ASSIGNMENT OF POWER SYSTEM-II ( Solution)

PCC-EE-302
BTECH 6TH SEM EE

Q1. Short answer type Questions.

a) What is the Need of power flow analysis?

Answer:
1) Load flow study determines the operating state of the system for a given loading.
2) To solve non linear algebraic equations it is important to have fast, efficient and accurate
numerical algorithms.
3) Analyzing the effect of rearranging the circuit on the power flow, bus voltages.
4) Calculation of line losses for different power flow conditions

Define PQ bus or Load bus.

Answer:
At this bus, the active and reactive power is injected into the network. Magnitude and phase
angle of the voltage are to be computed. In this bus the active power P and reactive power Q
are specified, and the load bus voltage can be permitted within a tolerable value, i.e., 5 %.
The phase angle of the voltage i.e. is not very important for the load.

Write static load flow equation.

Answer:
b) Write the transmission loss equation

c) Answer:

d) What are the main objectives of load frequency control in power system?
Answer:
1) To bring the steady state error to zero after load change.
2) To maintain the net tie-line

What is the concept of multi area AGC?

Answer:
Automatic Generation Control (AGC) plays an important role in the large scale multi-
area interconnected power systems to maintain system frequency and tie-line powers at their
nominal values. Due to sudden disturbances or some other reasons if the generated active
power becomes less than the power demand, the frequency of generating units tends to
decrease and vice versa this causes the system frequency to deviate from its nominal value
which is undesirable. To damp out the frequency deviation quickly and to keep the tie-line
power at its scheduled value, AGC concept is used. However, the constant frequency cannot
be obtained by the speed governor alone. So, a control system is essential to cancel the
effects of the sudden load changes and to keep the frequency at the nominal value.
 e) Define Transient stability.
Answer:
It is defined as the ability of the power system to return to its normal conditions after a
large disturbance. The large disturbance occurs in the system due to the sudden removal
of the load, line switching operations; fault occurs in the system, sudden outage of a line,
etc.

f) Define automatic generation Control.

Answer:
In an electric power system, automatic generation control (AGC) is a system for adjusting the
power output of multiple generators at different power plants, in response to changes in the load.

g) What are the advantages of equal area criterion?

Answer:
The Equal Area Criterion is concerned with transient stability. It is in fact a very easy
graphical method used. It is for deciding the transient stability of single machine or else two-
machine system against infinite bus

h) Define economic dispatch.

Answer:
Economic dispatch is to minimize the total cost of generating real power at various Stations
while satisfying the loads and the losses in the Transmission links. Economic dispatch is the
on line economic dispatch where in it Is required to distribute the load among the generating
units Actually parallel with the system in such manner as to Minimize the total cost of
supplying the minute – to – minute Requirements of the system.
 i) Define Bus. What are the various types of Bus?
Answer:
A bus in a power system is defined as the vertical line at which the several components of the
power system like generators, loads, and feeders, etc., are connected. The buses in a power
system are associated with four quantities. These quantities are the magnitude of the voltage, the
phase angle of the voltage, active or true power and the reactive power. In the load flow studies,
two variables are known, and two are to be determined. Depends on the quantity to be specified
the buses are classified into three categories generation bus, load bus and slack bus.

J) Write various component of Power system.

Answer:
1) Generators - Convert mechanical energy in to electrical energy
2) Transformers - Transfer Power or energy from one circuit to another circuit without
change in frequency
3) Transmission Lines - Transfer power from one place another place
4) Control Equipment: Used for protection purpose

Q2.
a) Compare the performance of Guass-Seidal (GS) Method and Newton Raphson (NR)
method for load flow solution using nodal admittance approach for the formulation of
load flow equations.
Answer:
Sr Gauss Seidel Newton Raphson
No
1 Co-ordinates Works well with Polar co-ordinates are preferred
rectangular coordinates. as rectangular coordinates
occupy more memory.
2 Arithmetical Least in number to Elements of jacobian to be
operations complete one iteration. calculated in each iteration .
3 Time Requires less time per Time/iteration is 7 times of GS
iteration, but increases with and increases with an increase in
an increase in the number of the number of buses.
buses.
4 Convergence Linear convergence Quadratic convergence
 5 No. of iterations A large number, increases Very less (3 to 5 only) for large
with an increase in buses. system and is practically
constant.
6 Slack bus Choice of slack bus affects Sensitivity to this is minimal
selection convergence adversely
7 Accuracy Less accurate More accurate
8 Memory Less memory because of Large memory even with
the sparsity of the matrix. compact storage scheme
9 Usage/application Small size system A large system, ill-
conditioned problems, optimal
load flow studies.
10 Programming Easy Very difficult
Logic
11 Reliability Reliable only for a small Also, Reliable for large system
system.

