3.3 6.

Article

Bamboo as a Sustainable Building

Material for Innovative, Low-Cost
Housing Construction

Jan Bredenoord

https://doi.org/10.3390/su16062347
 sustainability

Article
Bamboo as a Sustainable Building Material for Innovative,
Low-Cost Housing Construction
Jan Bredenoord

Faculty of Geosciences, International Development Studies, Utrecht University, 3584 CB Utrecht, The Netherlands;
[email protected]

Abstract: Bamboo is commonly used as a construction material in low-cost housing projects located in
tropical and subtropical countries. This practice is especially prevalent in rural areas where bamboo
grows naturally and families have experience working with it. Bamboo can be a sustainable building
material for homes, even in cases where houses need to be resistant to earthquakes or storms. The
traditional bahareque technology was enhanced in Costa Rica and Colombia to make it earthquake
resistant. After the year 2000, this technology was transferred to several other countries in Latin
America and Asia, gaining recognition as an innovative building technique. Many successful exam-
ples of bamboo housing constructions can be found in various countries, where modern architectural
solutions are combined with innovative bamboo methods. Local communities can play a crucial
role in bamboo processing, allowing residents to actively participate in the construction of their
homes under technical supervision. This emphasizes the social sustainability aspect associated with
bamboo. Ensuring the durability of bamboo housing constructions is paramount for the longevity
of the houses, highlighting the need for technical assistance for self-builders and resident groups.
With proper organization, bamboo housing has the potential to become part of the social production
of housing.

Keywords: bamboo housing construction; low-cost bamboo housing; innovations for bamboo
construction; engineered bahareque constructions; composite bamboo shear walls; cement bamboo
frame technology

Citation: Bredenoord, J. Bamboo as a

Sustainable Building Material for
Innovative, Low-Cost Housing
1. Introduction
Construction. Sustainability 2024, 16, Bamboo is a fast-growing and versatile plant that possesses beneficial properties for its
2347. https://doi.org/10.3390/ use in building applications, including a high flexibility, compressive strength, and tensile
su16062347 strength. Certain types of bamboo can serve as replacements for high-carbon-emitting
building materials such as steel, bricks, and concrete. Bamboo materials are increasingly
Academic Editor: Manuel
Duarte Pinheiro
being employed in the construction of housing, buildings, installations, and bridges. When
harvested and utilized responsibly, bamboo can alleviate the strain on wood resources
Received: 15 January 2024 extracted from forests. In many instances, bamboo is more cost effective compared to
Revised: 26 February 2024 other building materials, particularly if it is locally harvested and processed, enabling
Accepted: 6 March 2024 local communities to actively participate in its utilization. Bamboo belongs to the grass
Published: 12 March 2024
family Gramineae. There are hundreds of bamboo species, 50 of which are suitable for
use as structure-building materials. The worldwide occurrence of bamboo or bambuseae,
based on Map 2 of Bamboo Phylogeny Group 2005 (Bamboo Biodiversity) of the Iowa State
Copyright: © 2024 by the author.
University, is shown in Figure 1.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. The traditional use of bamboo in housing is often perceived as “shabby” by residents.
This article is an open access article However, the use of bamboo offers significant socioeconomic benefits to local communities
distributed under the terms and and can contribute to biodiversity conservation and ecological preservation in these areas.
conditions of the Creative Commons The ecological advantages of bamboo have inspired engineers and architects worldwide
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// to explore innovative applications of bamboo in social housing and other projects. It
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ is expected that the technical and aesthetic qualities of these structures, as well as the
4.0/). perception of bamboo construction, will continue to improve.

Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16062347 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 2 of 20

Figure 1. Distribution of all woody bamboos (Bambuseae). Source: Lynn Clark, Iowa SU.

Bamboo can be found in tropical and subtropical regions across South America, Asia,
Africa, Australia, and southern North America. The requirements for housing design vary
depending on the climate zone. For instance, Asia has different climate zones ranging from
warm–dry areas in Central India to warm–humid regions in southern India ff and throughout
Southeast Asia. Conversely, there are also cool and cold areas in China, Japan, and Korea.
Families construct their traditional homes based on the availability of locally grown bamboo
species. The suitability of bamboo for housing depends not only on its quality but also on
the geological and climatic conditions of the area, as well as the potential threats posed by
natural disasters. Bamboo plants have the ability to retain water in semi-arid regions and
prevent soil erosion in wet areas.
Housing affordability holds great significance in numerous nations across Latin Amer-
ica, Asia, and Africa. Therefore, it is imperative to consider the low incomes of impover-
ished families. This means that homes should be designed as basic or starter homes so that
ff
they can be expanded over time by the families themselves. This can be effectively achieved
with bamboo houses, particularly in areas where bamboo forests and plantations exist.
Cooperation between professional builders and resident groups is often necessary
to ensure high-quality bamboo homes, especially in areas prone to natural disasters. The ff
foundation of bamboo houses must always be durable, and the use of bricks, cement, and
concrete is essential. Since many homes are constructed in zones susceptible to natural
phenomena, specific requirements for building structures and materials should be taken
into account. These phenomena primarily include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, severe
storms, heavy rainfall, floods, tsunamis, and landslides. Alongside climate change, these
events can pose significant threats to low-cost housing. Professionals believe that bamboo
houses can play a crucial role in withstanding these phenomena, provided that the homes
are constructed properly. NGOs, government institutions, and entrepreneurs can assist
households and building groups in various ways.
In many cases, households themselves, along with the assistance of local communities,
construction workers, small businesses, and housing cooperatives, are responsible for
building homes. Self-help can reduce construction costs, while technical assistance can
improve the quality of the housing. According to UN-Habitat, affordable housing must play
a central role in sustainable development. This involves improving existing housing and
taking a proactive approach to new housing construction. However, certain prerequisites
must be met for housing construction, such as the following: (1) having an urban plan in
place, (2) access to land for construction, (3) secure tenure, (4) basic services, (5) resident
group participation, (6) adherence to safety standards in construction, (7) use of sustainable
building materials, and (8) availability of housing financing. Additionally, it is important
to provide technical assistance to self-builders and enforce municipal building ff regulations.
These prerequisites align with contemporary development visions, exemplified by the
United Nations’ Global Housing Strategy for the year 2025 (GHS 2025) [1]. They also apply
to situations in both urban and rural areas, where low-income households are engaged in
organized construction projects utilizing bamboo structures and materials. Additionally,
UN-Habitat highlighted the importance of green building materials, including the use of
bamboo materials for housing [2].
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 3 of 20

