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 INDEX

SI. No TOPIC Page Number

1. PHYSICS 01
I. Units and Measurements 01
II. LIGHT 12
III. HEAT 34
IV. SOUND 44
V. Mechanics 63
VI. Electricity & Electro Magnetism 93
VII. Magnetism 112
VIII. Modern Physics 126
XI. Electronics and Communications 136
2. CHEMISTRY 149
I. Matter 149
II. Atomic Structure 163
III. Periodic Classification of Elements 177
IV. Chemical Bonding & Chemical Reactions 188
V. Acids and Bases, Salts 200
VI. Carbon and its Compounds: 212
VII. Environmental Chemistry 251
VIII. Metallurgy 259

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Units and Measurements

Physical Quantities
Physical quantities are the characteristics or properties of matter that can be measured using numerical values.
Examples - Length, mass, temperature, time, force, speed, distance, acceleration, velocity, momentum, current.

Types of Physical Quantities

On the basis of unit and measurement, the physical quantities are divided into three parts -

i. Fundamental Quantities
The physical quantities which do not require another physical quantity to be expressed.
Examples - Distance, time, mass, electric current, temperature, amount of substance and luminous intensity.

ii. Derived Quantities

The derived quantities that require two or more principal quantities to be expressed.
Examples - Force, area, volume, speed.

iii. Supplementary Quantities

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Quantity that requires neither a base quantity nor a derived quantity to express it.
Examples - Plane angle (radian - rad) and Solid Angle (Steradian-sr).
On the basis of magnitude and direction, the physical quantity is divided into two parts-

Vector Quantities
A physical quantity which has magnitude as well as direction.
Examples-Displacement, velocity, torque, acceleration, force, weight, momentum, impulse, electric field, magnetic
field, current density, angular velocity.

Scalar Quantities
A physical quantity which has only its magnitude but no direction.
Examples - Distance, energy, power, time, speed, volume, density, pressure, work, charge, electric current, temperature,
specific heat, frequency, mass.

Unit
The standard that is needed to express any physical quantity is called a unit.
Units are also divided into the following parts-

Fundamental Units or Base Units

The units of fundamental physical quantities are called fundamental units. There are seven fundamental units i.e., metre,
kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela and mole.

Derived Units
The units of all other physical quantities which are obtained with the help of fundamental units are called derived units.
Examples - Units of area, volume, density, speed, power, work, force, energy, acceleration, momentum.

Supplementary Units
The units used for the supplementary quantities are known as supplementary units.
Examples: Units of plane angle and solid angle.

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System of Units
A complete set of units having both the base units and derived units is known as the system of units.
The common systems of units are-

(i) MKS System (Metre Kilogram Second): In this system, the units of length, mass and time are metre, kilogram
and second respectively.

(ii) CGS System or Gaussian System (Centimetre Gram Second): In this system, the units of length, mass and
time are centimetre, gram and second respectively.
The MKS and CGS systems are called metric or decimal systems.

(iii) FPS System or British System (Foot Pound Second): In this system, the units of length, mass and time are
respectively foot, pound and second.

(iv) SI System (International System of Units): SI was adopted and accepted in the International Conference of
Weights and Measures held at Geneva in 1960, on the basis of comprehensive consensus. Sl system is an extended and
modified form of the MKS system.
> These SI base units or commonly called metric units, are:
Metre (m) The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299
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792 458 of a second.

kilogram (kg) The kilogram is the mass of the platinum-iridium prototype whichwas approved by the
Conference Generale des Poids et Mesures, held in Paris in 1889, and kept by the Bureau
International des Poids et Mesures at Paris in France.
Second (s) The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.
Ampere (A) The ampere is the intensity of a constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section,and placed 1 metre apart in
vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10–7 newton per metre
of length.
Kelvin (K) The kelvin is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of
water.
Candela (cd) The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that
direction of 1/683 watt per steradian.
Mole (mol) The mole is the amount of the substance of a system which contains as many elementary
entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12.

International System (SI Unit)

In 1960, the original units were six, but in 1971 it became seven units by adding Mole.
Base Quantity Name Symbol
Mass Kilogram Kg
Length Metre M
Time Second S
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
Amount of Substance Mole mol

Supplementary Units and their Symbols in SI System

Name of quantity Name of unit Symbol
Plane angle Radian Rad
Solid angle Steradian Sr

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Radian and Steradian are dimensionless quantities, because angle can be expressed as the ratio of the length of an arc to
the radius of that circular object.

Fundamental units of F.P.S, C.G.S, M.K.S and S.I

S.No Basic quantity British Units Metric Units International
Units
F.P.S Symbol C.G.S Sym M.K.S Symbol S.I units Symbol
bol
1 Length Foot ft Centimet cm Metre m Metre m
re
2 Mass Pound lb Gram g Kilogram kg Kilogra Kg
m
3 Time Second s Second s Second s Second s
4 Current Ampere A Ampere A Ampere A Ampere A
5 Temperature Fahrenheit °F Centigra °C Centigrade °C Kelvin K
de
6 Light intensity Candela Cd Candela Cd Candela Cd Candela Cd

Derived Unit

S. Physical British Units Metric Units International Units

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N
Qunatity FPS Symb CGS Symb MKS Symbo SI Units SYMBOL
o
ol ol l
1 Area Square foot ft2 Square centimetre cm2 Square m2 Square m2
metre metre
2 Volume Cubic foot ft3 Cubic centimetre cm3 Cubic metre m3 Cubic m3
metre
3 Density Pound per lb/ft3 Gram per cubic g/cm3 Kilogram kg/m3 Kilogram Kg/m3
cubic foot centimetre per cubic per cubic
metre metre
4 Speed Foot per ft/s Centimetre per cm/sec Metre per m/sec Metre m/sec
second second second per
second
5 Velocity ( Foot per ft/s Centimetre per cm/sec Metre per m/sec Metre m/sec
Linear) second second second per
second
6 Acceleration Foot per ft/s2 Centimetre per cm/sec Metre per m/sec2 Metre m/sec2
2
square second square second square per
second square
second
7 Retardation Foot per ft/s2 Centimetre per cm/sec Metre per m/sec2 Metre m/sec2
2
square Second square second square square
second second
8 Angular Degreeper Deg/se Radian per second rad/sec Radian per rad/sec Radian rad/sec
velocity second c second per
second
9 Mass Pound (slug) lb Gram g Kilogram kg Kilogram kg
10 Weight Pound lb Gram g Kilogram kg Newton N
weight
11 Force Pounds lbf dyne dyn Kilogram kgf Newton N(kgm/sec2)
force
12 Power Foot pound ft.lb/se Gram.centimetre/s g.cm/ kilogram kg.m/ - -
per second c ec sec metre per sec
second
hp Erg watt W watt W(J/se watt W(J/Sec)
per c)
second

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13 Pressure, Pound per lb/in2 Gram per square g/cm2 Kilogram kg/m2 Newton N/m2
Stress square inch centimetre per square per
metre square
metre
14 Energy, Foot.pound ft.lb Gramcentimetre g.cm Kilogram kg.m joule J(Nm)
work metre

15 Heat British Btu calorie Cal joule J joule J(Nm)

thermal unit
16 Torque Pound force lbf.ft Newton N mm Kilogramme kg.m Newton Nm
foot millimetre tre metre
17 temperature Degree °F Degree °C Kelvin K Kelvin K
Fahrenheit Centigrade
18 Specific heat BTU per Btu/lb° Calorie per gram Cal/g° Joule per J/(kgK) Joule per J/(kgK)
pound degree F degree Celsius C kilogram kilogram
fahrenheit kelvin kelvin
19 Frequency Cycle per 1/s Hertz Hz Hertz Hz Hertz Hz
second
20 Moment of Pound force lbf.ft.s Gram square g.cm2 Kilogram kg.m2 Kilogram Kg.m2
2
inertia foot square centimetre square metre square
second metre
21 Momentum Pound second lb.s Gram centimetre g.cm/s Kilogram kg.m/s Kilogram Kg.m/sec
per second ec metre per ec metre per
second second
22 Moment of Pounds foot lbs.ft Gram centimetre g.cm Kilogram kg.m Newton Nm
force metre metre
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23 Angle degree deg degree deg degree deg Radian rad

24 Specific Cubic foot per ft3/lbs Cubic centimetre Cm3/g Cubic metre m3/kg Cubic m3/kg
volume pound per gram per kilogram metre per
kilogram
25 Specific Ohm foot  ft Ohm centimetre  cm Ohm meter m Ohm m
resistance meter
26 Specific Pound per lbf/ft3 Gram per cubic g/cm3 Kilogram kg/m3 Newton N/m3
weight cubic foot centimetre per cubic per cubic
metre metre
27 Fuel Miles per m/gal Centimetre per cm/cm Kilometre km/l Metre m/m3
3
consumption gallon cubic centimetre per litre per cubic
metre
28 Dynamic Pound force lbf/ft2 Centi poise CP pascal Pa.s pascal Pa.s
viscosity per square second second
foot
29 Surface Poundal per pdl/ft dyne per dyn/c Newton per N/m Newton N/m
Tension foot centimetre m metre per metre
30 Entrophy British Btu/0F Calorie per degree Cal/0c Joule per J/K Joule per J/K
thermal unit centigrade kelvin kelvin
per degree
Fahrenheit
31 Electric Columb per C/s Biot Bi Ampere A Ampere A
Current second
32 Electric Volt V Volt V Volt V Volt V
Voltage
33 Electric Ohm  Ohm  Ohm  Ohm (V/A)
Resistance

34 Electric Mho, Siemens s Mho s Siemens s Siemens s

Conductance
35 Light Candela Cd Candela Cd Candela Cd Candela Cd
Intensity
36 Specific No Unit - No Unit - No Unit - No Unit -
gravity

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Important Derived Quantities

It is a SI unit of measurement composed of a combination of the seven base units.
Name Formula SI unit Dimension
Area Length x Breadth m2 [M°L2 T0]
Density Mass / Volume Kgm-3 [M1L-3T0]
Velocity 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 m/s [M0L1T-1]
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Acceleration 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 m/s2 [M0L1T-2]
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Force Mass x Acceleration N [M1L1T-2]
Linear Momentum Mass x velocity Kgm/s [M1L1T-1]
Impulse Force x Time Ns [M1L1T-1]
Work Force x displacement Joule [M1L2T-2]
Power 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 Watt [M1L2T-3]
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Pressure 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 N/m2 [M1L-1T-2]
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Angular velocity 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 Rad/s [M0L0T-1]
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Torque Moment of Inertia x Angular NM [M1L2T-2]
Acceleration
Angular Acceleration 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 Rad/s2 [M0L0T-2]
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𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Angular Frequency 2∏ x frequency Rad/s [M0L0T-1]
Moment of inertia Mass x (radius of gyration)2 Kgm2 [M1L2T0]
Surface tension 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 Nm-1 [M1L0T-2]
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Surface Energy 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 Joule/m2 [M1L0T-2]
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Universal Gravitational 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 ( 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠)2 Nm2kg-2 [M-1L3T-2]
Constant 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠1 𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 2
Coefficient of Viscosity 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 Ns.m-2 [M1L-1T-1]
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Planck’s Constant 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 Js [M1L2T-1]
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑦
Modulus of Elasticity(E) 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 Nm-2 [M1L-1T0]
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Power of lens 1 D [M°L-1 T0]
𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Charge (q) Current x time C [M°L0 T1A]
Strain 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 No Units [M°L0 T0]
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Specific Gravity 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 No Units [M°L0 T0]
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 4′𝑐
Efficiency 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 No Units [M°L0 T0]
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Refractive Index 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 No Units [M°L0 T0]
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚

Dimensions of Physical Quantities

Dimension of physical quantities is defined as the power to which the fundamental units are raised to represent it.
For example: kilogram is expressed in dimensions as [M], length [L], time [T]. Temperature [K], Electric current (A).
Luminous intensity [cd]. Amount of substance [mol].
We use square brackets [] around a quantity means that we are dealing with the dimensions of the quantity.

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Dimensional Formula
Q = [MaLbTc] where M, L, T are base dimensions of mass, length, and time respectively and a, b and c are their respective
exponents.

Some Physical Quantities and their Dimensional Formulae

Area = Length x Breadth = [L x L] = [L2] = [M°L2T0]
Velocity = Displacement/Time =[M°L1T-1]
Acceleration = Change in velocity/Time = [L1T-1]/[T] = [M0L1T-2]
Force = Mass x Acceleration = [M][LT-2] = [MLT-2]
Kinetic energy = Mass x (Velocity)2 = [M] [LT-1)2 = [ML2T-2].

Limitations of dimensional system :

1. Dimensionless quantities cannot be determined by this method. Constant of proportionality cannot be determined by
this method. They can be found either by experiment or by theory.
2. This method is not applicable to trigonometric, logarthmic and exponential functions.3. In case of physical quantities
which are dependent upon more than three physical quantities, this method is difficult.
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4. In some cases, the constant of proportionality also possesses dimensions. In such cases, one cannot use this system.
5. If one side of equation contains addition or subtraction of physical quantities, one cannot use this method.
Dimensionless Quantities
The physical quantities which have zero dimensions and the same numeric value in all systems of units. such as angle,
solid angle, specific gravity, avagadro’s number, refractive index, efficency, strain, dielectric constant, relative
luminosity, relative density, specific gravity, Poisson's ratio etc are called dimensionless quantities.

Practical Units of Length, Mass and Time

Practical Units of length Practical Units of mass Practical Units of Time
1 Parsec = 3.26 light year 3.083 x Chandra Shekhar unit: 1CSU = 1.4 1 Solar year = 366.25 Sidereal day =
1016 m times the mass of sun = 2.8 x 1030 kg 365.25 average solar day

1 Light year = 9.46 x 1015 m Atomic mass unit (amu)=1.67 x 10-27 kg 1 Solar month = 30 or 31 days
1 Astronomical unit(1AU) = 1.496 1 Slug= 14.59 kg 1 Lunar month = 29.5 days
x 1011m
1 angstrom = 1Ao= 1010m 1 Metric tonne = 103 kg 1 Leap year 366 day (29 days in feb
of leap year)
-13 2
1 X-ray unit = 1XU = 10 m 1 Quintal =10 kg 1 Shake = 10-8 s (now obsolete)
-15
1 fermi =1fm =10 m 1 Pound = 0.4535 kg 1 Day 24 hours = 1440 min= 86400 s
1 micron = µ m =10-6 m 1 Gram (g) = 10-3 kg 1 Nanosecond (ns) = 10-9 s
-9 -6
1 Nanometre (nm) =10 m 1 Milligram (mg)= 10 kg 1 Millisecond (ms) = 10-3 s
1 Terameter =1012 m 1 Microgram (ug) = 10-9 kg 1 Picosecond (ps) = 10-12 s
-12
1 Picometre 10 m 1 Microsecond (us) =10-6 s

Measurement of Large Distances

Light-year - It is the distance a light photon travels in the vacuum in one Julian year. 1 light Year = 9.467 x 1015 metre.
Astronomical Unit - It measures the average distance between the center of the Earth and the center of the Sun.
Astronomical Unit = 1.496 x 1011 metre.
Parsec - It is a unit of distance used in astronomy. 1 Parsec = 3.086 x 1016 metre = 3.26 light years.
Marine length :
* fathom (for depth, only in non-metric countries) =2 yards
*Nautical mile (one minute of arc of latitude) = 1852 m

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* Astronomy : Astronomical measure uses:

* Earth radius R ≈ 6,371 km
* Lunar distance LD ≈ 384402 km, average distance between the center of the Earth and the centre of the Moon.
* Astronomical unit : AU, or defined as 149597870700 m.
( Approximately, it is the distance between the Earth and the Sun)
* Light-year (ly) : ≈ 9460730472580.8 km, the distance that light travels in a vacuum in one Julian year.
* Parsec (pc) : ≈ 30856775814671.9 km or about 3.26156 ly
* Hubble length : 14.4 billion light-years or 4.55 giga parsecs
Prefix And Symbol for Various Power of 10
Prefix Multiple Symbol
Yotta 1024 Y
Zetta 1021 Z
Exa 1018 E
Peta 1015 P
Tera 1012 T
Giga 109 G
Mega 106 M
Kilo 103 k
Hecto 102 h
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Deca 10 da
Deci 10-1 d
Centi 10-2 c
Milli 10-3 m
Micro 10-6 µ
Nano 10-9 N
Pico 10-12 P
Femto 10-15 f
Atto 10-18 a
Zepto 10-21 z
Yocto 10-24 y

Range and Order of Lengths

Object Length (m)
Size of proton 10-15
Size of atomic nucleus 10-14
Size of hydrogen atom 10-10
Size of red blood corpuscle 10-5
Thickness of paper 10-4
Radius of the Earth 107
Distance of Moon to Earth 108
Distance of Sun to Earth 1011
Size of galaxy 1021
Distance to the boundary of observable universe 1026

Range and Order of Masses

Object Mass (kg)
Electron 10-30
Proton 10-27
Red blood cell 10-13
Dust Particle 10-9
Rain Drop 10-6
Mosquito 10-5
Grape 10-3
Human 102

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Moon 1023
Earth 1025
Sun 1030
Milky Way galaxy 1041

Range and Order of Time Intervals

Event Time interval (sec)
Life-span of most unstable particle 10-24
Period of X-rays 10-19
Period of light wave 10-15
Life of an excited state of an atom 10-8
Period of sound wave 10-3
Wink of eye 10-1
Time between successive human heart beats 100
Travel time for light from moon to the earth 100
Travel time for light from the sun to the earth 102
Rotation period of the Earth 105
Rotation and revolution periods of the moon 106
Revolution period of the Earth 107
Travel time for light from nearest star 108
Age of the universe 1017
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Different Units Used In Measurement Of Volume

* In the International System of Units (SI), the standard unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3). The metric system also
includes the litre (L) as a unit of volume, where one litre is the volume of a 10-centimetre cube (10cm3). Thus,
1 litre = (10 cm)3 = 1000 cubic centimetres = 0.001 cubic metre
1 cubic metre = 1000 litres
1 millilitre = 0.001 litre = 1 cubic centimetre
1 centilitre = 0.01 litre
1 decilitre = 0.1 litre
1 kilolitre = 1000 litres
1 teaspoon = 5 ml
* Various other traditional units of volume are also in use, including the cubic inch, the cubic foot, the cubic mile, the
teaspoon, the tablespoon, the fluid ounce, the fluid dram, the gill, the pint, the quart, the gallon, the minim, the barrel,
the cord, the peck, the bushel, and the hogshead.