b) Draw the flow chart & write algorithm of Newron Raphson method.
Answer:
Newton Raphson Method is an iterative technique for solving a set of various nonlinear
equations with an equal number of unknowns. There are two methods of solutions for the load
flow using Newton Raphson Method. The first method uses rectangular coordinates for the
variables while the second method uses the polar coordinate form. Out of these two methods the
polar coordinate form is used widely.
Algorithm of Newton Raphson Method-
1) Form Y bus.
2) Assume the initial value of the bus voltages |Vi| 0 and phase angle δi0 for i = 2, 3, …..n for
load buses and phase angles for PV buses. Normally we set the assumed bus voltage
magnitude and its phase angle equal to the slack bus quantities |V1| = 1.0, δ1 = 0⁰.
3) Compute Pi and Qi for each load bus from the following equation (5) and (6) shown
above.
4) Now, compute the scheduled errors ΔPi and ΔQi for each load bus from the following
relations given below.

5. For PV buses, the exact value of Qi is not specified, but its limits are known. If the calculated
value of Qi is within the limits only ΔPi is calculated. If thecalculated value of Qi is beyond
the limits, then an appropriate limit is imposed and ΔQi is also calculated by subtracting the
 calculated value of Qi from the appropriate limit. The bus under consideration is now treated
as a load bus.

6. Compute the elements of the Jacobian matrix.

7. Obtain the value of Δδ and Δ|Vi| from the equation shown below.

8. Using the values of Δδi and Δ|Vi| calculated in the above step, modify the voltage magnitude
and phase angle at all load buses by the equations shown below.

9. Start the next iteration cycle following the step 2 with the modified values of |Vi|and δi.

10. Continue until scheduled errors for all the load buses are within a specified tolerance that is

Where, ε denotes the tolerance level for load buses.

11. Calculate the line and power flow at the slack bus same as in the Gauss Seidel method.

Flowchart For Newton Raphson Method-

Limitations of Newton Raphson Method
The various limitations are given below.
1) This solution technique is difficult.
2) It takes longer time as the elements of the Jacobian are to be computed for each iteration.
3) The computer memory requirement is large.
c) Write the step for the formulation of Bus admittance matrix.

Single line diagram of a simple 4-bus system with generators and load at an each bus is
shown in the figure. Let SGi denote the 3-phase complex generator power flowing into the
ith bus and SDi denotes the 3-phase complex power demand at the ith bus. Let S Gi and
SDi may be represented as

Net complex power injected into the bus is given as

The real and reactive power injected into the ith bus are then.

where i = 1, 2, 3, 4, ……..n.
A network model of the given power system worked out on the above line is shown
below in the figure. S1, S2, S3, S4 denote the net 3-phase complex power flowing into the
buses and I1, I2, I3, I4 denotes the current flowing into the buses. Each transmission line is
represented by a π-circuit.
The equivalent circuit of 4-bus system is shown in the figure below. All the sources of
the bus system connected to the common reference at ground potential and the shunt
admittance at the busses have been lumped. Besides the ground node, it has four other
nodes or buses at which the current from the source is injected into the network. The line
admittance between nodes i and k is represented by yik = yki. Further, the mutual
admittance between lines is assumed to be zero.
Applications of Kirchhoff’s current law to the four nodes gives the following equation.

The above equation can be rearranged and written in matrix form as below.

The self-admittance terms of the matrix are given as

The mutual admittances of the matrix are given as

Matrix is written in terms of self-bus admittance Yi and mutual bus admittance Yik as follows.

Yii is known as self-admittance ( or driving point admittance ) of the ith node and is equal to the
sum of the admittance connected to the ith node. Each off-diagonal term Yik is known as mutual
admittance (or transfer admittance ) between ith and kth node and is equal to the negative of the
sum of all the admittances connected directly between ith and kth node.

The equation can be written in compact form as

Where I is the current node matrix, V is the node voltage matrix and [ Y bus ] is the bus
admittance matrix. General equation for n-bus network based on Kirchoff’s’ current law and
admittance form is

where [ I ] is the n-bus matrix, [ V ] is the n-bus voltage matrix and, [ Ybus ] is called bus
admittance matrix and is written as

and is called the bus admittance matrix and V and I are the n-element node voltage matrix and
current node matrix respectively.
Q3.In a nine Bus system, bus 1 is the slack bus, buses 2, 5 and 7 the PV buses. List the state
variables also indicate the specified power injection.

Answer: Buses 3,4,6,8 and 9 are P-Q buses.

δ2, δ3, δ4, δ5, δ6, δ7, δ8, δ9 , V3, V4, V6, V8 and V9 are the state variables.

PI2 ,PI3,PI4 ,PI5 ,PI6 ,PI7 ,PI8 ,PI9 ,QI3 ,QI4 ,QI6 ,QI8 and QI9 are the specified power injections.