Several international organizations are involved in promoting environmentally friendly

and sustainable development through the use of bamboo. One such organization is the
International Bamboo and Rattan Organization (INBAR), which represents 47 countries.
The INBAR focuses on facilitating the development of strategies that benefit the underpriv-
ileged by designing and constructing sustainable bamboo housing. Another organization,
the World Bamboo Organization, is a collective of individuals, companies, and institutions,
both public and private, who advocate for the use of bamboo to benefit both the envi-
ronment and the economy. Their motto is “it’s time to plant bamboo; not just use it” [3].
Bamboo can also play a crucial role in restoring degraded soils around the world and creat-
ing diverse habitats. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations
is dedicated to combating global hunger and promoting the sustainable use of biodiversity
for agriculture. The FAO and INBAR have formed a partnership to coordinate their efforts
in providing affordable housing, addressing climate change, and preserving biodiversity
for those living in rural areas. The FAO actively promotes bamboo as a sustainable crop and
asserts that bamboo housing can regenerate deforested areas, empowering communities
to become self-sufficient in their resource cultivation [4]. The establishment of bamboo
plantations is increasing, particularly in China. The EcoPlanet Bamboo Group, which
owns and operates bamboo plantations, has branches in Nicaragua, South Africa, Ghana,
Rwanda, and the Philippines [5]. According to the FAO, international forces are coming
together to “put bamboo on the map”. The UN’s Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020
(FRA) has reported that bamboo covers approximately 35 million hectares of land in Africa,
Asia, and the Americas, especially in regions that are at risk of desertification. The FRA also
mentioned a 50 percent increase in bamboo-covered areas between 1990 and 2020, mainly
driven by its expansion in China and India.
The above demonstrates that the potential for bamboo to be used sustainably in res-
idential construction is widely acknowledged in terms of its environmentally friendly
properties. This has prompted national and international efforts to promote the use of
bamboo materials in social housing. However, there are several obstacles hindering the
timely achievement of these objectives. One issue is that the durability of bamboo materials
can diminish if building structures are not constructed properly. Consequently, bamboo
homes may not last as long as desired, resulting in disinvestment. Nevertheless, by employ-
ing sound construction practices and properly preserving bamboo materials, these houses
can endure for decades. Risks to consider include insect and fungal attacks, as well as rot
caused by moisture. To mitigate these risks, it is essential to have technical expertise, have
supervision during implementation, and offer technical assistance to professionals working
with bamboo. Ensuring the constructive durability is a crucial aspect that receives attention
in this article. Additionally, other research avenues are explored, such as investigating
whether scaling up these improved bamboo housing solutions is possible and how to
integrate them into the social production of housing.

Reasons for the Research and the Research Method

The use of bamboo in construction has been a longstanding tradition for centuries.
Nowadays, bamboo is increasingly being utilized in high-quality building applications,
including schools, villas, hotels, public buildings, pavilions, and restaurants located in
parks. It is also used in the construction of spatial structures. Many architecture books and
publications demonstrate this trend. The International Bamboo Construction Competition
of 2019 showcased the creativity of young architects and engineers who designed captivat-
ing bamboo solutions for spatial structures and buildings [6]. So far, the social and self-help
segments have received limited attention. This article showcases numerous interesting new
developments in bamboo design. The prevalence of bamboo houses in social housing and
local communities is not extensive. However, bamboo is frequently cited in publications
as an eco-friendly and sustainable material for residential construction, benefiting both
people and the planet. As a result, low-cost bamboo housing is being promoted globally,
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 4 of 20

but is it feasible to expand bamboo housing production to a larger scale? There are several
obstacles that need to be addressed.
The materials were collected from several countries where bamboo is prevalent. These
countries were chosen based on the following criteria: (1) availability of publications on
low-cost housing construction using bamboo, (2) vulnerability to natural disasters such
as earthquakes and severe storms, and (3) the presence or potential for housing projects,
regardless of their size. This search provided sufficient material to address some of the re-
search questions. Research materials were found in the vast literature on bamboo structures,
through a search on the Internet and through consulting some international specialists.
Additionally, apart from the countries discussed in this article, there are other countries
where bamboo housing is being utilized, either in an experimental phase or on a larger scale.

2. Bamboo Materials in Housing Construction

The popularity of bamboo as a building material is on the rise, particularly among
renowned architects. This trend has led to innovative architecture, particularly in the higher-
end construction sector, including schools, hotels, restaurants, community houses, and
holiday resort buildings. Two noteworthy examples are the Handmade School in Rudrapur,
Dinajpur, Bangladesh, designed by Anna Heringer and Eike Roswag, and the Green School
in Badung, Bali, Indonesia, designed by Effan Adhiwira [7]. Technical innovations include
methods for making the bamboo material more sustainable, applying improved joints and
connectors, and processing bamboo into composite panels, glued beams, and planks. The
latter development is mainly occurring in China, India, and Japan. This has resulted in
high-quality bamboo materials which, unfortunately, are too expensive for use in low-cost
housing construction in the rural areas of developing countries.
In areas where bamboo grows naturally, families often have experience in building
shelters using bamboo. Small entrepreneurs frequently engage in crafting bamboo furniture
and various consumer goods. Bamboo is also utilized in the paper and clothing industries,
and as a result, it is harvested for export. The fast growth of bamboo contributes to local
economic development. The increased use of bamboo for industrial purposes can lead to
higher prices, necessitating the establishment of bamboo plantations. Planting bamboo
may also be necessary in order to address environmental issues such as desertification
and deforestation. All of these factors require effective spatial planning and management.
If bamboo is used in construction as a substitute for wood, it has the potential to reduce
logging activities. Using bamboo in housing construction requires professional skills, but
experienced carpenters and other construction workers can quickly learn how to build with
it. This allows residents to contribute to reducing construction costs. If the local knowledge
and skills are not available, it is essential to establish training programs.
Bamboo can be effectively used in housing construction when combined with wood,
bricks, compressed earthen blocks (CEBs), and concrete. Due to its excellent proper-
ties, bamboo enables the construction of earthquake-resistant and storm-resistant homes.
However, using bamboo panels for exterior walls necessitates regular maintenance. By
plastering bamboo panels, durable walls with a refined finish can be achieved. Bamboo is
predominantly used as a building material in low-rise buildings in the following ways:
• for frames and trusses, all for the basic structure of a home;
• as fill-in material in the frames in the form of plastered braided bamboo panels or
laminated sheet material.
In Figure 2, the structure of a bamboo house (a) is shown, besides a cemented wall
consisting of infill panels (b). The images are derived from workshops given by Shyam
K. Paudel and Maxim Lobovikov of INBAR, in the period 2001–2004, which showcase
the early improved bamboo housing experiences. Technical challenges in the application
of bamboo include the following: (1) ensuring sustainability that is ecologically sound,
(2) ensuring strong anchoring to the foundation, (3) providing reliable corner connections,
and (4) complying with regulations for earthquake-resistant or storm-resistant construction.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 5 of 20

(a) (b)

Figure 2. (a,b) Frames for house construction. (a) Wall with infill frames. (b) Sources: INBAR.