Approximate conversion to millilitres:

Unit Imperial U.S. liquid U.S. dry
Gill 142 mL 118 mL 138 mL
Pint 568 mL 473 mL 551 mL
Quart 1137 mL 946 mL 1101 mL
Gallon 4556 mL 3785 mL 4405 mL

Error in Measurement
The difference between true value and measured value of a quantity is called error of measurement.
Accuracy - The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close the measured value is to the true value of the
quantity.
Precision - It quantifies the level of detail or fineness in measurements, indicating the extent to which a quantity is
measured with accuracy within its resolution or limit.
Example - Suppose the true value of a certain length is near 5.678 cm. In one experiment, using a measuring instrument
of resolution 0.1 cm, the measured value is found to be 5.5 cm, while in another experiment using a measuring device
of greater resolution, say 0.01 cm, the length is determined to be 5.38 cm. The first measurement has more accuracy
(because it is closer to the true value) but less precision (its resolution is only 0.1 cm), while the second measurement is
less accurate but more precise.

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Types of Errors
In general, the errors in measurement can be broadly classified are as follows:
Systematic Errors - These are the errors that tend to be in one direction, either positive or negative. Some sources
of systematic errors are as follows:
(a) Instrument Errors - Errors due to calibration or imperfect design in measuring instruments.
(b) Personal Errors- Errors that arise due to personal bias, lack of proper setting of equipment or carelessness of the
individual in making observations without following proper precautions.
(c) Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure -To determine the temperature of a human body, a thermometer
placed under the armpit will always give a temperature lower than the actual value of the body temperature.

Random Errors - The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are random with respect to
sign and size. They are typically caused by various factors such as random fluctuations in experimental conditions
(e.g.,temperature, voltage supply, mechanical vibrations), as well as inherent limitations in the observer's ability to make
precise measurements.
Effects of random errors: To take into account the effects of random errors in analysing and reporting the experimental
results, one should
* Take a large number of readings – at least 10, where time and practicality permit.
* Calculate the mean of the readings as a reasonable estimate of the “true” value of the quantity.
* Use the largest deviation of any of the readings from the mean as the maximum probable error in the mean value.
* If all the readings are the same, use half the limit of reading of the measuring instrument as the MPE(Mean Percentage
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Error) in the result.

Least Count Error - The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least count. The
least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.
Absolute Error -The magnitude of the difference between the individual measurement and the true value of the quantity
is called the absolute error of the measurement.
Relative error- The ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity is called relative error or fractional
error. If this ratio is expressed as percentage, then the error is called percentage error.

Significant Figures

The digits that are known reliably plus the first uncertain digit are known as significant digits or significant figures.
If we say the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is 1.62 s, the digits 1 and 6 are reliable and certain, while the
digit 2 is uncertain. Thus, the measured value has three significant figures.

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

* Non-zero digits - All non-zero digits in a number are significant.
Example -The number 123.45 has five significant figures.
If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) on the right of the decimal point but to the left of the first non-zero digit are not
significant. (In 0.00 5408, the underlined zeroes are not significant).
* Captive Zeros - Zeros between non-zero digits are counted.
Example- The number 10.05 has four significant figures.
* Trailing Zeros without a Decimal Point - Trailing zeros without a decimal point at the end of a number are ambiguous
and not significant. The notation may be used to indicate the number of digits to remove ambiguity.
Example - The number 1200 can be written as 1.20 x 103 to represent three significant figures.
* Trailing Zeros With Decimal Point - For a number with a decimal, the trailing zero(s) are significant. The zeros coming
after the decimal point are significant and are counted.
Example - The number 3.500 has four significant digits.
* Exact numbers - Integers obtained from counting objects or defined values are considered to be infinite numbers.

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Example - If you have 5 apples, the number 5 is considered to have an infinite number of significant digits.

Arithmetic Operation with Significant Numbers

(i) Addition and Subtraction - In both addition and subtraction, the final result should retain as many decimal places as
are there in the number with the least decimal places.
(ii) Multiplication and Division - In multiplication and division, the final result should retain as many significant figures
as are there in the original number with least significant figures.

Scientific Instruments and their Use

Ammeter - It measures the strength of electric current (in ampere).
Altimeter - It is used in aeroplanes to measure altitude.
Anemometer - It is used for measuring wind speed.
Audiometer - It measures intensity of sound.
Barometer - It measures atmospheric pressure.
Beaufort scale - It is used to Measure Wind velocity
Bolometer - It is used to measure infrared radiations.
Binocular - It is used to view distant objects.
Calorimeter-It measures the quantity of heat.
Capacitance - meter Measures the capacitance of a component
Cardiogram- It traces movements of the heart, recorded on a cardiograph.
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Chronometer - Instrument for measuring time

Cos Phi Meter - Measures the power factor
Cyanometer - It is for mesuring blueness of the sky or ocean
Cryometer - It is for measuring low temperatures
Dynamo -It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Dynamometer - It measures electrical power.
Echolocation - In ships is used for measuring Depth of water
Electroscope - It detects the presence of electric charge.
Endoscope - It examines internal parts of the body.
Ergometer - Instrument for measuring work performed
ESR meter - Measures the equivalent series resistance of capacitors
Eudiometer - measures Volume of gases
Fathometer -It is used to measure the depth of oceans.
Frequency counter - Measures the frequency of the current
Galvanometer- It measures the electric current of low magnitude.
Geiger Counter - Device used for the detection and measurement of all types of radiation (alpha, beta and gamma)
Helioscope - Instrument is used to see the sun
Hydrometer - It is used for measuring specific gravity (or relative density) of liquids.
Hygrometer - It is used to measure relative humidity.
Hyetometer - Instrument for measuring rainfall
Lactometer - It determines the purity of milk.
LCR meter - Measures the inductance, capacitance and resistance of a component
Lucimeter - Instrument for measuring light intensity
Manometer - It measures the pressures of gases.
Microscope - It is used to view small objects or organisms.
Multimeter - A general purpose instrument measures voltage, current and resistance (and sometimes other quantities as
well)
Odometer - It measures the distance traveled by a vehicle.
Oscilloscope - Displays the waveform of a signal
Periscope - It is used to view objects above sea level.
Photometer - It is used to determine the intensity of light produced by an unknown source in terms of a standard source
Pitot tube - Measuring device is area meter

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Potentiometer - It is used to measure the electromotive force (emf) of cells.

Pyrometer - It is a remote sensing radiation thermometer used to measure the high temperature of the surface.
Q meter - Measures Q factor of the RF circuits
Radiometer- It measures the emission of radiant energy.
Salinometer - It determines the salinity of the solution.
Seismograph - It used to measure the intensity of earthquake shocks.
Signal generator - Generates signals for testing purposes
Sonar - Instrument is used to locate the under water things
Speedometer - It is an instrument placed in a vehicle to record its speed.
Spherometer - It is used to measure the radius of curvature of an object such as lenses and curved mirrors which are
spherical in shape.
Sphygmomano-meter – It is used to measure Blood Pressure.
Stroboscope - It is used to measure periodic motion.
Tachometer - An instrument used in measuring speeds of aeroplanes and motor boats.
Telescope - It is used to view distant objects in space.
Thermometer - It is used to measure temperature.
Thermostat - It regulates the temperature at a particular point.
Tube tester - Tests vacuum tubes (triode, tetrode, etc.)
Viscometer - It measures the viscosity of liquids.
Voltmeter - It measures the electric potential difference between two points.
VU meter - Measures the level of AF signals in volume units
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Wattmeter - Measures the power

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Optics (LIGHT)
Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter
and its transmission, reflection, refraction, and dispersion. It explores how light is generated, how it travels, and how it
can be manipulated for various applications, such as lenses, mirrors, and optical instruments.

Optics are classified into two types :-

(a) Ray Optics - It describes light as straight-line rays and focuses on the study of the behaviour of light when it interacts
with surfaces and interfaces, including phenomena like reflection and refraction.
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(b) Wave Optics - It is a branch of optics that deals with the wave-like properties of light like Polarisation, diffraction
etc.

Light
Light is the radiation which makes our eyes able to see the object. The speed of light (c) in vacuum or in air is 3 x 108
m/s.
Properties of Light
(a) It travels in a straight line.
(b) Light waves are electromagnetic waves in nature.
(c) The speed and wavelength of light changes when it travels from one medium to another but its frequency remains
unchanged.
(d) A group of light rays given out from a source is called a beam of light.
Luminous Object
Luminous objects emit light by their own. Examples - Sun, flame of a burning candle etc.
Non-Luminous Object

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Non-luminous objects are those which can not emit light on their own. These objects reflect light from luminous bodies.
Examples - Moon, Earth etc.
Some objects allow the light to pass through them while some objects don't and in some objects, light passes partially
through them.
Transparent Object - It is the object that allows the light to pass through it.
Examples - glass, water etc.
Translucent Object - It is the object that allows the light to partially pass through them.
Examples - Butter paper, ground glass etc.
Opaque Object - It is the object that does not allow the light to pass through them.
Examples - wood, metal etc.

Reflection of Light
The bouncing back of light in the same medium when it falls on a smooth polished surface. Examples Mirror, eyes,
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water surface, moonlight etc.

Types of Reflection
(a) Regular Reflection -When a beam of parallel light rays is incident on a smooth and plane surface, the reflected rays
will also be parallel.
(b) Diffused Reflection - When a beam of parallel light rays is incident on an irregular surface, the reflected rays will
not be parallel.

Laws of Reflection
(a) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
(b) The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence and the reflected ray, all lie in the same plane.

Types of Images
There are two types of image :-

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(a) Real Image - The image formed when the rays of light after reflection or refraction actually meet at some point. It
can be projected or seen on a screen. Example - The image formed on the cinema screen.
(b) Virtual Image - The image formed when the rays of light after reflection or refraction seem to diverge. It cannot be
projected or seen on a screen. Example - Plane mirror image.
Mirrors
A mirror is a reflective surface that bounces off light, producing either a real image or a virtual image.
Types of Mirror
There are two types of mirror
Plane Mirror
Plane mirror is a flat, polished, and reflective surface that produces a virtual image of the real object.
Uses -
(a) It is used as a looking glass.
(b) It is used in kaleidoscopes, a toy that produces beautiful patterns.
Properties of Image formed by a Plane Mirror:
(a) It is virtual and erect.
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(b) The size of the image is the same as the size of the object.
(c) The image is formed always behind the mirror.
(d) Linear magnification formed by the plane mirror is 1.
(e) Focal length of a plane mirror is infinite.
(f) The image is laterally reversed or left-right inverted, meaning the left side of the object appears as the right side in
the image and vice versa.
(g) The brightness of the image is the same as that of the object.
(h) When two plane mirrors are facing each other at an angle and an object is placed between them, then
(i) number of images is given by,
n= Ө
-1

If Ө
is even or the object lies symmetrically.

(ii) number of images is given by,

n= Ө

if Ө
is odd cr object lies asymmetrically.

Spherical Mirror
A mirror whose reflecting surface is part of a hollow sphere of glass. The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror may
be curved inwards or outwards.
Types of Spherical Mirror :-
(a) Concave mirror - A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved inwards, that is, faces towards the centre of
the sphere. It is also called a converging mirror.

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or
Concave Mirror
Applications Shaving mirrors, Head mirrors, Ophthalmoscope, Astronomical, telescopes, Headlights, Solar furnaces etc.
(b) Convex mirror - A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved outwards. It is also called a diverging mirror.

or
Convex Mirror
Applications Magnification glass, sunglasses, rear-view mirror in automobiles, reflector for street lights etc.
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Important Terms Related to Spherical Mirror:

(a) Center of curvature (C) - It is the centre of the sphere of which the spherical mirror is a part.
(b) Radius of curvature (R) - It is the radius of the sphere of which the spherical mirror is a part.
(c) Principal Axis - The straight line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature of the spherical mirror.
(d) Pole (P) - It is the central point of the spherical mirror.
(e) Aperture - That portion of a mirror from which the reflection of light actually takes place.
(f) Focal Plane - The plane that is perpendicular to the axis of a mirror and passes through the focal point.
(g) Focal Length (f) - It is the distance between the pole and the focal point of a mirror.
(h) Principal Focus (F) - A point where parallel incident rays meet or appear to meet after reflecting or refracting.
Parabolic Mirrors: Parabolic mirror is such that all light rays falling on it in a direction parallel to the principal axis
are reflected through a single image point, irrespective of their distance from the principal axis.
Applications of these mirrors are:
(i) In solar-thermal electric plant, focused rays from the sun are used to generate steam, which drives a turbine connected
to an electric generator.

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(ii) In automobile head lights, a high intensity light bulb is held at the focus of parabolic mirror, and strong light emerges
in a direction parallel to the principal axis of the mirror.
Rectilinear Propagation of Light
Light travels in a straight line. When an opaque object is placed between a source of light and a screen, a shadow of the
object is obtained on the screen.
1. Solar Eclipse
When the moon comes between the sun and the earth, the shadow of the moon falls on the earth and the sun is not visible
at the earth. This phenomenon is called solar eclipse.

Solar eclipse always comes on new moon days. During this corona part of the sun is visible.
2. Lunar Eclipse
When the earth comes between the sun and the moon, the shadow of the earth
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falls on the moon and the sunlight is not incident on it. Therefore, moon is
not visible at the earth. This phenomenon is called lunar eclipse. Lunar
eclipse always comes on full moon day.
Note:
Eclipse do not occur each and every month because the equatorial orbit of the earth makes an angle 50 to 70 with axis
of rotation.

Sign Convention:

The Cartesian sign convention is a standardised approach in optics for measuring distances and heights. According to
this convention, distances are measured from the mirror's pole or the optical centre of the lens.
Distances in the same direction as incident light are considered positive, while those in the opposite direction are
negative.
Heights measured upward from the x-axis and perpendicular to the principal axis are positive, whereas heights measured
downward are negative.
Image Formation
Image Formation by Concave Mirror
Case I: Object is placed at infinity.