Q4.
a) Discuss the procedure of distribution of loads between plants.

Answer: To determine the economic distribution of a load amongst the different units of a
plant, the variable operating costs of each unit must be expressed in terms of its power
output. The fuel cost is the main cost in a thermal or nuclear unit. Then the fuel cost must be
expressed in terms of the power output. Other costs, such as the operation and maintenance
costs, can also be expressed in terms of the power output. Fixed costs, such as the capital
cost, depreciation etc., are not included in the fuel cost. The fuel requirement of each
generator is given in terms of the Rupees/hour. Let us define the input cost of an unit- i, fi in
Rs/h and the power output of the unit as Pi . Then the input cost can be expressed in terms of
the power output as
Rs/h

The operating cost given by the above quadratic equation is obtained by approximating the
power in MW versus the cost in Rupees curve. The incremental operating cost of each unit is
then computed as
Rs/ MWhr

Let us now assume that only two units having different incremental costs supply a load.
There will be a reduction in cost if some amount of load is transferred from the unit with
higher incremental cost to the unit with lower incremental cost. In this fashion, the load is
transferred from the less efficient unit to the more efficient unit thereby reducing the total
operation cost. The load transfer will continue till the incremental costs of both the units are
same. This will be optimum point of operation for both the units. The above principle can be
extended to plants with a total of N number of units. The total fuel cost will then be the
summation of the individual
fuel cost fi , i = 1, ... , N of each unit, i.e.,
 Let us denote that the total power that the plant is required to supply by PT , such that

Where P1 , ... , PN are the power supplied by the N different units.

The objective is minimizing fT for a given PT. This can be achieved when the total difference
dfT becomes zero, i.e.

Now since the power supplied is assumed to be constant we have

Multiplying Eq (1.6) by Subtracting from 1.5 we get

(1.7)
The equality in (5.7) is satisfied when each individual term given in brackets is zero. This
gives us

Also the partial derivative becomes a full derivative since only the term fi of fT varies with
Pi, i = 1... N.
We then have
 b) Explain classical load dispatch including losses.

c) Explain optimal unit commitment.

Answer: Unit commitment can be defined as the selection of generators that must be
operated to meet the forecasted load demand on the system over a period of time so that fuel
cost is minimum. The Unit Commitment Problem (UCP) is to determine a minimal cost turn-
on and turn-off schedule of a set of electrical power generating units to meet a load demand
while satisfying a set of operational constraints. It is a well-known problem in power industry
and helps in saving fuel cost if units are committed correctly so that fuel cost is saved.
A. Need for Unit Commitment:
(i) Enough units will be committed to supply the load.
(ii) To reduce loss or fuel cost.
(iii) By running the most economic unit load can be supplied by that unit operating closer to
its better efficiency.
B. Factors Considered In Unit Commitment:
(i) For finding the nature of fluctuating load as well as to commit the units accordingly a
graph is drawn between load demand and hours of use. This graph is known as load curve. In
the solution load pattern for M period is formed using load curve.
(ii) The possible numbers of units are committed to meet the load.
(iii) The load dispatch is calculated for all feasible combinations and operating limits of the
units have to be calculated. Unit Commitment is considered as a complex optimization problem
where the aim is to minimize the objective function in the presence of heavy constraints The
objective function is given by Minimize Total cost = Fuel cost + Start-up cost +Shut down cost

Q5.
a) Draw the flow chart for economics scheduling neglecting the transmission loss.
b) Discuss the exact transmission loss formula.

Q6.
a) Explain the working of on load tap changing transformer with neat diagram.

Answer: The transformer which is not disconnected from the main supply when the tap
setting is to be changed such type of transformer in known as on-load tap changing
transformer. The tap setting arrangement is mainly used for changing the turn ratio of the
transformer to regulate the system voltage while the transformer is delivering the load.The
main feature of an on-load tap changer is that during its operation the main circuit of the
switch should not be opened. Thus, no part of the switch should get the short circuit.
In tap changing transformer different types of an impedance circuit are used for limiting the
current during the operation of a tap changing. The impedance circuit may be resistor or
reactor type, and by the impedance circuit, the tap changer can be classified as the resistor
and reactor type. Nowadays the current limiting is carried out by using a pair of resistors.

Location of Tapping
The tapping is provided at the HV winding of the transformer because the high voltage
winding is wound on the low-voltage winding. Also, the current in the HV winding of the
transformer is smaller due to which small contacts and leads are required for tapping
connections.
The tapping on the windings is taken out through the house board to separate the oil-filled
compartment in which the on-load tap changer switch is housed. The tap changer is operated
by a motor operated driving mechanism of local or remote control. The handle is operated for
manual operation in case of an emergency.