Bamboo is treated with preservatives to prevent termites, beetles, and fungi from
affecting it, and needs to be kept dry. If it is not treated properly, its service life is only 5–10
years. Exposing untreated bamboo to rain causes a short lifespan. However, if the material
is properly treated and is under the cover of a roof, it can last for at least 50 years and
even decades more [8,9]. Sometimes, it is desirable to plaster the outer walls of bamboo
tt
houses—on wattle—to provide protection against the influences of the climate and insects.
If the exterior walls are completely covered with bamboo wattle work,ttthe houses can look
like an “ordinary” house.
In a study on the utilization of bamboo housing in Guayaquil, Ecuador, it was discov-
ered that after the construction of paved roads in a residential area, the bamboo houses,
which were previously built by the NGO ”Hogar de Cristo”, were transformed by the
families themselves into houses made of bricks and concrete blocks. This transformation
was motivated by the desire for an improved housing quality. In a similar example in
Guatemala, the NGO IDESAC worked with families in rural areas to promote the use of
bamboo in construction. However, the families viewed bamboo as a “poor man’s building
material” and were reluctant to incorporate it into their homes. This perception was shared
by architect Luis Estrada from IDESAC, who was interviewed by the author in 2016. To
change this mindset, it is crucial to construct more sample homes made of bamboo that are
both sustainable and visually appealing.
In the Chittagong
tt Hill Tracts in southeastern Bangladesh, traditional houses were
constructed on elevated platforms using bamboo and chhan (sungrass). These stilt houses
were built to offer protection against wildlife and flooding. Additionally, the space be-
ff
neath the platform was utilized to accommodate livestock. However, there has been a
significant decline in chhan cultivation, resulting in a rise in the cost of the roofing ma-
terial. Obtaining bamboos and trees from the forests has also become more difficult and
ffi
expensive. As a result, many residents have gradually replaced their traditional dwellings
with modern homes made of bricks, cement, and concrete [10]. This is partly the reason
why the Machang houses are falling into disrepair, but another cause is that untreated
bamboo only lasts for three to four years. As “modern” building materials became more
accessible to local communities, families started preferring materials like stone for con-
struction. As a result, the rich customs and architecture of the Machang houses are at
risk of disappearing. To prevent this, we should promote the use of improved bamboo
techniques in constructing new model homes. The citation in Box 1 states that the improved
bamboo construction technique, also known as “engineered bahareque”, is important for
environmental sustainability, as well as the durability of the homes.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 6 of 20

Box 1. Engineered bamboo for housing.

From: Design guide for Engineered Bahareque Housing (Kaminski, Lawrence, Trujillo, 2016 by
INBAR) [9].
“Engineered bahareque housing has been shown to be environmentally superior to other forms
of housing such as masonry, with as little as half of the embodied carbon and the ability to be
built largely using fast-growing sustainable materials such as bamboo. Its sustainability can be
maximized by ensuring the bamboo and timber is taken from a local and sustainable source,
minimizing the thickness of cement mortar render and maximizing the use of cement replacements
such as lime. Non-toxic treatment chemicals should be used whenever possible for the bamboo
and timber”.

3. Research Materials: Bamboo Housing in Three Regions of the World

3.1. Bamboo Housing in Latin America
There are many bamboo species in Latin America; the one predominantly used for
construction purposes is guadua angustifolia. In Colombia, the traditional method of
building with bamboo is known as “bahareque”, while in Peru and Ecuador, it is referred
to as “quincha”. Similar techniques are also found in other countries such as Brazil and
Venezuela. These ancient construction techniques typically involve using uprights of wood
or bamboo and horizontal elements made of twigs or reeds. A braid can be single sided
or double sided and is plastered with “mud” (loam), clay, gypsum (mixture of lime and
water), or a combination of similar raw materials. The finishing of these walls always
involves plastering with cement, lime, or earthen materials.
Due to the occurrence of earthquakes in many countries, the bahareque and quincha
structures—when they were in poor condition—were often proved unable to withstand
severe seismic activity, resulting in the collapse or damage of numerous houses. These
techniques were therefore commonly referred to as “non-engineered”. Where the structures
were in good condition (properly built, preserved, and maintained well), their physical
behavior during earthquakes was acceptable. Consequently, a global search began for tech-
nically improved bamboo-based building constructions (or engineered bahareque). Today,
the improved bahareque technique for walls is widely regarded as earthquake-resistant and
aesthetically pleasing. The bahareque walls are normally called “engineered bahareque”,
or “composite bamboo shear walls” (CBSW). The CBSW system is an effective way of
creating low-carbon housing that provides excellent code-compliant strength, ductility, and
durability, and has significant potential for affordable housing in highly seismic lower- and
middle-income countries, where bamboo grows [11].
In Colombia, the pioneering use of bahareque constructions, plastered with earth,
dates back to early times. Since 2002, this guadua-based system has been included in the
national building codes for seismic resistance. Following the devastating earthquake of
1999 in Colombia’s coffee region, which resulted in 1185 deaths and over 4000 injuries, it
became evident that significant damage had occurred to many houses, particularly in the
departments of Quindío and Risaralda. However, numerous houses were reconstructed
using the improved bahareque technology. Engineer Luis Felipe López played an integral
role in this process and later introduced the enhanced technology to the Philippines.
Colombian architect Simón Vélez has gained international recognition for his innova-
tive designs in bamboo construction, making bamboo buildings widely renowned. As a
result, Colombia has become a leading country in this field, with many bamboo experts
being sent to other countries to share their knowledge and transfer bamboo techniques.
In Colombia, there is a wealth of knowledge, and construction workers are extensively
trained to work with bamboo. Currently, there are no known social housing plans of any
size that incorporate the improved bahareque technique. However, ongoing studies are
being conducted in the coffee region to explore the use of this new architecture for the
construction of social housing.
In Costa Rica, the National Bamboo Project (NPB; 1986–1995) introduced a strategy to
combat deforestation by replacing the use of wood with bamboo as a seismically sound and
affordable building material. The project aimed to promote the use of bamboo in a housing
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 7 of 20