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Image is formed at Focus.

Nature of Image formed - Real, inverted and smaller than the Object (highly diminished, point-sized).
Case II : Object is placed beyond the Centre of Curvature.

Image is formed between the centre of curvature and Focus.

Nature of image formed - Real, inverted and smaller than the object (diminished).
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Case III: Object is placed at the Centre of Curvature.

Image is formed at the centre of curvature.

Nature of Image - Real, inverted and the same size as the object.

Case IV: Object is placed between the centre of curvature and Focus.

Image is formed beyond the centre of curvature. Nature of Image Real, inverted and larger than the object (Enlarged).
Case V : Object is placed at focus.

Image is formed at infinity.

Nature of Image Real, inverted and larger than the object (Highly enlarged).
Case VI: Object is placed between focus and Pole

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Image is formed behind the mirror.

Nature of Image Virtual, erect and larger than the object (Enlarged).

Position of the object Position of the image Size of the image Nature of theimage
At infinity At the focus F Highly diminished, point-sized Real and inverted
Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted
At C At C Same size Real and inverted
Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted
At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
Between P and F Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect
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Image formation by Convex Mirror

Case 1: Object is placed at infinity.

Image is formed at focus behind the mirror. Nature of Image - Virtual, erect and smaller than the Object (Highly
diminished).
Case II: Object is placed between infinity and pole.

Image is formed between the pole and focus behind the mirror.
Nature of Image - Virtual, erect and smaller than the Object (diminished).
Position of the Position of the image Size of the image Nature of
object theimage
At infinity At the focus F, behind the mirror Highly diminished, point-sized Virtual and erect
Between infinity Between P and F, behind the Diminished Virtual and erect
and the pole P of the mirror
mirror

Mirror Formula

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It is the relation between focal length (f) of the mirror, the distance of object (u) from the pole and the distance of image
(v) from the pole.
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
Example - The radius of curvature of the rear view convex mirror of the truck is 6 m. If the car is 8 m from the
mirror of the truck. Calculate the distance at which the image is formed.
Solution - Given,
Radius of curvature, R = 6 m, Then,
Focal length = R/2= 3 m and
Object distance, u = -8m.
Using mirror formula,
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
= + => = => v =

The image is formed at a distance of m behind the mirror.

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Linear Magnification (m)

It is defined as the ratio of the size of the image formed by the mirror to the size of the object.
i.e., m = or

or where, hi is image length and ho is object length.

Example - Suppose height of object is 3 cm. Height of the image is 12 cm. What is Magnification?
Solution - Given,
height of object (h) = 3 cm
height of image (h) = 12 cm. As we know,

Magnification =

According to question, Magnification = 12/3 = 4 cm.

If the magnification is less than 1 then, the image is diminished (smaller than size of object) and if magnification is more
than 1 then, the image is magnified (larger than the size of object).
A negative sign in the magnification value signifies that the image is real, while a positive sign indicates that the image
is virtual.

Refraction of Light
The bending of light as it passes from one medium into another with a different optical density, such as from air into
water, is said to be refraction of light.
Laws of Refraction
(a) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence to the interface, all lie in the same plane.
(b) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the light of a given colour
and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell's law of refraction.
If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, then

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sin i/sin r = Constant.

This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first.

Refraction phenomena in everyday life - Twinkling of stars in a clear sky, pool of water appears to be less deep, When
a pencil is dipped in water inside a container, it appears to be bent.
Refraction of light through a glass slab : The figure shows the refraction of light through a X’ O’ rectangular glass
slab ABCD. XO is incident Y ray, OO’ is the refracted ray and O’Y is the emergent ray. The angle of incidence (i) is
always equal to the angle of emergence (r2) the two medium being same having equal refractive index. The ray XX’
represents the lateral displacement which depends on the thickness of the slab, refractive index angle of incidence and
refraction.
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where d is the lateral displacement, t is the thickness of glass slab and r is the angle of refraction. This also shows that
the lateral displacement is proportional to the thickness of the slab.

Refractive Index
It measures the bending of a ray of light while it enters from one medium into another medium.
( )
Refractive index (n) = ( )

The refractive indices of some of the mediums is listed in the table given below.
Material n Material n
Vacuum 1.000 Ethyl alcohol 1.362

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Air 1.000277 Glycerin 1.473

Water 4/3 = 1.333 Ice 1.31
Carbon disulphide 1.63 Polystyrene 1.59
Methylene iodide 1.74 Crown glass 1.50-1.62

Example Refractive index of glass is 1.5. If the speed of light in vacuum is 3 x 108 m/s, find velocity of light in
medium.
Solution - Given, Refractive index of glass is 1.5. As we know,
Refractive index (µ) = C/v
According to question,
^
V= .
= 2 x 108 m/s.

A medium in which the speed of light is more is known as optically rarer medium and a medium in which speed of light
is lesser is known as optically denser medium.
Refractive index of different materials - air (1.0003), water (1.333), diamond (2.42), ice (1.31), Ethyl Alcohol (1.36).
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Total Internal Reflection

It occurs when a light ray travelling from a denser medium (higher refractive index)
to a less dense medium (lower refractive index) strikes the boundary between the
two at an angle greater than the critical angle. Instead of refracting into the less
dense medium, the light is entirely reflected back into the denser medium.
Applications Optical fibres, Endoscopy, Mirage Formation, Diamond, Prism etc.
Critical Angle - It is the specific angle of incidence at which light passing from a denser medium to a less dense medium
is refracted at an angle of 90 degrees, leading to total internal reflection rather than refraction into the less dense medium.
e.g., the critical angle for the angle of incidence in glass is 42°.

When the angle of incidence exceeds critical angle, total internal reflection takes place as the refracted ray after deviation
passes through the same medium. (C).
Applications of total internal refraction of light:
* Total internal reflection is the operating principle of optical fibers, which are used in endoscopy and
telecommunications.
* Total internal reflection is the operating principle of automotive rain sensors, which control automatic
windscreen/windshield wipers.
* Total internal reflection is the spatial filtering of light.
* Prisms in binoculars use total internal reflection, rather than reflective coatings, to fold optical paths and show erect
images.

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* Optical finger printing devices use total internal reflection in order to record an image of a person’s fingerprint without
the use of ink.
* A total internal reflection fluorescence microscope uses the incadescent wave produced by TIR to excite fluorophores
close to a surface. This is useful for the study of the surface properties of biological samples.
* Total internal reflection is the operating principle of LED Light Panels. This technology utilizes LGPs (Light
GuidePlates) as the vehicle for transmitting light over large areas. By etching a grid pattern on the second surface of the
LGP, frustrated total internal reflection occurs allowing the light to escape the LGP as visible illumination.
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Mirage
It is an optical illusion, in which water appears in desert in a hot summer day. In a hot summer day in desert, the layers
of air near the earth surface remains hot and their temperature decreases with altitude and becomes denser. When the
rays of light coming from the top of a tree or sky move towards the earth, the rays deviate away from the normal
gradually.
When angle of incidence becomes greater than critical angle, total internal reflection takes place. After that light rays
bend upward. When these light rays enter the observer's eyes, inverted image of tree is obtained, which produces illusion
of water.

Refraction by Spherical Lenses

A lens is a piece of transparent material, usually circular in shape, with two polished surfaces.
Two Types of Spherical Lenses
(a) Concave Lens - A lens which is thinner at the centre and thicker at its end, is called a concave lens. It is also known
as diverging lens because it diverges a parallel beam of light rays passing through it.

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Concave Lens
Applications - Telescopes, lasers, glasses, binoculars etc.
(b) Convex Lens - A lens which is thicker at the centre and thinner at its end, is called a convex lens. It is also known as
a converging lens because it converges a parallel beam of light rays passing through it.

Convex lens
Applications - Magnifying Glasses, microscope, human eye, Multi-Junction Solar Cell etc.
* in the camera and digital camera , an optical device used for producing a diminished, real and inverted image on the
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film.
* as a magnifying glass which produces a magnified (larger) image of an object. For a convex lens to produce a virtual,
erect and magnified image, it is a must that the object is placed between the focus and optical centre of the lens.
* in the microscope and telescope. Both of these devices use the objective lens and eyepiece which are convex lens.

Compound microscope Astronomical telescope

Objective lens has smaller focal length, than the Objective lens has larger focal length than the eyepiece.
eyepiece.
Distance between the objective lens and the eyepiece Distance between the objective lens and the eyepiece is
is greater than f0+ fe. equal to f0+ fe.
It is used to see very small objects. It is used to see distantastronomical objects.

Important Terms Related to Spherical Lenses

(a) Optical Centre (0) - The point which lies on the principal axis through which the rays of light pass without any
deflection.
(b) Centres of Curvature (C or 2f) - It is the centre of the spheres of which each surface of the lens forms a part.
(c) Radius of curvature (R)- The radii of the two imaginary spheres of which the lens is a part are called radii of
curvature.

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(d) Principal Axis - An imaginary straight line passing through the two centres of curvatures.
(e) Principal Focus - Lenses have two principal focuses.
(i) First Principal Focus (f1) - It is a point on the principal axis of the lens, the rays starting from or directed to which
become parallel to the principal axis after refraction.
(ii) Second principal Focus (f2) - It is the point on the principal axis at which the rays coming parallel to the principal
axis converge (convex lens) or passing through it appear to diverge from (concave lens) after refraction from the lens.
(f) Focal length - The distance between the optical centre and the focus of the lens.
(g) Aperture - The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens.

Image Formation
Image Formation in Concave Lens
Case I: Object is placed at Infinity.
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Image is formed at F1.

Nature of image - Virtual, erect and highly diminished (point-sized).
Case II: Object is placed Between Infinity and the Optical Centre.

Image is formed between F, and Optical Centre.

Nature of image - Virtual, erect and diminished
Image Formation in Convex Lens
Case I: Object is placed at infinity.

Image is formed at focus (F2).

Nature of image Real, inverted and highly diminished (point-sized).
Case II: Object is placed beyond 2F1.

Image is formed between F2 and 2F2.

Nature of image - Real, inverted and diminished.

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Case III: Object is at the 2F1.

Image is formed at 2F2.

Nature of image - Real, inverted and Same sized.
Case IV : Object is placed in between F1 and 2F1.

Image is formed beyond 2F2.

Nature of image - Real, inverted and Enlarged.
Case V : Object is placed at the F1.
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Image is formed at infinity.

Nature of image - Real, inverted and highly Enlarged.
Case VI: Object is placed in between the F, and optical centre.

Image is formed on the same side as the object. Nature of image - Virtual, erect and Enlarged.

Lens Formula
It gives the relationship between object distance (u). image-distance (v) and the focal length (f). The lens formula is
expressed as:
= -

Linear Magnification
The ratio of height of image to height of object, is called linear magnification. It is represented by the letter m. If h is
the height of the object and h' is the height of the image given by a lens, then the magnification produced by the lens is
given by:

Magnification (m) = =

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Magnification produced by a lens is also related to the object-distance (u), and the image-distance (v). This relationship
is given by:
Magnification (m) = h' / h = v/u
Linear magnification is positive, when the image formed is virtual and erect and linear magnification is negative, when
the image formed is real and inverted.

Power of a Lens
It is a measure of its ability to converge or diverge light. It is equal to the reciprocal of the focal length (in metres) of
the lens.
Power (P) = 1/f
Example - Suppose for a concave lens, focal length is 25 cm. What is the power of a lens?
Solution - Given, Focal Length = -25 cm = -0.25 m. As we know,
Power (P) = 1/f
According to question,
Power of lens = 1/-0.25 = - 4D.
The lens's capacity to refract light is tied to its focal length, with shorter focal lengths causing greater light bending and
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longer focal lengths resulting in less bending. Thus, the lens's refractive power is inversely proportional to its focal
length.
The unit of measurement for the power of a lens is the 'dioptre', denoted by the letter 'D'. When the focal length (f) is
expressed in metres, the power of the lens is also expressed in dioptres (D).
The power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative.

Power of Combination of Lenses

The focal length (f) of the combination of two lenses (f1 and f2) placed in contact is given by the relation:
= +

If P1 is the power of lens of focal length f1, P2 the power of the focal length f2 and P is the power of the combination of
focal length, F then,
P = P1 + P2
Thus the power of combination of lenses is the algebraic sum of the powers of individual lenses.
If two lenses are separated by distance (d metre), then power of combination of lenses is given by relation
P = P1 + P2 - d(P1P2)
Colour of Objects
When light is incident on an object, it reflects only a part of it. The reflected light gives the colour to the objects. A rose
appears red when white light is incident on it and it reflects only red colour of light and absorbs other all colors of light.
When the same rose is viewed in green light, it appears black because it absorbs green light and reflects no colour of
light.
Primary Colours
Primary colors are sets of colors that can be combined to make a useful range of colors.

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Red, green and blue are primary colors.

Secondary Colours
The colors which are obtained by the mixing of two primary colors, are
called secondary
colors. Yellow, magenta and cyan are secondary colors.
Red + Green = Yellow
Red + Blue = Magenta
Green + Blue = Cyan (Peacock blue)

Complementary Colours
Those primary and secondary colors which on mixing produce white colour, are called complementary colors.
Red + Cyan = White
Red + Magenta = White
Green + Magenta = White
Blue + Yellow = White
Colour on Television Screen
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Light coming from the screen to be televised is split up in red, green and blue primary colour components with the help
of dichromic mirrors fitted in TV camera. Now, light of different colours are incident on three separate camera tubes
which converts them into electrical signals. These signals are transmitted to distant places. At the receiving end, these
signals are received and the picture tube of a TV set produces the same scene on the screen.

Prism
Prisms are transparent optical elements with flat, polished surfaces that refract light with at least two non-parallel
surfaces.
Refraction of Light through a Glass Prism

Refraction of light through a prism

In the prism diagram given above, a ray is incident on the first surface AB of a glass prism from air to glass medium.
Here, light is travelling from a rarer medium to a denser medium. So, according to Snell's law, the light ray on refraction
bends towards the normal. Now, a light ray enters from glass to air medium at the other surface AC. Here, glass is denser
than air, and thus while moving from glass to air, the emergent ray bends away from the normal.
Angle of incidence: The angle between incident ray and normal ray.
Angle of Refraction: The angle between refracted ray and normal ray.
Angle of Emergence: The angle between emergent ray and normal at the other side of the prism.

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Angle of Deviation: If the incident ray is extended forwards and emergent ray is extended backwards they tend to meet
at a point. Angle made by the emergent ray with the incident ray at this point is called angle of deviation.

Dispersion of White Light by a Glass Prism

The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its seven constituent colours when it passes through a glass prism is
called dispersion of white light.
White light comprises seven colours, often remembered as VIBGYOR (violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and
red). Each colour has a distinct wavelength, with red having the longest and violet the shortest.
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The speed of light in a medium is inversely proportional to its wavelength, causing red to move slower and violet faster.
Consequently, when white light refracts through a prism, the varying speeds and refraction angles lead to colour
separation, resulting in the visible spectrum known as VIBGYOR.
Isaac Newton was the first one to use a glass prism to obtain the spectrum of light.
Violet light possesses the highest frequency and photon energy among the visible colours, while red light has the lowest
frequency and photon energy.

The Rainbow
The rainbow is a natural occurrence resulting from the dispersion, refraction and reflection of sunlight by spherical water
droplets in the atmosphere. This combined effect creates the beautiful spectrum of colours observed in a rainbow.
Or
Rainbow is formed due to the dispersion of light, suffering refraction and total internal reflection in the droplets present
in the atmosphere. Observer should stand with its back towards sun to observe rainbow. There are two types of rainbow
which are given below
1. Primary Rainbow
⦁Two refraction and one total internal reflection
⦁Innermost arc is violet and outermost is red.
⦁Subtends an angle of 420 at the eye of the observer.
⦁More bright.
2. Secondary Rainbow
⦁Two refraction and two total internal reflection.
⦁Innermost arc is red and outermost is violet.
⦁It subtends an angle of 52.50 at the eye.
⦁Comparatively less bright

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Atmospheric Refraction
Twinkling of Stars - Stars appear to twinkle because their light is disturbed and bent by the Earth's atmosphere due to
atmospheric Refraction as it reaches our eyes, causing their brightness to fluctuate.
Advance Sunrise and Delayed Sunset - It occurs due to atmospheric refraction, where the Earth's atmosphere bends
sunlight, allowing us to see the Sun slightly before it has physically risen and delayed sunset occurs because the bent
light keeps the Sun visible even after it has set.