Needs For Tapping

Frequently change in load changes the voltage of the system. The tap changing in the power
transformer is mainly done for keeping the output voltage within the prescribed limit.
Nowadays almost all the large power transformer is provided with on-load tap changer.
On-Load Tap Changing Transformer Using a Resistor
The on-load tap changing gear with the resistor transition, in which one winding is changed
for each operating position as shown in the figure below. The sequence of operation during
the shifting of one tap into the next is shown in the figure below. The backup main contactor
is provided which short-circuit the resistors for normal operation.
 b) Explain the working of AGC.
Answer:

PURPOSE OF AGC
 To maintain power balance in the system.
 Make sure that operating limits are not exceeded:-
 Generators limit
 Tie-lines limit
 Make sure that system frequency is constant (not change by load).
OVERVIEW OF AGC
 Load is always changing.
 To maintain power balance, generators need to produce more or less to keep up with the
load.
  When Gen < Load (Gen > Load), generator speed and frequency will drop (rise).
 => We use this generator speed and frequency as control signals!
3 COMPONENTS OF AGC
 Primary control
 Immediate (automatic) action to sudden change of load.
 For example, reaction to frequency change.
 Secondary control
 To bring tie-line flows to scheduled.
 Corrective actions are done by operators.
 Economic dispatch
 Make sure that the units are scheduled in the most economical way.
 This is function of primary and secondary control of AGC.

CONCEPT OF AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL

 If the load on the system is increased, the turbine speed drops before the governor can
adjust the input of the steam to the new load.

 The speed of the rotor can be maintained constant by adding an integrator. The integral
unit monitors the average error over a period of time and will overcome the offset.

 Thus, as the system load changes continuously, the generation is adjusted automatically
to restore the frequency to its nominal value. This scheme is known as automatic
generation control (AGC).

 As shown in the block diagram, the valve opening changes either by changing the
reference setting or by the change in speed (or frequency). This is called primary
regulation.

 The reference setting can also be changed remotely by power system load frequency
control. This is called secondary regulation.

 Only some generating units in a power system may be used for secondary regulatio

c) Explain the load frequency (LFC) control in single area & multi area system.
Answer:
LFC FOR SINGLE AREA
 During transient period, sudden change of load causes each area generation to react
according to its frequency-power characteristics.This is “called primary control”.
 This change also effects steady state frequency and tie-line flows between areas.
 We need to
 Restore system frequency,
 Restore tie-line capacities to the scheduled value, and,
  Make the areas absorb their own load.
 This is called “secondary control”.

AGC FOR MULTIPLE AREA SYSTEM

IMPORTANCE OF FREQUENCY CONTROL

 If frequency changes there won’t be get required receiving end voltage.
 When two systems working at diff. frequency are tied together to make same frequency
by frequency converting station.
 Change in real power affect mainly the system frequency, while reactive power is less
sensitive to changes in frequency and is mainly dependent on changes in voltage
magnitude.
The load frequency control (LFC) loop controls the real power and frequency and the automatic
voltage regulator (AVR) loop regulates the reactive power and voltage magnitude
Q7.Explain the reasons limits on frequency in a power system.

1. The frequency control keeps the balance between generation and absorption of real power
and thus makes the operation of power station in parallel satisfactory.

2. The speed of synchronous and induction motors, extensively used in industry as prime
movers, depends upon supply frequency (the synchronous speed being equal to 120 f/P
where f is supply frequency and P is the number of poles) and so change in supply
frequency causes variations in speed of motors of consumers- not desirable for
consumers, particularly the process industries depending on constant speed drives.

3. The variation in supply frequency beyond permissible limits also affects the performance
of electric motors.

4. The extensive use of synchronous clocks establishes a strong requirement for maintaining
supply frequency constant in order to have correct timing from such clocks.

a) Two turbo alternators rated for 110 MW and 210 MW have governor drop characteristics
of 5% from no load to full load. They are connected in parallel to share a load of 250
MW. Determine the load shared by each machine assuming free governor action.
Answer:

Since the two machines are working in parallel the per cent drop in frequency from both
the machines due to different loadings must be same. Let x be the power supplied by 110
MW unit.
The per cent drop in speed =5 x/110 Similarly per cent drop in speed of 210 MW unit will
be 5/210(250−x).

∴ 5x/110=5x/210(250−x)

Or x/11=(250−x)/21
or x=85.93 MW
∴ Power shared by 210 MW unit will be 250 – 85.93 = 164.07 MW
Power supplied by 110 MW unit = 85.93 MW
Power supplied by 210 MW unit = 164.07 MW.
Q8.
a) Differentiate between steady state & transient stability of a power system. Discuss the
factor that affects (i) steady state stability (ii) transient stability of the system.

b) Explain the Euler method, Modified Euler Method & Runge Kutta Method.

Q9.
a) Explain the point by point methods of solving he swing equation. Compare this method
with the equal area criterion methods.
b) Explain the multi machine stability analysis classical model in details.