program, the industrialization of bamboo, and the marketing of its by-products. Initially,
700 low-cost homes were constructed, and 200 hectares of bamboo was cultivated by 1989.
Unfortunately, the NPB did not receive the intended large-scale follow-up. However, it
did contribute to the improvement of construction techniques, such as using stone, bricks,
and cement for foundations, bamboo piles for frames, and bamboo panels for plastered
walls. The NPB demonstrated that the bamboo houses designed have the potential to
be sustainable and seismically resilient alternatives to houses made of more “modern”
building materials like stone, concrete, and steel. Consequently, well-designed homes using
engineered bamboo have a higher chance of acceptance among local communities. In Costa
Rica, bamboo can often be found in the buildings and homes of holiday resorts.
In Ecuador, the NGO Hogar de Cristo (HdC) built approximately 265,000 traditional
bamboo houses for and with local communities until 2012. These housing types were
designed to be built quickly. One of the prototypes, known as the “MACAHO” model,
utilizes timber frames and preserved bamboo for wall panels. This particular model is
often designed as an expandable home, which keeps the cost of the basic module relatively
low and affordable for a large number of low-income households. According to the HdC
brochure from 2020, the purchase price for the “Salomé” housing model is USD 2684 [12].
This is, however, a temporary home with a limited lifespan. The brochure also includes
models that can be expanded on the ground floor with walls made of concrete blocks, as
well as final housing models with concrete block walls and metal frames. Bamboo is only
used for partitions in these instances, while the house frames are constructed from wood.
In 2022, the Ecuadorian government initiated a new program focused on bamboo houses,
which will be implemented by the Ministry of Urban Development and Public Housing.
The first type of bamboo house was constructed in the canton of Omedo, located in the
province of Manabí. The local vocational training institution ”Escuela Taller Manabí”,
specializing in bamboo constructions, was involved in the project, with assistance provided
by INBAR and the Spanish aid organization AECID. However, the cost of a single home
is USD 18,700, which is relatively high for low-income households. Nevertheless, the
government has pledged to finance the construction of 220 homes as part of this project.
In Nicaragua, bamboo housing is not yet widespread. However, the National Univer-
sity of Engineers in Managua, UNI, has developed a prototype for use in social housing
in the country. This project serves as a research center for safe building in Nicaragua, a
volcanic country prone to frequent earthquakes. Moreover, young architects and engi-
neers have designed a hurricane-resistant bamboo house in the city of El Rama, located in
Nicaragua’s Caribbean region. Architect Jorge Bonilla’s start-up, “Bambuksa”, assists local
communities in constructing bamboo houses. The organization EcoPlanet Bamboo owns
and operates three bamboo plantations in the El Rama region, which collectively cover
more than 4000 hectares of restored forest landscapes [13].
El Salvador, another volcanic country susceptible to frequent earthquakes, explored the
improved bahareque technique in 2002 through a collaborative study involving the NGOs
Fundasal, Misereor, and CRATerre-EAG. The study aimed to develop a low-cost, seismic-
resistant house for rural areas using bamboo and timber. Around 2015, a consultancy firm
called ARUP, the Salvadoran NGO REDES, and the University of Cambridge collaborated
to develop an innovative model house using bamboo, timber, and cement mortar. The
resulting house was low-cost, seismically resistant, and sustainable. Technical testing was
conducted at the University of Cambridge, and the authors concluded that this type of
housing could be suitable for highly seismic areas [14]. Fundasal completed an improved
bahareque model house for Mrs. Bersaides Ramirez in 2022 [15]. The development of
bamboo houses in El Salvador is still at a small-scale level, but there is significant potential
for growth.
In Peru, bamboo grows in the northeastern provinces of Cajamarca, Lambayeque,
Piura, and Amazonas. Bamboo material is also imported from Ecuador. In the Piura
region, bamboo is traditionally used by lower-income families. However, during earth-
quakes, many building structures using the old quincha wood and bamboo techniques
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 8 of 20

were destroyed. Currently, there are pilot projects being set up in the country to construct
earthquake-resistant bamboo houses. But sometimes, initiators did not prove, using calcu-
lations, that houses would become earthquake resistant. The IVUC housing institute of the
University of San Martín de Porres in Lima prepared a valuable guidebook for building
houses with bamboo in Peru [16]. The architects Yann Barnet and Faouzi Jabrane from
IVUC developed a small temporary house made of bamboo for the victims of the 2007
earthquake. A total of 50 growth houses consisting of prefabricated panels were built. The
residents themselves assembled the houses under the technical supervision of IVUC [17].
Later, two other housing models were developed (IVUC 2 and 3), both with an additional
floor. The IVUC’s work is innovative in several ways: the houses are constructed quickly,
they can be individually expanded, an extra floor can be added, and the architecture is
modern and colorful. Architect Tania Cerrón also has experience in designing structures
with bamboo, including rural dwellings [18]. In the region around the city of Piura, which
is often affected by floods and tropical storms, the “Mesa Técnica Regional del Bambú”
was established by the regional government. Its purpose is to enhance the value of bamboo
crops and improve stock management to promote Guayaquil’s bamboo production for the
construction sector. With the support of the European Union, 400 construction workers will
receive training in the construction of climate change-resilient bamboo houses in the Piura
region. Additionally, some model homes will be built in low-income communities [19].
In Mexico, attempts have been made in certain states to promote housing construction
using bamboo and improved bahareque techniques. North of the city of Puebla, a project
was initiated to construct model houses utilizing prefabricated bamboo elements. The
“Comunal Taller de Arquitectura” in Mexico City collaborated with local communities to
develop housing designs. However, the initial building plan, which included domestic
bamboo as well as local wood and stone, was rejected for a first home due to regulatory
constraints imposed by CONAVI (2016), the National Housing Commission. As a result,
government funding was not yet possible. Undeterred, the construction group proceeded to
design a second prototype for social housing in a mountain village, utilizing a prefabricated
bamboo frame. To circumvent the use of local bamboo species, bamboo was imported from
abroad. Eventually, a model house was successfully constructed through collaboration with
local residents, and it was subsequently recognized and awarded by CONAVI. In addition
to these government initiatives, there are also private ventures focused on bamboo housing
in Mexico. One such example is the ecological bamboo house called “Casa Milpa”, which
was created by Cooperativa Las Cañadas in Huatusco, Veracruz [20]. Another noteworthy
project is the “Crece tu Casa”, a bamboo structure designed by architect Lucila Aguilar
in Tuzantán. This design received the second prize in the World Design Awards 2021,
organized by The Architecture Community. “Crece tu Casa” is an adaptable model house
with walls made from various materials [21]. Currently, Mexico is actively working on
establishing a new standard (NMX) for the design and construction of bamboo structures.
Exemplary bamboo dwellings in some Latin-America countries are shown in Figure 3.

3.2. Bamboo Housing in Asia

In various Asian countries, bamboo is abundantly available for use in various appli-
cations. Traditionally, bamboo has been extensively used in agricultural areas and rural
villages. It continues to be a cost-effective material for many families who construct their
homes, either individually or collectively. Examples of countries known for their bam-
boo resources include Bangladesh, China, the Philippines, India, Indonesia, Japan, Nepal,
and Thailand.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 9 of 20

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 3. (a–f) Improved bamboo dwellings in Latin America. (a) Costa Rica. Example house with
cemented exterior walls. Around 1987. Source: Jules Janssen. (b) El Salvador. Engineered house
(cane and timber), fully plastered. Source: Sebastian Kaminski [9]. (c) Peru. IVUC 2 house for various
purposes, 2 floors. Source: Yann Barnet [17]. (d) El Salvador. Example home. Source: Fundasal [15].
(e) Nicaragua. Example house at UNI campus, Managua. Source: author. (f) México. Grow House.
Source: Lucila Aguilar [21].