Scattering of Light
Tyndall Effect - It is a phenomenon where light is scattered by particles or molecules in a medium, making the path of
light visible. It occurs when light interacts with small particles in a way that causes the light to scatter in various
directions, making the beam of light visible.
Blue Color Sky - Sunlight travelling through the Earth's atmosphere scatters due to atmospheric particles. Shorter
wavelengths scatter more than longer ones, following Rayleigh scattering. This is why the sky appears predominantly
blue, as blue light is scattered more strongly.
Although violet scatters even more than blue due to its shorter wavelength, our eyes are more sensitive to blue, resulting
in our perception of a blue sky.
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Colour of the Sun at Sunrise and Sunset - The Sun appears reddish at sunrise and sunset due to increased atmospheric
scattering, which scatters shorter blue and green wavelengths, allowing the longer red and orange wavelengths to
dominate our view. This phenomenon is often called the "redshift."

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Clouds appear white It is because cloud consists of a large size of droplets of water and dust particles which scatter all
colours of light equally. The mixture of all seven colours of sunlight is white. Therefore, clouds appear white.

Human Eye
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The human eye is a sensory organ, part of the ensory nervous system, that reacts to visible light and allows humans to
use visual information for arious purposes. It consists of a lens which is made up of living tissues.
Parts of Human Eye
a) Cornea - It is the clear, transparent, anterior Dortion of the external coat of the eyeball. The rays of light enter this
layer. Cornea accounts for wo-thirds of the total optical power of the eye.
(b) Lens - It is a transparent, biconvex structure situated between the iris and vitreous humour. Its function is to focus
the luminous rays; these rays form a perfect image on the retina.
(c) Iris - It is the coloured membrane behind the cornea and in the point of the lens with an aperture of variable size
called pupil. It has a circular and long muscle fibre. Iris is attached to the ciliary body.
(d) Pupil -It is an aperture of variable size in the centre of the iris, which regulates the amount of light entering the
eyeball.
(e) Ciliary muscles - These are composed of smooth muscle fibres oriented in longitudinal, radial, and circular directions.
They hold the lens in position and help in modifying the curvature of the lens.
(f) Retina - It is a light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye. It contains light sensitive cells, rods and cones. The rays of
light, on entering the eyeball, converge and form an image on the fovea-the posterior part of the eye on the retina.
(g) Optic nerve - It transmits sensory information for vision in the form of electrical impulses from the to the brain.
eye
(h) Sclera - It is the outermost coat of the eyeball. It maintains strength and structure of the eyeball. It is also known as
the white part of the eye. It helps in maintaining the shape of the eyeball.

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(i) Blind spot - A blind spot refers to a small fragment of the visual field in each eye. Light sensitive cells are absent in
this region and no image detection occurs in this specific area.
(j) Aqueous humour - It is a water-like fluid that lies in front of the lens. Its function is to keep proper ocular pressure
(eye pressure) in your eye.
(k) Vitreous humour -This is a gel-like substance which maintains the shape of the eyeball. It is also a refractive media.
Accommodation of Eye - It is the ability of an eye lens, to change its focal length to form sharp images of objects at
different positions from the eye on the retina of the eye.
Range of Vision - The range of vision of a healthy human eye is between its near point and far point i.e, from 25 cm to
infinity.
Field of Vision - The field of vision is the area that is seen all around. The field of view of a human eye is 95* on the
left or right of the eye, 75° downwards, 60° towards the nose, and 60° upwards.

Defects of Vision
It is the loss of power of accommodation of the human eye.
Myopia
A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant objects distinctly. It is also known as near-
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sightedness. It is corrected with the help of a concave lens of suitable power.

Hypermetropia
The person can see far objects clearly but is unable to see nearby objects clearly. It is also known as
far-sightedness. It is corrected with the help of a convex lens of suitable power.
Myopia hypermetropia
Near-sightedness, a person canclearly see nearby Far-sightedness, a person can clearly see distant objects
objects but not distant objects but not nearby objects
The image is formed in front of the retina. The image is formed behindthe retina.
The focal length of the eyelens increases. The focal length of the eye lens decreases.
It is corrected by concave lensof suitable It is corrected by convex lens of suitable focal
focallength/power. lengh/power.

Astigmatism : In this defect, one or more surfaces of the cornea or eye lens are not spherical but, instead, are rough. As
a result of which ,there is no distinct focus inside and the person fails to visualize the proper dimension of the object. It
is corrected by using cylindrical lenses.

Presbyopia

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This defect is common in old-people(45 years and above) and is caused by the weakening of ciliary muscles. In this
defect, both the near-point and the far-point are affected. It is corrected with the help of a bifocal lens which is a
combination of convex lens and a concave lens.
Colour Blindness
It is a visual impairment in which individuals have difficulty distinguishing between certain colours, typically red and
green or blue and yellow. This condition is often caused by genetic factors and can vary in severity from mild to severe.

Braille system for blind : It was developed by louis Braille in 1821 but was adopted years later in 1932. The
system has 63 dot patterns or characters in which each character represents a letter-these patterns are embossed on
Braille sheet to recognize them by touchig with dots slightly raised, In India Ravindra Jain obtained his Sangeet
Prabhakar degree, Lal Advani, himself visually challenged represented India in UNESCO on Braille problem. Helen A.
Keller an American author and lecturer wrote books in cheding “story of my life.”
Optical Instruments
Microscope
A simple magnifier or microscope is a converging lens of small focal length. A simple microscope has a limited
maximum magnification (s 9) for realistic focal lengths. For much larger magnifications, one uses two lenses, one
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compounding the effect of the other. This is known as a compound microscope.

Magnifying power in simple microscope:
When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision (D),
m=1+

where, f = Focal length of the lens.

When final image is formed at infinity, then m=

Magnifying power in compound microscope:

When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision (D),
M= (1+ )

where, vo =Distance of image and uo= Distance of object.

When final image is formed at infinity, then
M= ( )

Telescope
It is the device used to form magnified images of distant objects. A simple telescope uses two convex lenses.
Magnifying power - When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision (D),

M= (1+ )

where, f, and f, are focal lengths of objective and eyepiece, respectively.

Length of Telescope (L) = (fo +fe).

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* Terrestrial telescope : It is used for seeing far off object on the earth. It consists of three converging lens : objective,
eye lens and erecting lens to produce a virtual erect and smaller image. The order of their focal length’s is fo > fe > f.

Magnification :

Length : LD = fO + 4f + ue = fO + 4f +
and L∞ = fo + 4f + fe
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Heat and Thermodynamics

Heat is a form of energy that can be transferred from one object to another or even created at the expense of the loss of
other forms of energy. Its SI unit is joule (J).
Temperature
Temperature is a relative measure, or indication of hotness or coldness. A hot utensil is said to have a high temperature,
and an ice cube to have a low temperature.
Many physical properties of materials change sufficiently with temperature to be used as the basis for constructing
thermometers. The commonly used property is variation of the volume of a liquid with temperature.
Example - common thermometer (the liquid-in-glass type).

Measurement of Temperature:
A measure of temperature is obtained using a thermometer. Mercury and alcohol are the liquids used in most liquid-in-
glass thermometers.
The ice point and the steam point of water are two convenient fixed points and are known as the freezing and boiling
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points. These two points are the temperatures at which pure water freezes and boils under standard pressure.
The ice and steam point have values 32 °F and 212°F respectively, on the Fahrenheit scale and 0°C and 100°C on the
Celsius scale.
Thermometer : It is a device we use to measure temperatureof matters. There are three types of thermometer.

Clinical thermometer :- Clinical thermometer scale is characterized by the presence of a constriction close to bulb to
prevent any change in temperature once removed from the body.

Temperature Scale
A temperature scale is a way to indicate or measure temperature relative to a starting point (0 or zero) and a unit of
measurement.

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Types of Temperature Scale:

(a) Celsius Scale (°C) : A temperature scale based on 0° for the freezing point of water and 100° for the boiling point of
water.
(b) Fahrenheit Scale (°F) : The scale based on 32* for the freezing point of water and 212° for the boiling point of water.
(c) Kelvin Scale (K) - In this scale, the ice point and the steam point (boiling point) are taken as 273.15 K and 373.15 K
respectively.
(d) Reaumur Scale (°R)- In this scale, ice point and boiling point are taken as 0°R and 80°R respectively.
(e) Rankine Scale (°Ra) - In this scale, ice point and steam point are taken as 460 °Ra and 672 °Ra respectively.
Relation between various temperature scale-
𝐶 𝐹 − 32 𝐾 − 273 𝑅 𝑅𝑎 − 460
= = = =
5 9 5 4 10.6
Kelvin Celsius Fahrenheit Rankine
Absolute zero (by definition) 0K –273.15°C –459.67 °F 0 °R
Freezing point of brine 255.37 K –17.78 °C 0 °F 459.67 °R
Freezing point of pure water 273.15 K 0 °C 32 °F 491.67 °R
Triple point ofwater (by 273.16 K 0.01 °C 32.018 °F 491.688 °R
definition)
Boiling point of pure water (1 373.1339 K 99.9839 °C 211.97102 °F 671.64102 °R
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atm)

Common Temperature Reference Points

Celsius (°C) Kelvin (K) Fahrenheit (°F)
Surface of the Sun 5600 5900 10100
Boiling Point of Water 100 373 212
Body Temperature 37 310.2 98.6
Sweltering Day 40 313 104
Hot Day 30 303 86
Room Temperature 20 293 68
Cold Day 10 283 50
Freezing Point of Water 0 273 32

Ideal Gas Equation and Absolute Temperature

Boyle's law - When temperature is held constant, the pressure and volume of a quantity of gas are related as -
PV = constant.
where, P is pressure and V is volume.
Charles' law : When the pressure is held constant, the volume of a quantity of the gas is related to the temperature as -
V/T = constant.
where, V is volume and T is temperature.
Ideal Gas Law - It is a combination of Boyl's law and Charles' law.
PV/T = Constant
Ideal gas equation-
PV/ T = µR or PV = µRT.

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where, µ is the number of moles in the sample of gas and R is called universal gas constant, where the value of R = 8.31
J mol-1 K-1.
Absolute zero is the foundation of the Kelvin temperature scale or absolute scale temperature named after the British
scientist Lord Kelvin. On this scale, - 273.15 °C is taken as the zero point, that is 0K.
The size of the unit for Kelvin temperature is the same celsius degree, so temperature on these scales are related by T =
tc + 273.15, where tc is temperature in celsius.

Thermal Expansion
The increase in the dimensions of a body due to the increase in its temperature. The expansion in length is called linear
expansion. The expansion in area is called area expansion. The expansion in volume is called volume expansion.
Coefficients of Thermal Expansions:
(a) Change in length per unit original length and per °C change in temperature, is called coefficient of linear
expansion(∝)

(∝) =
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(b) Change in area per unit original area and per °C change in temperature, is called coefficient of area expansion (β)

(β) =

(c) Change in volume per unit original volume and per °C change in temperature, is called coefficient of volume

expansion (γ).

( γ) =

The SI unit of all coefficients of thermal expansion is °C-1 or K-1.

Gasses at ordinary temperature expand more than solids and liquids. For liquids, the coefficient of volume expansion is
relatively independent of the temperature. However, for gasses it is dependent on temperature. For gasses it decreases
with increasing temperature.
Water exhibits an anomalous behavior; it contracts on heating between 0 °C and 4 °C. It has a maximum density at 4
°C.
This property has an important environmental effect: Bodies of water, such as lakes and ponds, freeze at the top first.
As a lake cools toward 4 °C, water near the surface loses energy to the atmosphere, becomes denser, and sinks; the
warmer, less dense water near the bottom rises.
However, once the colder water on top reaches temperature below 4 °C, it becomes less dense and remains at the surface,
where it freezes. If water did not have this property, lakes and ponds would freeze from the bottom up, which would
destroy much of their animal and plant life.

Heat Capacity (S)

It's the characteristic quantity that measures how much the temperature of a substance changes when a given amount of
heat is either absorbed or released by it. Its SI unit is JK-1 or CGS unit is cal °C-1.

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Heat capacity (S)=

where, ΔQ is is the amount of heat supplied to the substance to change its temperature from T to T + ΔT.

Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity is the property of the substance which determines the change in the temperature of the
substance (undergoing no phase change) when a given quantity of heat is absorbed (or rejected) by it. Its SI unit is J kg-
1
K-1.
Specific heat capacity (s) = =

where, ΔQ is amount of heat given to the substance, m is mass of the substance and ΔT is the rise in temperature.
Example - Calculate the heat required to raise 0.6 Kg of sand from 30°C to 90°C? (Specific Heat of sand = 830
J/Kg°C)
Solution - Given, Mass of sand m = 0.6 Kg. (Temperature difference) ΔT = 90°C -30°C = 60°C,
C (Specific Heat of sand) = 830 J/Kg°C
As we know,
The specific heat =
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⇒Q = C x MΔT
Q = 830 J/Kg°C x 0.6 x 60°C => Q = 29880 J.

Molar Specific Heat Capacity

It is defined as the amount of heat per unit moles (µ) absorbed or rejected by the substance to change its temperature by
one unit. It depends on the nature of the substance and its temperature. Its SI unit is J mol-1 K-1.

Molar specific heat capacity (C) = µ = µ

Molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure and volume:

If the gas is held under constant pressure during the heat transfer, then it is called the molar specific heat capacity at
constant pressure (Cp).
If the volume of the gas is maintained during the heat transfer, then it is called molar specific heat capacity at constant
volume (Cv).
For an ideal gas relation is given by Cp -Cv = R (gas constant) and its value is 8.31 J mol-1 K-1.

Calorimetry
When a system is isolated (no heat exchange with surroundings), heat flows from hotter parts to cooler parts within the
system, following the principle that the heat lost by the hotter part equals the heat gained by the cooler part. This process
is referred to as calorimetry, which involves the measurement of heat. A device in which heat measurement can be made
is called a calorimeter.

Change of State
Matter normally exists in three states: solid, liquid and gas.
A transition from one of these states to another is called a change of state. The change of state from solid to liquid is
called melting, liquid to solid is called solidification and from liquid to vapour (or gas) is called vaporisation.

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Both the solid and liquid states of the substance coexist in thermal equilibrium during the change of states from solid to
liquid.

Melting point: It is the temperature at which the solid and the liquid states of the substance are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
Boiling point: It is the temperature at which the liquid and the vapour states of the substance coexist.
The boiling point and melting point of a substance at standard atmospheric pressure is called its normal boiling point
and normal melting point.
The phenomenon of melting under pressure and freezing again when the pressure is reduced is called Regelation.
Sublimation: It is the process of changing directly from solid state to vapour state without passing through the liquid
state.
Example - Dry ice (solid CO2).

Water Equivalent
The amount of water required to consume the same amount of heat as a substance consumes for one degree rise in the
temperature is called water equivalent of a substance. It is also equivalent to the product of the mass of the substance
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and its specific heat.

Water equivalent (W) = s x m, where ‘s’ is specific heat capacity and m is mass of the product.

Latent Heat (L)

The amount of heat per unit mass transferred during change of state of the substance is called latent heat of the substance
for the process. Its SI unit is J kg. The heat required during a change of state depends upon the heat of transformation
and the mass of the substance undergoing a change of state.
Latent heat (L) =

where, Q is the quantity of heat required and ‘m’ is mass. The value of ‘L’ also depends on the pressure.

Latent Heat of Fusion and Vaporisation

The latent heat for a solid-liquid state change is called the latent heat of fusion (Lf).
The latent heat for liquid gas change is called latent heat of vaporisation (Lv).
For water, the latent heat of fusion and vaporisation are Lf = 3.33 x 105 J kg-1 and Lv = 22.6 x 105 J kg-1 respectively.

Transmission of Heat
Heat always flows from a higher temperature body to a lower temperature body when these are placed in contact.
There are three process of heat transmission-

(a) Conduction:
It is the mechanism of transfer of heat between two adjacent parts of a body because of their temperature difference. It
is possible only in solids. This phenomenon happens due to actual movement of particles.
Example - When one end of a metallic the rod is put in a flame, the other end of the rod will soon be so hot.

