same as classification & estimation except that the
records are classified according to some future behaviour or
estimated future value).
• Association rules: Determining which things go together, also called
dependency modeling.
• Clustering: Segmenting a population into a number of subgroups or
clusters.
• Description & visualization: Representing the data using
visualization techniques.
Case study: DATAMINING in DIABETES
• Diabetes is the most common endocrine disease across
all population and age groups.
• This disease has become the fourth leading cause of
death in developed countries and there is substantial
evidence that it is reaching epidemic proportions in many
developing and newly industrialized nations
• Regression analysis was done on data available in WHO
for diabetes patients of different age groups and their
treatments
• The effect of available treatments on younger and older
population was predicted

Cited from: Abdullah A. Aljumah, Mohammed Gulam Ahamad, Mohammad Khubeb Siddiqui,Application of data
mining: Diabetes health care in young and old patients,Journal of King Saud University - Computer and Information
Sciences,Volume 25, Issue 2,2013,Pages 127-136, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksuci.2012.10.003
• The young age group, p(y), is predicted to have a preferential order
of treatment namely diet control, weight control, drug treatment,
exercise treatment, smoke cessation, and finally, insulin.
• The preferential order of modes of treatment for old age group
patients, p(o), differs from p(y). The predictions indicated here are
diet control, drug treatment, exercise, weight control, smoking
cessation, and finally, insulin.