Bangladesh has an extensive delta area and is frequently affected by river flooding,
as well as rising sea levels. The climate in Bangladesh is greatly influenced by its long,
tropical rainy season. There is a high demand for affordable housing, with a large portion
of the population relying on traditional building materials like bamboo for their homes.
ff
However, there is a shortage in the bamboo supply due to poor management, even though
bamboo is still abundant. The most commonly used bamboo species is Melocanna Baccifera
(muli). In areas like the Chittahong Hill Tracks, houses are constructed using bamboo,
wood, and rammed earth. In flood-prone areas, homes are often raised on stilts, which
ff
can be vulnerable. In new constructions, the foundations of the dwellings must be made
of concrete or stone, with wooden or bamboo structures built on top. It is preferable for
elevated houses to be supported by concrete piles. ffHomes not only need to withstand
rising water levels but also cyclones, placing additional demands on the building structures.
Therefore, there is a pressing need for climate-resistant housing to tackle the consequences
of climate change.
Nearly 1 million Rohingya refugees from Myanmar have found temporary shelter
in Bangladesh, where they are tt forced to live in camps in very poor circumstances. Many
temporary shelters are made of bamboo and are very fragile. Aid organizations are trying
to improve the technical conditions of the bamboo houses with measures to counteract the
worst problems [22]. Heavy rainfall and severe flooding can damage shelters or completely
destroy them. The temporary shelters showed in Figure 4 can be improved but are not
durable in a technical sense in the case of flooding and heavy storms.
In the Philippines, bamboo naturally grows in backyards, riverbanks, forest areas, and
sometimes on private lands. The archipelago provides an excellent climate for various
bamboo species. The bamboo industry in the Philippines is steadily growing and gaining
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 10 of 20

recognition as a sustainable source of income for farmers. The country’s climate, with
abundant rainfall and fertile soil, is conducive to bamboo cultivation. Houses located on the
coast or riverbanks are constructed on stilts, as the country frequently experiences typhoons,
necessitating improved constructiontttechniques. The Cement Bamboo Frame Technology
in the Philippines [23], developed by the Base Bahay Foundation (BBF), is an enhancement
of the traditional “wattle and daub” technique, known locally as “tabique Pampango”. This
method involves using vertically placed wooden posts and horizontally woven branches
covered in clay or loam. The BBF frame is covered with a mesh to hold cement mortar
plaster, resulting in smooth outer walls that maintain an ordinary appearance. The BBF has
successfully built over 1000 small homes in 12 municipalities in the Philippines. The BBF
states that their “Cement Bamboo Frame Homes” tt are resistant to typhoons, earthquakes,
fires, and termite attacks. Similar homes are also being constructed in Nepal through
a partnership with the NGO Habitat for Humanity. Furthermore, the Forest Products
Research and Development Institute (FPRDI), an agency under the Ministry of Science and
Technology, is working on a low-cost, DIY bamboo shelter for the impoverished. This ready-
made house designed by FPRDI can be assembled in just 2 days [24]. Some exemplary
dwellings in Bangladesh and the Philippines are shown in Figure 4.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 4. (a,b) Temporary shelters in Bangladesh and the Philippines. (c–f) Cement bamboo frame
homes in the Philippines. (a) Bangladesh. Typical NGO-led bamboo shelter in Cox’s Bazar. Refugee
camp. Source: S. Kaminski [22]. (b) The Philippines. Do-it-yourself bamboo shelter for low-income
families. Source: FPRDI [24]. (c) The Philippines. Base Bahay Innovation Center. Source: Base
Bahay Foundation [23]. (d) The Philippines. Neighborhood bamboo houses. Source: Base Bahay
Foundation [23]. (e) The Philippines. Housing project with plastered houses. Source: Base Bahay
Foundation [23]. (f) the Philippines. Social housing of Base-Bahay and Habitat for Humanity in
Negros Occidental. Source: Hilti Foundation [23].

India is a major producer of bamboo and has a rich history of indigenous bamboo
construction. India is home to more than 135 different species, 50 percent of which are
cultivated in the eastern/northeastern states of India. Bamboo has been historically and eco-
nomically important in India for cookware, food, and construction purposes. In the colder
and cloudier climate of northeast India, the “wattle and daub” construction technique, also
 tt

Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 11 of 20

known as “Ikara”, is used. This technique involves wooden or bamboo frames with split
bamboo fabrics that are covered with “mud” (soil/earth) to form the wall elements. The
bamboo or wood frame is smothered with soil mixed with a slurry and allowed to dry. The
foundation of the dwelling is elevated and consists of tamped earth, and more ff recently,
cement mortar has also been used.
Today, improved techniques are employed using wooden or bamboo frames filled
with split bamboo fabrics as wall panels. These panels can be prefabricated, and the house
frames are often made of metal. Social enterprise Bamboo House India offers such homes
in the market. Their metal construction frames are relatively lightweight and easy to
assemble [25].
In October 2022, the Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training Institute
(IPIRTI) in Bangalore merged with the Institute of Wood Science and Technology. They
have developed an earthquake-resistant bamboo house that combines traditional methods
with modern construction techniques. Their research has demonstrated that bamboo can
be utilized to create earthquake-resistant frames and wall panels. This system is suitable
for prefabrication or in situ fabrication [26].
According to architect Harikrishnan Sasidharan from NO Architects, the Kerala region
in southern India has recently faced heavy rainfall and flooding. The floods in 2018
resulted in significant devastation. In response to these challenges, NO Architects has been
researching reusable construction methods, leading to the development of a pilot project.
The main structure of this project can serve multiple purposes, such as a residential unit,
clinic, aid station, shelter, library, or even toilets. The infill panels can be easily modified
depending on the specific use. To avoid the need for concrete foundations, a set of screw
piles has been employed as the structural system. The metal construction frame consists
of standardized components that can be assembled without the need for skilled labor. An
estimated cost for completing a two-bedroom structure, including sanitary facilities, ranges
from EUR 5500 to 6600 [27]. Three exemplary bamboo dwellings are shown in Figure 5.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5. (a–c) Example homes in India. (a) House in Aleru. Source: Bamboo House India [25];
(b) Earthquake resistant house with bamboo frames and panels [26], (c) Modern bamboo house on
stilts, in Kerala. Source: NO Architects [27].