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In conduction, heat is transferred between neighbouring parts of a body through molecular collisions, without any flow
of matter. For a bar of length (L) and uniform cross-sectional area (A) with its ends maintained at temperatures Tc and
To, the rate of flow of heat (H) is
H = KA

where K is the thermal conductivity of the material of the bar.

Thermal conductivity (K) is the measure of ability of a material to conduct heat. The greater the value of K for a material,
the more rapidly it will conduct heat. The SI unit of K is Js-1m-1K-1 or Wm-1K-1 and the dimensional formula is [MLT-3
K-1].

(b) Convection:
It is a mode of heat transfer by actual motion of matter. It is possible only in fluids. Examples The heating of water in a
pot, warm air rises, ice melting. It can be natural or forced.
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Natural convection occurs due to differences in density caused by temperature variations, often driven by gravity. For
instance, when a fluid is heated from below, the warmer and less dense portion rises, creating a circulation pattern.
Natural convection can explain phenomena like sea breezes and trade winds on Earth due to temperature differences in
different regions.
Forced convection, on the other hand, is when a fluid is moved intentionally, usually with the help of a pump or external
force. Examples include home heating systems and the circulatory system in the human body.

(c) Radiation
The transfer of heat without any medium is known as radiation.
Examples - Heat is radiated into an area by fireplaces, skin is being warmed by the sun's radiation, the thermal energy
in food is increased by the microwave radiation.
The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body by virtue of its temperature like the radiation by a red hot iron or light
from a filament lamp is called thermal radiation.

Newton's Law of Cooling

It states that, the rate at which an object cools is proportional to the difference in temperature between the object and the
object's surroundings.
Mathematical expression of this law -
i.e., = = - K (T2- T1). where, is the rate of loss of heat, T1 is the temperature of the surrounding medium and T2

is the temperature of the body.

Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the concepts of heat and temperature and the inter-conversion
of heat and other forms of energy. It deals with bulk systems and does not go into the molecular constitution of matter.

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Thermodynamics Systems
A system in thermodynamics refers to that part of the universe in which observations are made and the remaining
universe constitutes the surroundings.
Every system is enclosed by an arbitrary surface, which is called its boundary. The boundary may enclose a solid, a
liquid or a gas.

Types of System :-
Open System: It is a system which can exchange mass and energy with the surroundings. A water heater is an open
system.
Closed System: It is a system which can exchange energy but not mass with the surroundings. A gas enclosed in a
cylinder fitted with a piston is a closed system.
Isolated Systems: It is a system which can exchange neither mass nor energy with the surrounding. A filled thermos
flask is an ideal example of an isolated system.
Interactions of thermodynamic systems
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Type of system Mass flow Work HEAT

Open Yes Yes Yes
Closed No Yes Yes
Thermally isolated No Yes No
Mechanically isolated No No Yes
Isolated No No No

Thermodynamic Properties
It represents the characteristics of the systems.
Type of Thermodynamic Properties :-
Extensive Property:- It is a property whose value depends on the quantity or size of matter present in the system. For
example mass, volume, internal energy, enthalpy, heat capacity, etc.
Intensive Properties:- Those properties which do not depend on the quantity or size of matter present in a system. For
example temperature, density, pressure etc.

Internal Energy of a System (U)

Internal energy of a system is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of its Molecules.
Internal energy (U) of a system is an example of a thermodynamic 'state variable' - its value depends only on the given
state of the system i.e. not on the 'path' taken to arrive at that state.
Thermodynamic potentials : These are different quantitative measures of the stored energy in a system. Potentials
are used for measuring energy changes in systems as they evolve from an initial state to a final state. The potential used
depends on the constraints of the system, such as constant temperature or pressure. The five most well known potentials
are:
Name Symbol Formula Natural variables
Internal energy U ƒ(TdS–pdVi+Σi µidNi ) S,V, {Ni }

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Helmholtz free energy F U-TS T,V, {Ni }

Enthalpy H U + pV S,p, {Ni }
Gibbs free energy G U + pV – TS T,p, {Ni }
Landau Potential (grand potential ) Ω, φg U–TS – Σiµini T,V, {µi }

Thermal Equilibrium
The state of a system is an equilibrium state if the macroscopic variables that characterise the system do not change in
time.
For example, a gas inside a closed a rigid container, completely insulated from its surroundings, with fixed values of
pressure, volume, temperature, mass and composition that do not change with time, is in a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium.
Adiabatic Wall: An insulating wall (can be movable) that does not allow flow of energy (heat) from one to another.
Diathermic Wall: A conducting wall that allows energy flow (heat) from one to another.

Laws of Thermodynamics
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
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It states that two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system separately are in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
If A and B are separately in equilibrium with C, TA=TC and TB= Tc, this implies that T1 = T2 i.e. the systems A and B are
also in thermal equilibrium.

First Law of Thermodynamics

The energy (ΔQ) supplied to the system goes in partly to increase the internal energy of the system ( ΔU) and the rest
in work on the environment (ΔW). i.e., ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW
Direct First law of thermodynamics is a consequence of the law of conservation of energy.

Thermodynamic Processes
Quasi Static Process - A quasi-static process is an idealized, nearly-static process where a system. changes its properties
very slowly, maintaining thermal and mechanical equilibrium with its surroundings throughout. It involves
infinitesimally small differences in pressure and temperature between the system and its surroundings.
Isothermal Process - A process in which the temperature of the system is kept fixed throughout is called an isothermal
process.
Adiabatic Process - When a thermodynamic system undergoes a process under the condition that no heat comes into or
goes out of the system, then the process is said to be adiabatic.
Isochoric Process - A thermodynamic process that occurs at constant volume.
Isobaric Process - A thermodynamic process that occurs at constant pressure.
Cyclic Process - In this process, the system returns to its initial state.It means that there is no change in the internal
energy of the system.
Types of thermodynamic processes
Types Characteristics

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1. Isobaric process Isobaric process Occurs at constant pressure.

2. Isochoric process Occurs at constant volume (also called Isometric or Isovolumetric).
3 Isothermal process Occurs at a constant temperature.
4 Adiabatic process Occurs without the loss or gain of energy by heat.
5 Isentropic process Reversible adiabatic process that occurs at a constant entropy.
6 Isenthalpic process Constant enthalpy.
7 Steady state process Occurs without a change in the internal energy.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Kelvin-Planck Statement: No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and the
complete conversion of the heat into work.
Clausius Statement - No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter
object.
Kelvin - Planck's statement provides the concept of work producing devices that is heat engine and clausius statement
provides the concept of work absorbing devices that is heat pump and refrigerator.
The Second Law implies that no heat engine can have efficiency (ƞ) equal to 1 or no refrigerator can have coefficient of
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performance (∝) equal to infinity.

Reversible and Irreversible Process

Reversible Process - If a process is executed so that all intermediate stages between the initial and final states are
equilibrium states and the process can be executed back along the same equilibrium states from its final state to its initial
state, it is called a reversible process.
Irreversible Process:- A process which cannot be retracted along the same equilibrium state from final to the initial state
is called irreversible process.

Carnot Engine
The Carnot engine is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by Leonard Carnot. It estimates the maximum possible
efficiency that a heat engine during the conversion process of heat into work and, conversely, working between two
reservoirs can possess.

Efficiency of Carnot Engine (ƞ)

It is defined as the ratio of heat converted into work in a cycle to heat taken from the source by the working substance.
Let a reversible engine operating between two temperatures T1 (source) and T2 (sink). The efficiency of a Carnot engine
is given by ƞ = 1-

Carnot's Theorem
(a) When working between two given temperatures T1 and T2 of the hot and cold reservoirs respectively, no engine can
have efficiency more than that of the Carnot engine.
(b) The efficiency of the Carnot engine is independent of the nature of the working substance.

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= is a universal relation independent of the nature of the system. Here Q1 and Q2 are respectively, the heat absorbed

and released isothermally (from the hot and to the cold reservoirs) in a Carnot engine.

Carnot Cycle
The Carnot cycle consists of two Isothermal Processes and two Adiabatic processes. Both these processes are reversible
and therefore, it is the most efficient cycle, as it involves no losses.
It consists of 4 reversible processes:
A to B - Isothermal Expansion.
B to C - Adiabatic Expansion
C to D - Isothermal Compression.
D to A - Adiabatic Compression.
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Limitation of Carnot's Engine

The isothermal process will take place only when the piston moves very slowly. It means that there should be sufficient
time for the heat to transfer from the working substance to the source.
During the adiabatic process, the piston moves extremely fast to avoid heat transfer. It is not possible to fulfill these vital
conditions. Due to these very reasons, all practical engines have an efficiency less than that of Carnot's engine.
Humidity
It is the amount of water vapor in the air. If there is a lot of water vapor in the air, Then the humidity will be high.
Absolute Humidity: The actual amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, expressed as the weight of water vapor per
unit volume of air, typically measured in grams per cubic meter.
Relative Humidity: The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere compared to its maximum capacity at a given
temperature.

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Sound
Sound is a form of energy that propagates in the form of waves through a certain medium (gas, liquid or solid). It cannot
travel in a vacuum. It is longitudinal in nature.
Sources of sound
* The natural sources of sound are humans, animals, flowering water, etc.
* The artificial sources of sound are vehicles, factories, fans, explosions, etc.
1. Acoustic instruments: In guitar, strings attached are made to vibrate thus producing so
2. Vocal cords of humans vibrate to produce sound through air.
3. Electrical instruments
Propagation of Sound: When you make a call, you may hear your friend’s voice even if he or she is a long distance
away. The medium is the means through which your sound is transferred. The waves are made up of particles from the
medium in which they move.
A sound is a sort of energy that is conveyed as sound waves. When things vibrate, the air around them vibrates as well,
and sound waves are transmitted.
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Vibrations in an object will not pass through it if there is no intermediary. This process of this mechanism is known as
sound propagation.
Characteristics of Sound Waves
A sound possesses following distinct characteristics:
(a) Loudness - It is a measure of the response of the ear to the sound. Larger the amplitude of vibration, the louder is the
sound. It is measured in decibels (dB).
(b) Pitch - It depends on the frequency of vibration. Higher the frequency of vibration, the higher is the pitch, and lower
the frequency, lower will be the pitch.
Two graphs showing the difference between sound waves with high and low frequencies and their corresponding pitches.

(c) Intensity - It is defined as the amount of sound energy passing each second through the unit area.
Mathematically,

Intensity = =

The SI unit of intensity is watt per square metre (W/m2).

Intensity of sound is a physical parameter which determines its loudness. We sometimes use the terms loudness and
intensity interchangeably, but they are not the same. Decibel unit is used to measure the intensity of sound.
Loudness is a measure of the response of the ear to the sound. Even when two sounds are of equal intensity, we may
hear one as louder than the other simply because our ear detects it better.
(d) Quality - It differentiates between two sounds of same intensity and same frequency.
A sound of single frequency is called a Tone.
The sound which is produced due to a mixture of several frequencies is called a Note.

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(e) Frequency - It is defined as the oscillation of sound wave per unit time. It is measured in hertz (Hz).
Time Period (T) = 1/ Frequency (v)
(f) Amplitude - The magnitude of the maximum disturbance in the medium on either side of the mean value is called
the amplitude. It is measured in metre.
(g) Speed - It is defined as the distance covered by a point on a sound wave (such as a compression or a rarefaction) per
unit time.
( )
v (speed) = ( )

We know that,
v (frequency) = 1 / T (time period)
Therefore, v= λ x v or v = vλ

Factors on Which Intensity or Loudness of a Sound Depends

(a) Amplitude of the sound wave.
(b) Density of the medium between source and listener.
(c) Distance of the source from the listener.
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(d) Frequency of the sound wave.

(e) Surface area of the vibrating body.

Speed of Sound in Different Media

Sound propagates through a medium at a finite speed.
It depends on the following factors -
(a) Properties of Matter - Speed of sound is highest in solid and lowest in gas. In liquid, it is less than in solid and more
than in gas.
(b) Effect of Temperature - In gases, the speed of sound is directly proportional to the square root of its absolute
temperature of the gas.
i.e. v x √T.
(c) Effect of Humidity - As humidity increases the speed of sound also increases.
(d) Effect of Wind - If wind is blowing in the direction of propagation of sound then speed of sound will increase.
Speed of sound in different media (at 25 °C) is given below:
State Substance Speed (m/s)
Aluminium 6420
Nickel 6040
Steel 5960
Solids Iron 5950
Brass 4700
Glass (Flint) 3980
Water (Sea) 1531
Liquids Water (distilled) 1498
Ethanol 1207

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Methanol 1103
Hydrogen 1284
Helium 965
Gases Air 346
Oxygen 316
Sulphur Dioxide 213

The speed of sound in air is 331 m/s at 0°C, 344 m/s at 22°C and 346 m/s at 25°C.
Supersonic speed - It is the speed of an object that is faster than the speed of sound, measured at about 768 miles per
hour at sea level.
Example - A bullet fired from a gun.
Hypersonic Speed - It is the speed of an object greater than Mach 5. This is more than five times the speed of sound. It
is the speed traveled by rockets and the space shuttle as they go into orbit.
Subsonic speed - In this, the speed of an object is less than Mach 1. This is the speed traveled by most of the commercial
airplanes that carry people and cargo.
Example - Speed of a cruise ship.
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Transonic speed - In this, speed of an object is at or about Mach 1.

Reflection of Sound
The bouncing back of sound when it strikes a hard surface, is known as reflection of sound. It does not necessitate a
smooth and shiny surface, unlike a mirror, it can occur on any surface.
Laws of Reflection of Sound :-
(a) The angle of reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence.
(b) The reflected sound, the incident sound, and the normal sound belong in the same plane.
Applications - Echo, megaphones, hearing aid, sound board etc.

Echo
The repetition of sound caused by reflection of sound waves is called an echo.
Conditions for Formation of an Echo
The time interval between the original sound and the reflected sound must be 0.1 s.
For hearing distinct echoes, the minimum distance of the obstacle from the source of sound must be 17.2 metres.

Resonance
Resonance is a phenomenon that amplifies a vibration. It occurs when a vibration is transmitted to another object whose
natural frequency is the same or very close to that of the source.
Examples - Vibration induced in bridge when people march in tandem, Pushing a
person in a swing, breaking a glass due to high sound, Electrical resonance of tuned
circuits in radios and TVs.

Reverberation

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Reverberation means persistence of sound for some time after its production. Reverberation continues to occur as the
sound is reflected multiple times, adding up. After reverberation, the sound gets absorbed by various objects and
gradually gets attenuated due to which we cannot hear.
It is used in guitars, digital workshops and drums.
To reduce excessive reverberation, the roof and walls of the auditorium are generally covered with sound-absorbent
materials like compressed fibreboard, rough plaster or draperies. The seat materials are also selected on the basis of
their sound absorbing properties.
Refraction of Sound
It is the phenomenon, when the move from one mechanical medium to another mechanical medium.
It happens because the speed of sound is different in different media.
Diffraction of Sound
When any type of wave bends apparently around small obstacles or spreads out from small openings while passing out
from it, this phenomenon is called diffraction of sound.
Music and Noise
Musical sound is one which is pleasing to the ear and an unpleasant sound is called noise.
Musical scale - The arrangement of notes in a proper order of frequencies, is called a musical scale.
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There are two types of scale :-

(a) Diatonic Scale - It is known as 'sargam' in the Indian system. The note of lowest frequency is called a key note and
the highest is called an octave. Instruments based on this scale are harmonium, piano, etc.
(b) Tempered Scale - It contains 13 notes. The ratio of frequencies of successive notes is ½.

Range of Hearing
The audible range of sound for human beings. extends from about 20 Hz 20000 Hz. Children under the age of 5 and
some animals such as dogs can hear upto 25,000 Hz.
On the basis of frequency range, sound is classified into two types-
(a) Infrasonic Sound:- The sounds of frequencies below 20 Hz is known as infrasonic sound (or infrasound). It cannot
be heard by humans.
Examples Earthquakes, thunder, volcanoes. Rhinoceroses, whales and elephants produce sound in the infrasound range.
(b) Ultrasonic Sound: The sound of frequencies higher than 20 kHz is known as ultrasonic sound (or ultrasound). It
cannot be heard by humans.
Dogs can hear ultrasonic sound of frequency upto 50,000 Hz. Monkeys, bats, cats, dolphins, leopards and porpoises can
also hear ultrasonic sounds. Bats produce ultrasound during traveling to locate the objects by hearing the echoes. This
phenomenon is known as echolocation. This method is also used by some other animals like portoises, dolphins etc.
Applications of Ultrasound :-
(a) It is used to investigate the internal organs of the human body.
(b) It is generally used to clean parts located in hard-to-reach places.
(c) It is used to detect cracks and flaws in metal blocks.
(d) It is used in the SONAR system.
SONAR

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SONAR (Sound Navigation And Ranging) is a device that uses ultrasonic waves to measure the distance, direction and
speed of underwater objects.

Applications of SONAR
(a) It is mainly used in ships and other water transports to measure the depth or detect some object in the sea bed.
(b) It is also used for navigation purposes.
(c) It is used to detect lost shipwrecks under the ocean.
Doppler's Effect
It refers to the change in wave frequency during the
relative motion between a wave source and its observer. It was discovered by Christian Johann Doppler who described
it as the process of increase or decrease of starlight that depends on the relative movement of the star.
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It is a wave phenomenon that applies not only to sound waves but to all types of waves.
Example of Doppler's Effect in Everyday Life - When an ambulance passes nearby, its sound frequency changes.

Applications of Doppler's Effect

(a) It is used to determine the speed of the approaching or receding vehicles.
(b) It is used to determine whether a star or a galaxy is approaching or receding the earth.
(c) It is used in measuring the speed of rotation of the sun.
(d) It is used in measuring the speed of a star and speed of galaxies.
Some important applications of Doppler's effect in light are in
(i) measuring the speed of a star and speed of galaxies,
(ii) measuring speed of rotation of the sun, about its own axis which is about 2 km/s.
(iii) measurement of plasma temperatures in thermo-nuclear reactions,
(iv) Doppler's effect is used in RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) to estimate the speed of aeroplanes, rockets, etc.
(v) Doppler's effect is used in SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) to estimate the velocity of submarines, ships,
etc. and in estimating the depth of sea.
(vi) Doppler's effect confirms the hypothesis that universe in expanding

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Polarisation
The phenomenon of reconstructing of electric vectors of light into a single direction is called polarization. Ordinary
light has electric vectors in all possible directions in a plane, perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light. When
ordinary light is passed through a tourmaline, calcite or quartz crystal, the transmitted light have electric vectors in a
particular direction parallel to the axis of crystal. This light is plane polarised light. A plane containing the vibrations of
polarised light is called plane of vibration. A plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called plane of polarisation.
Polarisation can take place only in transverse waves.
S = 10θ/lC
l -> length of tube
θ -> Optical Rotation
C -> Concentration = g/cc or % = 20% = 0.2 g/cc 5% = 0.05 gl/cc
S -> Specific Rotation
Polaroids
Polaroids are thin and large sheets of crystalline polarising materials (made artificially) capable of producing plane
polarised
beams of large cross-section. In 1852, Herapath discovered that the synthetic small needle-shaped crystals of
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iodosulphate of quinine possess the property of polarising the light.

Applications of Polaroids
⦁ Polaroids are used in sun glasses. Such goggles are more efficient than those made of coloured glasses. They protect
the eyes from the glare.
⦁ The wind shield of an automobile is made of polaroid. Such a wind shield protects the eyes of the driver of the
automobile from the dazzling light of the approaching vehicles. For the same reasons, the covers of head lights are made
of polaroids.
⦁ The polaroids are used in window panes of a train and especially of an aeroplane. They helpto control the light entering
through the windows.
⦁ The pictures taken by a stereoscopic camera, when seen with the help of polaroid spectacles, create three-dimensional
effect.
Nicol Prism
A nicol prism is an optical device, which is used for producing plane polarized light
and analysing the same.
Applications
1. Clear photographs of white clouds are obtained by fitting polaroids in front of the camera lens.
2. Polaroids are useful in three dimensional motion pictures, i.e., in holography.
3. Polaroids are used to improve colour contrast in old oil paintings.
4. In calculators, watches, T.V., computers, etc. letters and numbers formed by liquid crystal display (LCD) through
polarization of light.
5. Polarization of scattered sunlight is used for navigation in solar compass in polar regions.
6. To study asymmetries in crystals and molecules.
Holography is the science and practice of making holograms
A hologram is an image that appears to be three dimensional and which can be seen with the naked eye

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Detection of Polarized Light

A naked eye cannot distinguish between polarized and unpolarized light. A crystal can be used for making this
distinction. A calcite crystal, quartz crystal a nicol prism (made from calcite
(CaCO3)crystal) can be used as polarizer as well as analyser of polarized light.

* Musical instruments : Musical instruments are grouped into families based on how they produce sounds. The
different types of these instruments include :
* Brass instruments : These are made of brass or some other metal and make sound when air is blown inside. The
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musician’s lips must buzz, as though making a “raspberry” noise against the mouthpiece. Air then vibrates inside the
instrument, which produces a sound. These include trumpet, trombone, tuba, French horn, cornet and bugle.
* Percussion instruments : These make sounds when they are hit, such as a drum or a tambourine. Others are shaken,
such as maracas, and still others may be rubbed, or scratched, or whatever to make the instrument vibrate and produce
a sound. These instruments include drums, cymbals, triangle, chimes, tam-tam, glockenspiel, timpani, bells and
xylophone.
* String instruments : In these instruments strings need to be plucked, as in a guitar or harp, bowed, as with a cello or a
violin; or struck, as with a dulcimer. This creates a vibration that causes a unique sound.
* Woodwind instruments : These instruments produce sound when air (wind) is blown inside. Air might be blown
acrossan edge, as with a flute, between a reed and a surface, as
with a clarinet or between two reeds, as with a bassoon. The sound is produced when the air vibrates inside. These
instruments include the flute, piccolo, clarinet, recorder, bassoon and the oboe.
* Sound and human ears : The three parts of the ear are the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. The inner ear is
also called the cochlea. (‘Cochlea’ means ‘snail’ in Latin; the cochlea gets its name from its distinctive coiled up shape
like the slope of a snail’s shell.)

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The outer ear consists of the pinna, ear canal and eardrum (Tymphanic membrane) The middle ear consists of ossicles
(malleus, incus, stapes) and eustacian tube. The three amplify amplifies the sound heard by a person before its
transmission to inner ear.
* The inner ear consists of the cochlea, the auditory (hearing) nerve and the brain. In cochlea, Organ of Corti transforms
the mechani-cal signals of vibrations in endolymph to electrical signals for transmission to the brain by auditorynerve.
* Sound waves enter the ear canal and make the ear drum vibrate. This action moves the tiny chain of bones (ossicles –
malleus, incus, stapes) in the middle ear. The last bone in this chain the stapes, smallest body bone ‘knocks’ on the
membrane window of the cochlea and makes the fluid in the cochlea move. The fluid movement then triggers a response
in the hearing nerve.
* Noise : It is most commonly discussed in terms of decibels (dB), the measure of loudness, or intensity of a sound; this
measurement describes the amplitude of a sound wave. On the other hand, pitch describes the frequency of a sound and
is measured in hertz (Hz).
* Any sound in range of 80dB-90dB is considered as noise.
* Exposure to noise is associated with several negative health outcomes. Depending on duration and level of exposure,
noise may promote hearing loss, high blood pressure, ischemic heart disease, sleep disturbances, birth defects, and even
decreased school performance.
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Mechanics
The Branch of Physics which deals with the study of motion of material objects.

Statics Kinematics Dynamics

It is a branch of mechanics which It is that branch of mechanics which It is that branch of mechanics which
deals with the study of material deals with the study of motion of deals with the study of motion of
objects at rest. material objects without taking into objects taking into account the
account the factors (i.e., nature of factors which cause motion.
forces, nature of bodies etc.) which
cause motion.

Body

Rest Motion
When it does not change its position with respect to time. When it changes its position with respect to time.
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Quantities

Scalar vector
The physical quantities which have only magnitude but The physical quantities which have magnitude as well
no direction. asdirection.
1. Ex:- Mass, length, time, distance covered, speed, 1. Ex:-Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, torque,
temperature, work etc. gravitational intensity etc.
2. The scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied and 2. Vector cannot be added, subtracted, and multiplied by
divided by ordinary laws of algebra. ordinary laws of algebra.
3. A scalar is specified by mere number and unit, where 3. For these operations on vectors we have to laws of
number represents its magnitude. vectors.
4. A scalar may be positive or negative. 4. Can be represented either by a single letter in bold face
5. A scalar can be represented by a single letter. or by a single letter with an arrow head on it.
5. the velocity which is a vector quantity can be
represented by v or 𝑣⃑ .
6. Its positive magnitude is represented by v or |𝑣⃑ | , called
modulus of velocity vector.
7. The modulus or magnitude of a vector is a scalar
quantity.

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Motion
Motion - It is the change in position of an object with respect to its surroundings in a given interval of time. In daily
life, motion is evident in activities such as walking, running or driving.
Examples- A car driving on a highway, birds flying through the sky, fish swimming in water, a train moving on the track
etc.
Uniform motion - If an object travels equal distances in equal time intervals, then its motion is said to be uniform motion.
Examples - The movement of the fan's blades, the motion of the earth around the sun, the motion of the pendulum with
equivalent amplitude on either side etc.
Non-uniform motion - If unequal distances are traveled by an object in equal time intervals, then its motion is said to be
non-uniform.
Examples - A running horse, a man running in a 1000 m race, a bouncy ball, a car colliding with another
car etc.

Uniform v/s non-uniform circular motion :

S. No. Uniform Circular Motion Non-Uniform CircularMotion
1. Circular motion withconstant angular speed. Circular motion with variable angular speed.
2. α=0 α≠0
3. Work done by tangentialforce is zero. Work done by tangential force is not equal to
zero.
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4. Revolution of earth in its orbit. Motion of a body in a vertical circle

Rest-It refers to a state of no motion or change in position. An object at rest remains stationary relative to its
surroundings.
Rest and motion are relative terms i.e., an object in one situation can be at rest but in other situations the same object
can be in motion.
Examples - If two cars are going side by side with the same velocity, then with respect to each other, they are in a state
of rest, but with respect to roadside trees and persons going on the road, they are in a state of motion.

Types of Motion

According to the nature of the movement, motion is classified into three types.
Linear Motion or Rectilinear Motion Or Translatory
The movement of an object in a straight line, with consistent speed and direction is called linear or rectilinear motion.
It occurs when an object's displacement is directly proportional to the time elapsed.
Example - A train moving along a straight line.

Circular or Rotatory Motion

The movement of an object around an axis or center point is called rotatory motion. It involves circular or curved paths
and is characterized by changes in angular position.
Examples - The spinning of a wheel, the rotation of the Earth on its axis, the movement of the blades of a fan.

Oscillatory Motion
Oscillatory Motion is a repetitive back-and-forth movement around a central equilibrium position. It involves a periodic
variation in position, velocity, or other physical quantities, resulting in a regular pattern or cycle.
Examples - A pendulum swinging back and forth in a regular pattern, a vibrating guitar string producing sound waves.

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One, Two and Three-Dimensional Motion

One-Dimensional Motion - The movement of an object along a single straight line.
Examples - A person walking in a straight line, a train on a straight railway track etc.
Two-Dimensional Motion -The movement of an object in a plane, involving both horizontal and vertical components of
motion.
Examples Motion of a boat in a river, Motion of earth around the sun etc.
Three-Dimensional Motion - The movement of an object in space, involving changes in position along three
perpendicular axes: X, Y, and Z.
Examples - An astronaut floating in space, Motion of a kite, Motion of a flying bird.

Basic Terms Related to Motion

Reference Point - It is a fixed location or fixed point used to determine the position or movement of an object relative
to it.
Position - It refers to the specific location or coordinates of an object in space, relative to a chosen reference point.
Path length - It is defined as the total length of the path traversed by an object.
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Distance (d) -It is the measurement of the total length between two points, typically measured along the actual path
travelled by an object.
Displacement (s) - The shortest path covered by an object from the initial point to the final point.
Displacement = Final point - Initial point. It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is m (meter). It can be positive, negative or
zero.

Speed
The rate of change of position of an object in any direction.
( )
Speed = ()

It is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is meter/second (m/s) or ms1. Its dimension formula is [M°L'T']. It can be positive or
zero but can not be negative.
Example - A car travels a distance of 500 km in 10 hours. What is its speed in km/hr?
Solution Given, Distance = 500 km and Time = 10 hours.
As we know,
Speed = Distance (d)/ Time (t) = 500/50 = 50 km/hr.

Types of Speed :-
Uniform Speed - When an object travels equal distances in equal intervals of time, it is termed as uniform speed.
Variable speed - When an object covers a different distance at equal intervals of time, it is termed as variable speed.
Average speed- It is defined as the uniform speed which is given by the ratio of total distance travelled by an object to
the total time taken by the object.
Example - Using the average speed formula, find the average speed of Sam, who covers the first 200 kilometers
in 4 hours and the next 160 kilometers in another 4 hours.
Solution - Given,

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D1= 200 km,

D2 = 160 km,
t1 = 4 hours and
t2 = 4 hours
As we know,

Average Speed= = = 45 km/hr.

Instantaneous speed - When an object is moving with variable speed, then the speed of that object at any instant of time
is termed as instantaneous speed.
Velocity-Velocity is defined as the rate of change in displacement with respect to time.
Velocity = Change in Displacement/change in Time
It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is m/s or ms". Its dimension formula is [M0L1T1]. It can be positive, negative or zero.
The magnitude of the velocity of an object is always equal to or less than its speed.
Example - A train travels a distance of 100 m due east in 10 seconds. What is its velocity?
Solution - Given,
Displacement = 100 m and
time = 10s
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As we know,

Velocity = = 100/10 = 10 m/s due east.

Types of Velocity:-
Uniform Velocity - The motion of an object in which it covers equal displacements in equal intervals of time. It means
that the object is moving at a constant speed in a straight line without any change in direction. The magnitude and
direction of the velocity remain constant throughout the motion.
Variable Velocity - When a body covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time in a specified direction, the body is
said to be moving with a variable velocity. It indicates that the object is not moving at a constant rate and may be
accelerating or decelerating.
Average Velocity - The total displacement of an object divided by the total time taken is called average velocity. It
represents the overall rate of change in position over a given journey.
Instantaneous Velocity - The velocity of a particle at any instant of time is known as its instantaneous velocity.
Acceleration - The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called acceleration. It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit
is m/s2 or ms2. Its dimension is [M°L1T-2].
( )
Acceleration (a) = ( )

If in a given time interval (t) the velocity of a body changes from initial velocity (u) to final velocity (v), then acceleration
is expressed as -
( ) ( )
A= ()

When the velocity of a body increases with time, acceleration is positive (i.e., the body is said to be accelerated) and
when the velocity of a body decreases with time, then acceleration becomes negative (i.e., the body is said to be
retarded). Negative acceleration is also called deceleration or retardation.
Example - A scooter travelling at 10 m/s speed up to 20 m/s in 4 sec. Find the acceleration of the scooter.

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Solution - Given,
Initial velocity = 10 m/s,
final velocity = 20 m/s and
time = 4 sec.
As we know,

Acceleration = = = 2.5 m/s2.

Types of Acceleration :-
Uniform acceleration - When an object travels in a straight line and its velocity increases by equal amounts in equal
intervals of time, then it is called Uniform acceleration.
Example A body falling down from a height or a body rolling down on a smooth inclined plane.
Non-uniform acceleration or Variable acceleration - The acceleration of a body is said to be non-uniform if its velocity
changes by unequal amounts in equal intervals of time.
Example - If a car traveling along a straight road increases its speed by unequal amounts in equal intervals of time.
Instantaneous acceleration - The ratio of change in velocity during a given time interval such that the time interval goes
to zero.
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Average acceleration - When an object is moving with a variable acceleration, then the average acceleration of the object
for the given motion is defined as the ratio of the total change in velocity of the object during motion to the total time.
Average acceleration= Total change in velocity / Total time taken
Example - A sparrow, while going back to its nest accelerates to 6 m/s from 3 m/s in 5s. What can we say about
its average acceleration?
Solution - Given,
Initial velocity=3m/s,
Final velocity = 6m/s,
Total time = 5 s.
As we know,
Average acceleration = Total change in velocity / Total Time taken
(6- 3)/5=0.6 m/s2.