Indonesia is a country that is abundantly rich in various bamboo species, which are
used for a wide range of purposes. Advanced bamboo constructions have been utilized in
various sectors, including hotels, restaurants, and buildings in the tourism industry. These
structures are always designed by architects. Another segment of buildings comprises
affordable bamboo houses, constructed by families or local communities. The Indonesian
government expects that families and communities take responsibility for building their
own homes. Bamboo houses are often elevated and designed to promote proper ventila-
tion. Improved bamboo houses are made using “plastered bamboo”, a novel construction
technique in Indonesia that resembles the improved bahareque techniques seen in Latin
America. Private companies like PT Karisma in Depok, West Java, provide simple homes,
either as ready-to-assemble kits or fully constructed. The architects from Institut Teknologi
Bandung (ITB) have developed a new concept called “Mabuter”, which involves plastered
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 12 of 20
ff

bamboo houses that are affordable and of a decent quality. According to architect Akhmad
Gunawan, this concept is both environmentally friendly and resistant to earthquakes. In
2000, a plaster bamboo house was built in Sukabumi, West Java, for earthquake victims.
Remarkably, it remained in good condition until 2023. Recognizing the importance of dis-
aster relief, especially in earthquake-prone areas, ITB and Universitas Mataram established
a joint knowledge center in North Lombok in 2018 [28]. The aim is to initiate learning
projects focused on bamboo houses for local communities residing in rural areas. Example
homes constructed with plastered bamboo in Indonesia are shown in Figure 6.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Example homes in Indonesia. (a) Bamboo house with two floors in Lombok. Source: ITB
and UMRAM [28]. (b) Bamboo house with gypsum plaster in Cianjur, West-Java. Source: ITB [28].

China is a leader in the production of bamboo products and building materials. It has
established industrial processes for manufacturing, assembling, and exporting high-quality
bamboo products, including prefabricated elements for model homes. China is renowned
as one of the most significant bamboo-producing countries, where various new techniques
have been developed and implemented. Traditional Chinese bamboo houses, such as
the Galan bamboo house and those belonging to the Dai group in Xishuangbanna, are
well known. These bamboo houses are designed with a double-layer structure to prevent
moisture, with the Dai people residing upstairs while keeping cattle and poultry below [29].
Dai housing is shown in Figure 7a.
tt

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Bamboo homes in China. (a) Dai house. China Daily [29] (b) Bamboo house in Nankou,
Beijing, China. INBAR [30].

The focus of the industry is on producing prefabricated elements for housing. In

Kathmandu, Nepal, and Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, a demonstration house measuring 40 m2
was constructed using Chinese bamboo and structural parts. Such applications have great
potential, particularly for temporary housing in the aftermath of natural disasters. The pro-
duction of laminated bamboo is a key aspect of the bamboo industry, with various shapes
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 13 of 20

and dimensions being produced for housing and building applications [30]. Industrially
constructed demonstration house is shown in Figure 7b.

3.3. Bamboo Housing in Africa

Large-scale logging is taking place in Africa, partly due to the economic value of
tropical timber as an export product. Wood is frequently used as a construction material,
as well as for firewood and charcoal. Although bamboo grows naturally in 36 out of the
54 African countries, its utilization is not yet widespread. Expanding the cultivation and
use of bamboo could help mitigate deforestation. The economic potential of bamboo is
substantial, making the establishment of numerous bamboo plantations viable. However,
there is still a lack of or limited presence of a bamboo processing industry. From an economic
standpoint, there is potential for expanding bamboo cultivation in Africa. Planting bamboo
forests in areas at risk of desertification could yield positive and rapid results. Various
initiatives focus on commercializing bamboo, primarily for furniture production and other
consumer goods, creating an income source for small-scale entrepreneurs. However, large-
scale purchases of bamboo raw materials by industrial players could sideline local residents.
Africa possesses vast natural bamboo forests ranging from sea level to mountainous
regions. Approximately 4 percent of the continent’s forests consist of bamboo. In Kenya,
many bamboo species are solid rather than hollow. It has versatile uses in manufacturing
consumer items and can be employed in public housing as well. If bamboo is utilized
and applied locally, fostering a strong collaboration with local communities, a win–win
situation can be achieved for the local economy and the environment (by preventing
desertification). Oxytenanthera abyssinica is a native species found in East Africa, thriving
at altitudes between 1200 and 1800 m. Through international agreements facilitated by the
UN, opportunities exist to enhance farmers’ and their organizations’ expertise in bamboo
cultivation in countries like Ethiopia, Uganda, and Kenya.
In Uganda, the government has initiated the implementation of the National Bamboo
Strategy and Action Plan for the period of 2019 to 2029. This strategic plan aims to maximize
the utilization of the country’s bamboo resources. The implementation of this plan is being
facilitated by INBAR, the Ministry of Water and Environment, and the National Forestry
Authority (NFA). Currently, there are around 67,000 hectares of bamboo in protected areas.
Additionally, there is a plan to expand the bamboo acreage outside of protected areas by
an additional 375,000 hectares. The entrepreneur Fred Ijjo from FOB Consult Ltd., a social
enterprise that collaborates with local communities for housing projects, has successfully
developed model homes using bamboo.
There are many opportunities for utilizing bamboo as a sustainable building material
in Ethiopia. The country boasts numerous bamboo forests in certain regions. With an
impressive 1 million hectares of native bamboo, Ethiopia is one of the largest bamboo
producers in Africa, hosting 67 percent of all African bamboo species. Two main species,
yushania alpina and oxytenanthera abyssinica, are commonly found in the country’s
highlands and lowlands, respectively. Despite the vast natural bamboo resources, Ethiopia
has only recently started harnessing its potential. Efforts are currently being made to
develop innovative housing designs using bamboo.
In Tanzania, the adoption of bamboo houses is still in its early stages. The National
Housing and Building Research Agency is currently investigating the potential use of
bamboo for the production of doors, windows, and roofing materials. The primary focus
of this research is to identify building materials that can enable families to construct more
modern homes at a lower cost. If found feasible, families will be encouraged to invest in
bamboo cultivation for the production of these materials. A common construction technique
in Tanzania is known as “wattle and daub”, which involves using earth (or mud) for walls.
However, these structures often need to be restored after the rainy season. Tanzanians are
growing more concerned about the health issues associated with houses built using earthen
walls, such as insufficient ventilation and the risk of infestation by insects and fungi. In
Figure 8, two bamboo houses in Uganda and one in Ethiopia are shown.
 tt

Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 ffof 20

14

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8. (a–c) Bamboo houses in Uganda and Ethiopia. (a) Uganda, model house. Source: Fred Iijo
[e4impact.org], (b) Uganda, model house. Source: INBAR, (c) Ethiopia. Improved Sidama house.
Source: Kibwage and Misreave, INBAR.