Graphical Representation of Motion

It is a method of representing a set of variables (physical quantities) pictorially with the help of a line graph where one
physical quantity depends on the other physical quantity. Such as displacement - time graphs, velocity time graphs,
displacement - velocity graphs, etc.

Displacement - Time Graphs

(a) When an object is at rest then the (s-t) graph is a straight line parallel to the time axis.

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From the graph, it is clear that with the passage of time, there is no change in the position of the body, it remains at point
A, i.e., the body is stationary.
(b) When an object is moving with zero acceleration then the (s-t) graph is a straight line with positive slope and the
object is initially at some distance from the origin.

From the graph, it is clear that in equal intervals of time, the body covers equal distances, so the motion is uniform and
the graph is a straight line.
(c) When an object is moving with uniform positive acceleration then the (s-t) graph is a curve with positive slope and
the object is initially at some distance from the origin.
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From the graph, it is clear that in equal intervals of time of one second, the body is covering unequal distances and this
distance goes on increasing. That means, with the passage of time, the body is covering more and more distance in equal
time i.e., the speed of the body is increasing. Hence, the slope of the graph is positive.
(d) When an object is moving with uniform positive acceleration then the (s-t) graph is a curve with negative slope and
the object is initially at some distance from the origin.

From the graph, it is clear that in equal intervals of time of one second, the body is covering unequal distances and this
distance is decreasing. That means, with the passage of time, the body is covering lesser and lesser distance in equal
time i.e... the speed of the body is decreasing. Hence, the slope of the graph is negative.

Velocity - Time Graphs

(a) When an object is moving with constant velocity (zero acceleration) then the (v-t) graph is a straight line parallel to
the time axis.

From the graph, it is clear that with the change of time, there is no change in the velocity. Hence, the slope of the graph
is zero.

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(b) When an object is moving with constant positive acceleration having zero initial velocity then the (v-t) graph is a
straight line passing through the origin.

From the graph, it is clear that for equal change in time, velocity changes by equal amount.
(c) When an object is moving with positive constant acceleration having some initial velocity then the (v-t) graph is a
straight line.

From the graph, it is clear that for equal change in time, velocity changes by equal amount.
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(d) When an object is moving with constant negative acceleration having some positive initial velocity then the (vt)
graph is a straight line and slope is negative.

From the graph, it is clear that velocity is decreasing uniformly with time.
(e) When an object is moving with increasing acceleration having zero initial Velocity then the (v-t) graph is a curve.

From the graph, it is clear that for equal change in time, the change in velocity are unequal.
(f) When an object is moving with decreasing acceleration, then the (v-t) graph is a curve.

From the graph it is clear that velocity is decreasing non-uniformly with time.

Equations of Motion
When an object moves along a straight line with uniform acceleration, it is possible to relate its velocity, acceleration
during motion and the distance covered by it in a certain time interval by a set of equations known as the equations of
motion.

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Three Equations of Motion

First Equation of Motion (relation between "velocity and time"):
v=u+at
Example - If a car starts from rest and accelerates at 5 m/s2 for 10 seconds, what will be its final velocity?
Solution - Given,
Acceleration = 5 m/s2,
time = 10 sec,
initial velocity = 0 m/s
As we know,
V = u+at ⇒ v= 0+5x10 => v = 50 m/s.
Second Equation of Motion (relation between position and time"):
s = ut+ at2

Example - A car initially at rest starts moving with acceleration 0.5 m/s2 covers a distance of 25 m. Calculate the
time required to cover this distance.
Solution - Given,
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Initial velocity (u) = 0 m/s,

acceleration (a) = 0.5 m/s2,
distance travelled (s) =25m.
As we know,
S = ut + at2 = 25=0+ x 0.5 x t2

t2 = 25/0.25= 100 = t = 10 s.

Third Equation of Motion (relation between "position and velocity"):

v2= u2 + 2as
where, s = displacement, u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, a= acceleration, t = time.
Example - A body initially at moving with a speed of 18 kmph is accelerated uniformly at the rate of 9 cm/s2
covers a distance of 200 m. Calculate the final velocity.
Solution - Given,
Initial velocity (u) = 18 kmph = 18x 5/18= 5 m/s,
distance travelled = s = 200 m,
acceleration = 9 cm/s2 = 0.09 m/s2.
As we know,
v2 = u2 + 2as => v2 = 52+2×0.09 x 200 ⇒v2 = 61⇒ v = √61 m/s.

Freely Falling Object

The falling of an object from a height towards the earth under gravitational force is called free fall. Such a body is called
a freely falling object. Whenever an object falls towards the earth, an acceleration is involved, this acceleration is due
to the earth's gravitational pull and is called acceleration due to gravity.

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The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) near the earth surface is 9.8 m/s2.
The three equations of free fall of an object near the surface of the earth are-
(i) v = u+gt
(ii) h = ut+gt2
(iii) v2 = u2 + 2gh
where h is the height from which the object falls, t is the time of fall, u is the initial velocity and v is the final velocity.
Examples Fruit falling from the tree, a stone dropped from a hill, meteors falling towards earth.

Motion in a Plane
Motion in a plane means motion in a two-dimensional plane which includes x-axis and y-axis. If an object is in motion
such that its position at any time can be given with reference axes (two mutually perpendicular lines passing through
the origin).
Examples - Projectile motion, circular motion.

Projectile Motion
Projectile motion is when the object is projected into air and gravity is the only force acting upon the object. It follows
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a curved path known as a projectile trajectory.

Examples - The motion of a bomb dropped from an aeroplane, a ball thrown in a horizontal direction, a ball after hitting
the bat.
Projectile Motion Formula

The point O is called the point of projection; is the angle of projection.

Component of Velocity - The horizontal component of initial velocity, u, u cose, where e is the angle by which an object
is projected near the earth's surface called angle of projection and u is velocity of projection also called muzzle velocity.
The vertical component of initial velocity uy=usinƟ.
Time of Flight (T)- The total time for which the projectile is in motion.
T = (2usinƟ) / g
Maximum Height (H)- The maximum value of vertical displacement of projectile during its course of motion.
( Ɵ)
Maximum Height (Hm) =

Range (R) - The horizontal displacement of a projectile during its motion.

Ɵ
Horizontal Range (R) =

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Maximum horizontal range (Rmax) =

(when sin20 is maximum i.e., = 45°).

When range of projectile is maximum, then maximum height of projectile,

Hmax = =

Circular Motion
It refers to the movement of an object along a curved path, where the object maintains a constant distance from a fixed
point. It is of two types - Uniform circular motion and Non-uniform circular motion.
Non uniform circular motion - It is a circular motion when the speed of the body doesn't remain constant.
Examples - Spinning of Lattu or spinning top, roller coaster.
Uniform circular motion - When an object follows a circular path at a constant speed, the motion of the object is called
uniform circular motion.
Examples - Motion of artificial satellites around the earth, Motion of electrons around the nucleus in an atom, Motion
of blades of a windmill.
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Terms Related to Uniform Circular Motion

Angular Displacement (Ɵ) - In circular motion, angular displacement is defined as the change in the angle of a body
with respect to its initial angular position. Its unit is radian.

Angular displacement =

Angular velocity (w) - It is the rate of change of angular displacement of an object in a

circular motion.

Angular displacement = or w = Ɵl

Angular velocity = t, where, w = angular velocity, Ɵ = position angle, and t = time. It is a vector quantity. Its unit is

radian/second.
Angular Acceleration (a)- It is defined as the time rate of change of angular velocity (dw). It is usually expressed in
radians per second squared. a= dw/dt, where dw represents the change in angular velocity, and dt represents the change
in time.
Centripetal Acceleration (a) - Acceleration acting on the particle undergoing a uniform circular motion towards the
centre of the circle is called centripetal acceleration. It always acts on the particle along the radius whose value is given
by, Centripetal acceleration, a, = v2/r = rw2
where, r is the radius of the circular path and v is the linear velocity of a particle and w is angular velocity.
Time Period (T) - It is the time for an object to complete one full revolution or cycle in a uniform circular motion. Its SI
unit is sec.

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T= 2π / ω
Frequency (f) - The number of revolutions completed by the object on its circular path in a unit of time. Its SI unit is
sec1 or Hertz.

Relation between time period and frequency

Time period (T) = ( )

****
{ Space for Rough work }
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Force and Laws of Motion

Force
It is a fundamental concept in physics that describes the push or pull applied to an object. It causes objects to accelerate,
decelerate, or deform, depending on the nature of the force.
Examples - A force is used when we kick a football, we lift a box from the floor, we stretch a rubber band.
It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is Newton (kg m/s2), and its CGS unit is Dyne.
1 Newton = 105 dyne.

Fundamental or Basic Forces in Nature

Contact Forces
When two objects are in direct physical contact with each other. These forces arise due to the interaction between the
surface of one object and the surface of another object.

Examples of contact forces are:-

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Normal Force - They are the upward countervailing force exerted by a surface to support the weight of an object.
Examples - Earth upon us, human hand while holding an object, a nail on a hammer during hammering.
Tension Force - A force experienced by a rope, string, or cable when it is pulled from the opposite end. It doesn't have
the pushing ability.
Examples - Plucking a guitar string, stretching the muscles, a swing in a playground.

Applied Force - The external force acting on a system of the body from outside the system.
Examples - The opening and shutting of a door, ball kicking, wet clothing squeezing, cycle pedaling.
Spring force : It is the force exerted by a compressed orstretched spring upon any object that is attached to it. An object
that compresses or stretches a spring is always acted upon by the force that restores the object to its rest or equilibrium
position. For most springs magnitude of the force is directly proportional to the amount of stretch or compression of the
spring.

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Non-Contact Forces
A non-contact force is a force applied to an object by another body that is not in direct contact with it.
Examples of Non-contact forces are :-
Gravitational Force - The force that is present due to the attraction between the two objects.
Electromagnetic Force - It is due to the electric or magnetic affinity of the molecules that generates this force and results
in binding of atoms and solids.
Nuclear Force - It is a force that acts between the protons and neutrons of atoms. It can divide based on strength as-
Weak Nuclear Force - The force is present between radioactive decay molecules and is generated during their decay.
They are 1025 times stronger than gravitational forces.
Strong Nuclear Force - The forces that bind the neutrons and protons together in a nucleus. These forces act between
two protons or two neutrons or a proton and a neutron, but only if the particles are very close together. These are 1038
times stronger than gravitational forces, 102 times stronger than electrostatic forces and 1013 times stronger than the
weak forces.

Types of Force
Balanced Force - Forces acting on an object which does not change the state of rest or of uniform motion.
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Examples - Aircraft in a steady flight, objects floating in water, fruit hanging from a tree, a person standing still.
Unbalanced Force - A net force acting on an object that is not cancelled out by opposing forces, resulting in acceleration
or a change in motion.
Examples - A fruit dropping from a tree, an object sinking in water, turning a cartwheel, a football sailing toward the
goal after it was kicked.

Inertia
The tendency of a body to oppose any change in its state of rest or of uniform motion is called inertia. It is related to an
object's mass, where objects with more mass have greater inertia.

There are three types of Inertia :-

Inertia of Rest - It is defined as the property of a body to resist any change in its state of rest.
Examples - Falling down of dust particles while dusting a cloth, falling down backwards when a vehicle starts
immediately, a book lying on the table will remain at rest until it is moved by some external force.
Inertia of Motion - It is defined as the property of a body to resist any change to its state of uniform motion.
Examples - When the bus is in motion and if the brake is applied suddenly, passengers move forward.

Inertia of Direction - It is defined as a body's ability to resist changes in its motion direction.
Examples - when a bus moving along a straight line takes a right turn, then the passengers bend towards the left side.

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Newton's Laws of Motion

In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton presented his three laws of motion in "Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis".
Newton's laws of motion are fundamental principles that describe the behavior of objects in motion.
There are three Laws of motion.
Newton's First Law of Motion
Every object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to change its state by the action
of an external force. This law is also known as the law of inertia.

Examples When we shake a tree vigorously, its fruits and leaves fall down. This happens because the fruits and leaves
were at rest initially and as the tree is shaken vigorously, the tree moves to and fro but the force is not acting on leaves
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and fruits, and they try to maintain their states of rest due to inertia and hence fall.
Newton's Second Law of Motion
The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction
in which the force acts.

Example - If two stones (one light and the other heavy) are dropped from the top of a building, a person on the ground
will find it easier to catch the light stone than the heavy stone. The mass of a body is thus an important parameter that
determines the effect of force on its motion.
According to Newton's Second Law of motion :-
Force (F) ∝ Rate of change of momentum

F∝

F=k where k is proportionality constant.

For a body of fixed mass m,

( )
= =m = ma

So, Second Law can also be written as F = k ma

F = ma (For simplicity, k is chosen as 1)
If acceleration a = 0, then

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F = 0 (mass of the body can never be zero).

It means that in the absence of external force the body either moves with constant velocity or comes to rest.
By Newton's second law F = ma, here if m = 1 kg and a = 1 m/s2, then F = 1N. Thus, 1N is the force required to produce
an acceleration of 1 m/s2 in a body of mass 1 kg.
Example - Calculate the force needed to speed up a car with a rate of 5ms, if the mass of the car is 1000 kg.
Solution - Given, mass = 1000 kg, acceleration = 5 m/s2.
As we know,
Force = mass x acceleration
Force = 1000 x 5 = 5000 N.
Newton's Third Law of Motion
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction and both acts on two different bodies. So, this law is also known
as the law of action and reaction.
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Examples - Releasing a balloon full of air has an equal and opposite reaction, the swimmer pushes the water backwards
and the water exerts a force on the swimmer in the forward direction.
Momentum
It is defined as the product of an object's mass and its velocity. It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is kilogram-metre per
second (kg-m/s or kg.ms"1) and the dimensional formula is [M'L'T']. If a body of mass (m) moves with a velocity (v),
then momentum (p) is given by p = mv.
Example - A heavy truck traveling on the highway has more momentum than a smaller car traveling at the same speed
because it has a greater mass.
Law of Conservation of Momentum - It states that the total momentum of an isolated system remains constant if no
external forces are acting on it. This means that the combined momentum of all objects before a collision is equal to the
combined momentum after the collision.

Example : Gun and bullet mechanism, inflated Balloon, collision of two objects, Rocket propulsion. Example
What will be the momentum of stone having mass 10 kg when it is thrown with a velocity of 2 m/s ?
Solution - Given,
velocity = 2 m/s and
mass = 10 kg.
As we know that,
Momentum = mass x velocity

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Momentum = 10 x 2 = 20 kg m/s.

Equation of Conservation of Momentum

Two objects of masses m, and m2 collide with each other when they move along a straight line with velocities u, and u2
respectively. After the collision, they acquire velocities v, and v2 in the same direction.
Total momentum before collision, initial momentum (P) = m1u1+ m2u2
Total momentum after collision, final momentum (P, )=m1v1+ m2V2
If no other force acts on the system, the total momentum remains conserved.
Therefore, Pi = Pt => m1u1+ m2u2 = m1v1+ m2v2

Impulse
When a force acts on an object for a short duration of time, it's called impulse.
Examples - Catching a fast-flying baseball, a boxer delivers a powerful punch.
It is calculated as the product of the force exerted on the object and the duration of time over which the force is applied.
Impulse = change in momentum
= Force x Time.
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It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is Newton-sec or kg-meter/sec and the dimensional formula
is [M1L1T-1].

Frame of Reference
It is a coordinate system used to describe the position and motion of objects. It provides a fixed point for making
measurements and analyzing physical phenomena.
There are two types of frames of reference
Inertial Frame of Reference - It is a frame in which Newton's laws of motion work. A frame of reference that moves
with constant velocity with respect to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame.
Example - a car at a standstill or a bus moving at constant speed are considered to be inertial frames of reference.
Non-inertial frame of reference - It is accelerating or rotating relative to an inertial frame. In such frames, apparent or
fictitious forces may be present. For a non-inertial frame of reference, Newton's laws of motion doesn't hold true.
Example - A car stationary at the traffic light. The car moves forward rapidly when the traffic light turns green. During
this acceleration, the car is in a non-inertial frame of reference.