In other sub-Saharan African countries, despite their warm and humid climate, bam-
boo is still not widely used as a material for housing. Traditionally, homes were constructed
with earthen walls, known as wattle and daub. These houses mostly consist of a single floor,
with a tamped earth or cement floor and walls that are plastered with earth. Nowadays,
these walls are often replaced with bricks. However, there is tremendous potential for
the utilization of bamboo in Africa, especially if governments take measures to encour-
age the cultivation of bamboo for (public) housing and mitigate the effects of desiccation
and desertification.

ff of Housing Construction with Bamboo

3.4. Discussions on Results
Latin America: Improved bahareque techniques for housing can be found in several
countries. In 2013, Kaminski provided a general overview [31]. However, some of these
developments are still in their early stages and have not yet resulted in large-scale bamboo
ff
housing construction. In some cases, government regulations have posed obstacles to the
construction of homes with local bamboo, as seen in Mexico. Nevertheless, educational ff
and research institutions are carrying out various pilot projects, with NGOs also actively
participating in these efforts. Governments recognize the importance of promoting bamboo
cultivation in the context of new climate and environmental policies, as well as for enhanc-
ing sustainability in the construction sector. There is a growing recognition that improved
bahareque techniques can enable the construction of social and affordable housing that
is resistant to earthquakes and storms. Thanks to the longstanding efforts of Hogar de
Cristo in Ecuador, many homes have been built using wood and bamboo, particularly those
designed for individual growth potential. Numerous families have transitioned from their
original homes to ones built with more “modern” materials like bricks and concrete blocks.
NGOs have played a crucial role in making bamboo construction accessible to low-income
families, such as Habitat for Humanity did in several countries, as well as Progreso in
Piura, Peru. To ensure an adequate supply of bamboo in the future, the organization and
management of bamboo forests are often incorporated into national policies for forest and
agricultural management, as well as nature development.
Asia: In the countries mentioned, bamboo houses are traditionally widespread, par-
ticularly in rural areas and small villages. Natural disasters and climate change heavily
impact large parts of Bangladesh, India, the Philippines, and Indonesia. Bangladesh is
facing severe challenges due to floods and tropical storms. The most significant threats
in Indonesia are earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, given its geographic location along
the “Ring of Fire”. Therefore, attention is focused on constructing earthquake-resistant
buildings. In Bangladesh, homes in vulnerable areas are often built on stilts, and founda-
tion piles are preferably made of concrete, despite the higher cost. The Philippines has
made progress in adopting the Cement Bamboo Frame Technology, thanks to initiatives
by aid organizations, which serve as important exemplary projects. Floods, severe storms,
and typhoons pose specific demands on building structures in the Philippines, similar
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 15 of 20

to Bangladesh. Coastal areas in both countries have numerous stilt houses that require
reinforcement. India has four distinct climate regions, each with unique housing construc-
tion requirements. Among the challenges faced in India are heavy flooding, necessitating
waterproof foundations, as well as the need for earthquake-resistant construction in other
regions. China, with its vast industrial potential, is the largest exporter of bamboo and
plays a significant role in supplying the construction sector. India and Japan hold the
second and third positions, respectively.
Africa: This continent has numerous bamboo reserves in the countries located south
of the Sahara. People traditionally used the “mud-wall” (earth) technique to construct their
homes. Whenever a village is established, all members of the community, irrespective of
age or gender, come together to support each other. By embracing modern technology
and increasing awareness about the advantageous properties of bamboo materials and
constructions, sustainable development can be initiated. If villagers utilize communal
aid, it is hoped that an affordable, low-tech bamboo building technique can be employed.
However, it is crucial for the improved bamboo techniques to reach the local communities.
Some governments aim to harness the potential of bamboo to benefit local economies and
combat land desiccation and degradation.

4. Technical Aspects of the Global Innovations

4.1. Technical Durability of Bamboo Structures
Bamboo materials and structures, including wall finishes, require proper preservation
and maintenance to ensure a long lifespan. It is important to emphasize the technical
durability in housing construction, along with the social and ecological sustainability.
Scientific research has demonstrated that traditional bamboo buildings have an excellent
seismic performance during earthquakes, mainly due to the following combined properties:
• A good strength-to-weight ratio makes bamboo constructions relatively lightweight
and poses fewer risks to the safety of the residents in the event of a collapse. Repairs
can be performed more easily and at a lower cost. Both properties are relevant for
comparing bamboo constructions to buildings made of masonry and concrete.
• Traditional bamboo jointing systems, such as nails and carpentry joints, are usually
able to withstand significant deformations without failing and can provide some level
of absorption. Similarly, wall systems like the “wattle and daub” technique, with mud
plaster, also possess this capability.
• Traditional bamboo buildings have a certain degree of internal bonding, which helps
in distributing forces evenly throughout the structure of the building.
The improved bamboo systems, such as “engineered” bahareque or “composite bam-
boo shear walls”, clearly outperform traditional ones in the mentioned aspects [32]. Atten-
tion is always required for the foundation, building structure, frames and panels, connection
solutions, and floors, especially if a second or possibly third floor is desired.
Unpreserved bamboo should never be used in construction. Durability is achieved
through various methods and techniques, such as immersing the bamboo poles in a mixture
of minerals like borax and boric acid for a long period and allowing them to thoroughly dry.
In addition, when incorporating bamboo materials in housing design, it is essential to keep
them dry and protected from heavy rain, even if they has been treated. Preventing insects
and fungi from infesting the bamboo and ensuring that water does not enter the columns is
crucial. The phases of impregnating the bamboo poles, and the drying process are shown
in Figures 9a and 9b respectively. Local workers and participating households need proper
training for processing the bamboo. To achieve the desired architectural appearance of the
houses, the wattle and daub walls are usually plastered. This step is necessary due to the
prevailing climatic conditions and should also be carried out on the inside. Applying a
smooth layer of stucco helps keep insects from nesting in any crevices.
 tt

Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 ff 16 of 20

(a) (b)
Figure 9. (a,b). Impregnation and drying. (a) immersion bath for bamboo. Source: INBAR. (b) storage
of bamboo for the drying process. Source: IVUC-UVMP.

The mechanical properties of bamboo housing can be tested according to the Interna-
tional Bamboo Structural Design Code: ISO 22156 (ISO, 2021) [33]. As a result, improved
bamboo structures and buildings have become increasingly common in the construction
practice [33]. In most cases, countries have their own technical standards. Colombia and
Ecuador were among the first to establish their own standards, which were later adopted
tt
by other nations.
Fire safety is also crucial when it comes to bamboo materials and structures. A study
conducted by ITB, UI, Indonesia, and Base Build, Philippines, has revealed that applying
mortar stucco can enhance the fire insulation capabilities of flattened bamboo wall samples.
Conversely, the absence of a mortar layer would greatly reduce the fire-resistant properties
of bamboo walls. The most effective application of mortar is on both sides of the sample,
with a recommended thickness of 25 mm to 30 mm [34].

4.2. Foundations and Building Structures

The foundations of the houses must always be solid and made with heavy materials
such as stones and/or concrete, to which the lighter bamboo structures are anchored. The
foundation must be able to withstand groundwater and flooding. The frames should be
securely attached to the foundation, ensuring that the anchors and joints do not weaken
during an earthquake or heavy storm. To construct earthquake or storm-resistant buildings,
bamboo or timber frameworks are typically used and assembled onsite. In the Philippines,
the Cement Bamboo Frame Technology involves plastering walls and panels with cement.
In Indonesia, improved plastered walls have been developed with the assistance of the ITB.
It is essential to calculate the optimal specifications for both the frames and panels based
on structural and climatic requirements.
The framework and trusses made of wood and bamboo can be filled with materials like
clay plaster and insulating sheet materials such as panels. The panels can be customized
to meet the desired dimensions. These solutions are considered “low tech”. Prefabricated
bamboo frames enable houses to be rapidly assembled on site. The first image of Figure 10
shows the organizing process of prefabricated panels on the ground. The second image
shows (another) house assembled on a building site. Larger composite walls can be
manufactured in factories using laminated bamboo materials, which are used to construct
entire exterior walls. The latter method is considered “high tech” and may not be affordable
for low-income families.
 tt ff
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 tt 17 of 20 ff

(a) (b)

Figure 10. Prefabricated panels; bamboo house under construction. (a) Frame ready for assembly.
Source: INBAR; (b) Assembly on the site. Source: Bambuksa [bambuksa.org].

4.3. Jointing Solutions

Making corner joints and welding with bamboo was originally completed using rope
and bamboo strips. However, nowadays, it is more common to use bolts and other steel
connecting methods such as clamps, brackets, and plates. There are various variations of
these techniques found across the world, and continuous technical advancements are also
being made. Examples of a new connection with bolts, and an improved corner connection,
are shown respectively in Figures 11a and 11b. Ensuring the strength of these corner joints
is crucial for the safety of homes, especially when they need to be resistant to earthquakes
or storms. Therefore, it is essential to have engineers design, calculate, and test these joints.

(a) (b)
Figure 11. (a,b) Connections with bolts; improved corner connections. Source: author.

4.4. Floors
From a technical standpoint, there is no issue in constructing houses with two levels
using bamboo as a supporting structure. However, in areas prone to flooding, it is preferable
to build the foundation and first floor using stone materials. The second floor can then be
constructed using lighter materials like bamboo and wood. Some test homes have already
been successfully built, such as in Lima, Peru. In these structures, wooden beams are
used for the first floor instead of bamboo beams, as they are more suitable for providing
structural support. Figure 12 shows a family house built in the municipality of San Juan
de Lurigrancho, near Lima. The house has two floors and is developed with the help of
IVUC-USMP, Lima.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 18 of 20

Figure 12. Bamboo house in Lima, Peru. Source: Y. Barnet.

5. Conclusions
ff
The search for affordable bamboo homes has led to an assessment of sustainable
bamboo construction examples in Latin America, Asia, and to some extent, in Africa. These
examples provide insights into the adoption of improved bamboo techniques for construc-
tion in the selected countries. These examples showcase low-cost homes that can be easily
expanded by residents within the context of urban planning. The overview demonstrates
that engineered bamboo houses exhibit a higher earthquake resistance compared to non-
engineered homes, as well as those constructed with fired bricks, concrete blocks, and
cement. This finding has been supported by various studies, including those conducted
by Kaminski [35] and Barnett [36]. The technique of engineered bahareque has served as a
guideline for housing projects,ttespecially in Latin America and Asia. However, improved
bamboo techniques for housing are not yet widely applied, with some countries only in the
initial phase. However, in the case of the Philippines, bamboo housing production is very
promising through the projects of the Base Bahay foundation. Architects, engineers, and
technical universities have made valuable contributions through technological innovations,
while also engaging motivated students in tackling technical design challenges. Further-
more, national governments have shown an increasing interest in the utilization of bamboo
in housing construction.
A potential future application of bamboo housing on a large scale could lead to an
increase in the demand for bamboo, potentially driving up the prices of the material. As the
economic exploitation of bamboo resources continues to grow, it may become less accessible
to local residents. Governments should be aware of this and implement measures to protect
local communities accordingly.
The use of wood in residential construction is quite similar to the use of bamboo,
but it is more dimensionally stable for certain applications. However, it is also heavier.
Combining a timber frame with braided bamboo panels, whether plastered or not, can be
done effectively. It is also possible to combine it with other building materials. It is not
recommended to build all-wood or all-bamboo dwellings in densely populated areas due
to the risk of fires. The fire safety of bamboo houses requires continuous attention. In areas
prone to flooding, homes are constructed on stilts. In such cases, the piles must be made of
durable materials like reinforced concrete.
This article demonstrates that there are enough examples of bamboo homes world-
wide to support their application on a larger scale for housing low-income families. The
production of social housing using bamboo implies that governments will facilitate the
use of bamboo as a construction material, making these homes more accessible to families.
This can be achieved through various means, such as applying subsidy schemes for social
Sustainability 2024, 16, 2347 19 of 20

housing. If families participate in the processing of bamboo materials and the construc-
tion of their homes, technical assistance becomes necessary. Training programs may be
required, especially for local construction workers who have no previous experience in
building with bamboo, particularly in areas prone to natural disasters and climate change.
It is desirable to have international exchanges regarding realistic housing typologies and
affordable bamboo constructions.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Acknowledgments: The author expresses gratitude to Jules J. Janssen, the bamboo expert from the
Eindhoven University of Technology in the Netherlands; Yann Barnet, the architect from the IVUC
institute at the University of San Martín de Porres in Lima, Peru; and Harikrishnan Sasidharan, the
architect from NO Architects in Kerala, India, for their valuable insights and visual materials. The
author also extends thanks both to Kewei Liu from the Construction Task Force of the International
Bamboo and Rattan Organization (INBAR), China, and the structural engineer Sebastian Kaminski,
from the consultancy firm ARUP in London, the UK, for their valuable comments on the article and
the provision of visual materials. Finally, the author thanks the following persons and institutions for
giving permission to use specific photographs in this document: Lynn Clark, Iowa State University;
Jorge Bonilla of Bambuksa, Nicaragua [bambuksa.com/innovation/]; Luis Felipe López, of Base-
Bahay Foundation, the Philippines [23]; Prashant Lingam of Bamboo House India [25]; Rico J.
Cabangon of FPRDI, India [24]; and Fred Fijo of FOB Consult, Uganda [https://e4impact.org/fred-
ijjo-bamboo-for-housing-in-uganda/].
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest.

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