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Apparent Weight of a Person in Lift

If a person of mass (m) is in a lift, then the actual weight of the person is mg, which acts on the lift floor in downward
direction, due to which the floor offers the reaction (R). This reaction is called the apparent weight of the person.
Relation between R and mg in different situation-
At rest or constant velocity - When the lift or elevator is at rest then the apparent weight of the
person is equal to the actual weight of the person.
When the lift is moving uniformly in upward/downward direction - In uniform motion, the apparent
weight of the person is equal to the actual weight of the person.
When the lift is accelerating upwards - If lift is accelerating upwards, then the apparent weight of
the person is more than the actual weight of the person.
When the lift is accelerating downwards - If the lift is accelerating downwards, then the apparent weight of the person
is less than the actual weight of the person.
When the lift is falling freely - In this case, the apparent weight of the person becomes zero i.e., the person feels the
condition of weightlessness.

Friction
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Friction is a force that opposes the motion of objects that are in contact with each other.
It arises due to the interaction between the surfaces of the objects and can hinder or slow
down their movement. It can be both beneficial, such as providing grip and control, and
detrimental, such as causing wear and heat generation.

Types of Friction
Static Friction (fs)
The force that prevents the relative motion between two surfaces in contact when at least one of the surfaces is at rest.
Example - pushing a heavy Box, a towel hanging on a rack
Fs= μs N where, fs= Static Friction Force, μs = Static Friction Coefficient, N= normal force (contact force).
Limiting Friction (fi)
It is the maximum force of static friction that occurs just before a body starts to slide over the surface of another body.
Limiting friction (fl) = plN
where, μl =coefficient of limiting friction and N = normal reaction force.

Kinetic Friction (fk)

It opposes the motion between two surfaces in contact. It is present when there is relative motion or sliding between the
surfaces.
Examples - Sliding a book on a table, writing with a pen, rubbing hands, pressing clothes with an iron, etc.
fk = μkN. where, fk = kinetic friction Force, μk = kinetic friction coefficient (μk is less than μs), and N = normal force.
Frictional force : It is the force exerted by a surface as an object moves across it or makes an effort to move across it.
There are at least two types of friction force - sliding and static friction. The frictional force often opposes the motion
of an object, e.g., if a book slides across the surface of a desk then the desk exerts a frictional force in the opposite
direction of its motion. Friction results from the two surfaces being pressed together closely, causing intermolecular

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attractive forces between the molecules of different surfaces. As such, friction depends upon the nature of the two
surfaces and the degree to which they are pressed together. The maximum amount of frictional force that a surface can
exert upon an object is

Ffr ict = µ x F norm , where µ is the coefficient of friction.

* The kinetic friction can be sliding or rolling, and fluid friction.
Static friction > Sliding friction > Rolling friction > Fluid friction.
Types of Kinetic Friction :-
Rolling Friction - It is the frictional force that occurs when one object rolls on another, like a car's wheels on the ground.
Sliding Friction - The frictional force that opposes the relative motion between the surfaces when one body slides over
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the other body.

Methods of Reducing Friction

Use of Lubricants - Substances that can reduce the amount of friction and wear and tear of various objects.
Examples - Motor oil, gel, silicone, oil, grease, wax etc.
Polishing - Polishing a surface can make rough surfaces smooth and reduce friction.
Applying Oil - Oil is applied to the hinges of the door to reduce friction and create a smooth movement of the door.
Applying Powder - The powder is sprinkled over a carrom board to decrease the friction between the board surface and
the striker.

Centripetal Force
A force that acts on a body moving in a circular path and is directed towards the centre around which the body is moving
is called centripetal force.
Examples - Loop of roller coaster, orbiting planets, driving on curves, revolution of electrons around the nucleus, the
motion of the moon around the earth.
Centripetal force = Mass x Centripetal acceleration

Centripetal force (Fe) =

where m is mass, v is
linear velocity and r is the radius of the path.

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Centrifugal Force
Centrifugal Force is a pseudo force in a uniform circular motion that acts along the radius
and is directed away from the centre of the circle.
Examples - a bike making a turn, Merry-Go-Round, swinging fair ride, Cream Separator.

Centripetal force v/s centrifugal force :

1. Centrifugal force is the tendency of an object to fly away from the centre of curvature being the inertia of motion but
centripetal force is the force that keeps an object moving with a uniform speed along a circular path.
2. Centrifugal force acts along the radius of the circle from the centre towards the object but centripetal force acts along
the radius of the circle from the object towards the centre.
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Bending of a cyclist round a curve : The figure shows a cyclist taking a turn on a circular path of radius r. Let
m be the mass of the cyclist along with the bicycle and v be the velocity. When the cyclist negotiates the curve , he bends
inwards from the vertical by an angle θ. Let R be the reaction of the ground on the cyclist, be resolved into two
components.

* the component R sinθ, acting towards the centre of the curve providing necessary centripetal force

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Gravitation
Gravitational Force
Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force which is called the force of Gravitation. In other
words, the force with which the earth pulls the bodies towards it, is called the gravitational force of earth or gravity of
the earth. It is also defined as the non-contact force of attraction between any two bodies in the universe.
Examples - Falling of leaves and fruits from a tree downwards towards the ground, downstream flow of river water, the
return of a ball thrown up to the earth after reaching a certain height.
Characteristics of Gravitational Force
(a) Gravitational force is a conservative force. It is the weakest force in nature.
(b) The law of gravitation is applicable for all bodies, irrespective of their size, shape and position.
(c) Gravitational force is an action at a distance; It does not need any contact between the two bodies.
(d) Gravitational force is 10% times smaller than electrostatic force and 103 times smaller than strong nuclear force.
(e) It acts along the line joining the center of the two objects. Therefore, it is called the central force.
(f) The gravitational force is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the two bodies. This means a larger
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mass will yield a larger force.

Equilibrium of Bodies
A rigid body is in equilibrium when the sum of all the external forces acting on it equals zero.
Conditions of Equilibrium
(a) The total force, i.e. the vector sum of the forces, on the rigid body is zero.
(b) The total torque, i.e. the vector sum of the torques on the rigid body are zero.

Types of Equilibrium
There are three types of equilibrium : stable, unstable, and neutral.
Stable equilibrium: It is a state in which a body tends to return to its original position after being slightly disturbed.
Potential energy tends to be minimum in this case.
Unstable equilibrium - This equilibrium exists when a point force acts on a body after that the body can't attain its
original position. Potential energy tends to be maximum in this case.
Neutral equilibrium: When a body can stay in equilibrium even after being slightly displaced and released. In this case,
potential energy remains constant.
Stability of Equilibrium
When meta centre of the floating body lies above the centre of gravity of the body, then the body is in stable equilibrium,
and when the meta centre lies below the centre of gravity of the body, then the body is in unstable equilibrium.
Universal Law of Gravitation
This law was given by Newton and it is also called Newton's Law of Gravitation. The Law states that every body in the
universe attracts every other body with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Consider two bodies A and B having masses m1 and m2, whose centres are at a distance r from each other. Then
Gravitational force is given by

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F∝ ⇒F=

where, G is a universal gravitational constant. Its value is same everywhere on the earth or in the universe. The value of
G is 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2 and the dimensional formula of G is [M-1L3T-2]. In SI units m is measured in kilogram, F in
newton, r in meter.
Example - Calculate the gravitational force of attraction between two metal spheres each of mass 90 kg, if the
distance between their centres is 40 cm. Given G 6.67 x 10-11 N m2/kg2. Will the force of attraction be different if
the same bodies are taken on the moon, their separation remaining the same?
Solution - Given,
Mass of first body (m1) = 90 kg,
mass of second body (m2)= 90 kg,
Distance between masses (r) = 40 cm = 40 x 10-2 m, G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2/kg2.
As we know,
.
F= = . .
-6
= 3.377 x 10 N.
Force of attraction will remain the same for the two bodies whether they are on the earth or on the moon because the
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force of attraction between two bodies is proportional to the product of the individual masses of the two bodies and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena like
(i) the force that binds us to the earth.
(ii) the motion of the moon around the earth.
(iii) presence of atmosphere around a planet.

Gravity :
Gravity is the force by which a planet or other body draws objects toward its center. The force of gravity keeps all of
the planets in orbit around the sun. The gravitational force due to earth is also known as gravity.
Acceleration Due to Gravity (g)
The uniform acceleration produced in a freely falling object due to the gravitational pull of the earth is known as
acceleration due to gravity.
Its unit is m/s2. It is a vector quantity and its direction is towards the centre of the earth. The value of g is independent
of the mass of the object which is falling freely under gravity.
Relation between g and G-
g=

Where, M = mass of the earth = 6.0 x 1024 kg and R = radius of the earth = 6.37 x 106 m.
On the surface of the earth, the value of g is taken as 9.8 ms-2.

Factors Affecting Acceleration Due to Gravity

Variation of g with Altitude and Depth
Variation of g with altitude: As one goes above the surface of Earth, the value of acceleration due to gravity gradually
goes on decreasing. If g1 be the value of acceleration due to gravity at a height hi from the surface of Earth,

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then,
gh=
( )

If h<<R then gh = g (1 - ). Here R is the radius of earth and his the height of the body above the surface of earth.

The value of acceleration due to gravity decreases with the increase in height.
Variation of g with depth: The value of acceleration due to gravity decreases with the increase in depth.
Gd = g (1 - ).

Here g, be the value of acceleration due to gravity at the depth d.

Variation of g with Latitude

If w is the angular velocity of rotation of earth about its own axis, then acceleration due to gravity at a place having
latitude λ is given by g'=g-Rꞷ2 cos2λ.
At poles, λ= 90° and g' = g,
Therefore, there is no effect of rotation of earth about its own axis at poles.
At equator, λ= 0° and g' = g Rꞷ2. Therefore, the value of g is minimum at the equator.
If earth stops its rotation about its own axis, then g will remain unchanged at poles.
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At the centre of the earth, the value of acceleration due to gravity becomes zero.
Earth is flattened at the poles. Thus, the radius of earth is less at the poles than at the equator. Hence, the value of g is
less at equator than at poles.
* Calculated value of ‘g’ for different planets
Acceleration of gravity value for various planets
Planet Radius (m) Mass (kg) g(m /s2)

Mercury 2.43 x 106 3.2 x1023 3.61

Venus 6.073 x106 4.88 x1024 8.83
Mars 3.38 x 106 6.42 x1023 3.75
Jupiter 6.98 x 107 1.901 x 1027 26.0
Saturn 5.82 x 107 5.68 x1026 11.2

Uranus 2.35 x 107 8.68 x 1025 10.5

Neptune 2.27 x 107 1.03 x 1026 13.3
Pluto 1.15 x 106 1.2 x 1022 0.61

Gravitational Potential
Gravitational potential (V) : The gravitational potential is the work done per unit mass by some externally applied
force to bring a mass from zero potential to infinity. It is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of gravitational potential is J kg-1
and the dimensional formula is [L2T-2].
Gravitational potential (V) =

Gravitational Potential Energy (U)

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Gravitational potential energy of any object at any point in gravitational field is equal to the work done in bringing it
from infinity to that point. The SI unit is Joule and its dimensional formula is [M L2T-2].
Gravitational potential energy associated with two particles of masses m, and m2 separated by a distance r is given by
U= +k (k = constant of integration)

The gravitational potential energy is zero when r approaches infinity. So the constant is zero and
U=

Satellite
A satellite is a small or large body that revolves round a massive body. A satellite can be natural like moon is the only
satellite of the earth or an artificial, man-made satellites. The artificial satellites are further classified according to the
type of orbits they revolve in. There are four types of orbits associated with satellites, and the type of orbit dictates the
satellite’s use.
Type of Satellites
1. Low Earth Orbits : Satellites in lower Earth orbits are normally military reconnaissance satellites that can pick out
tanks from 160 km above the earth. They orbit theearth very quickly, one complete orbit normally takes 90 minutes.
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However, these satellites have very short lifetime in the order of weeks compared with decades for geostationary
satellites. Simple launch vehicles are used to place these satellites of large masses into the orbit.
2. Sun-Synchronous orbits : These are meteorological satellites often placed in a sun-synchronous or heliosynchronous
orbit. These satellites are in polar orbits. The orbits are designed so that the satellite’s orientation is fixed relative to the
Sun throughout the year, allowing very accurate weather predictions to be made. Most meteorological satellites
predicting weather conditions orbit the earth 15 -16 times per day.
3. Geosynchronous satellites : Earth-synchronous or geosynchronous satellites are placed into orbit so that their period
of rotation may exactly match the earth’s rotation. They take 24 hours to make one revolution. However, the plane of
orbit for these satellites is generally not the equatorial plane. These satellites are used for communications at high
latitudes, particularly in Russia and Canada. The orbits are called Molniya orbits. The satellites are placed in highly
elliptical orbits which enable them to appear to hover above one point on the earth for most of the day. In twenty- four
hours, they move over the earth in a figure of eight pattern centered on a fixed longitude, moving slowly where they can
be useful and quickly where they are of little use.
Artificial satellites are of two types :-
Geostationary Satellite - A satellite which appears to be at a fixed position at a definite height to an observer on earth.
The height of the satellite above the surface of the earth is 35800 km and radius of orbit is approximately 42400 km. Its
time period of rotation is 24 h.
Examples - INSAT-3D and GSAT-7.

Polar Satellites - These are those satellites which revolve in polar orbits around earth. A polar orbit is that orbit whose
angle of inclination with the equatorial plane of earth is 90°. The height of the satellite above the surface of the earth is
500 to 800 km. Its period of rotation is around 100 minutes. These satellites are used in forecasting weather, studying
the upper region of the atmosphere, in mapping, etc. PSLV series satellites are polar satellites of India.

Time Period of Satellite

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Time period of a satellite is the time taken by the satellite to complete one revolution around the earth. It can be calculated
by the formula

T=2π

where g-acceleration due to gravity and R - radius of earth. If we substitute the numerical values g = 9.8 m s2 and R =
6400 km, we get T = 85 minutes (approx).

Energy of an Orbiting Satellite

If h is the height of the satellite above the Earth's surface and R is the radius of the Earth, then the radius of the orbit of
the satellite is r = R+h.
Total energy of a satellite E = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy.

Since, Kinetic energy, K= ½ mv2

=½( )= 𝑎𝑛𝑑

Potential energy, U = - = −

Thus,
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Total energy of a satellite,

E= ½ ( )= − =-

Binding Energy
The energy required to remove a satellite from its orbit around the earth (planet) to infinity is called binding energy of

the satellite. Binding energy of the satellite of mass, m is given by BE = -

(negative sign refers to the attractive nature of the force between Earth and the satellite)

Escape Velocity
Escape velocity on earth is the minimum velocity with which a body has to be projected vertically upwards from the
earth's surface so that it just crosses the earth's gravitational field and never returns. The escape speed (V.) from the
surface of the earth is given by
Ve = 2𝑔𝑅 = √2x 9.81 x6400 x 10
= 11.2 km/sec.
Where, g = 9.81 ms2, Radius of Earth is 6400 Km. So, the value of escape velocity is 11.2 km/sec.

Orbital Velocity
Orbital velocity of a satellite is the maximum velocity required to put the satellite into a given orbit around the earth. It
is denoted by Vo
The formula for the orbital velocity is given by,

Vo =

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Where, G gravitational constant with the value 6.673 x 10-11 N-m2/kg2, R, radius of the earth, M, is the weight of the
earth and h = height of the satellite from the earth's surface.
If the satellite is revolving near the earth's surface then h can be neglected in comparison to Re i.e,
Re + h= Re
then, Orbital velocity Vo = 𝑔𝑅

= 9.8 m/sec^2 x 6.4 x 10^6 metre

= 7.92 x 103 m/sec = 7.92 km/sec = 8 km/sec.

Relation Between Escape Velocity And Orbital Velocity: Vescape = √2 Vorbital

The escape velocity is approximately 1.414 times the orbital velocity. This relationship holds true for a circular orbit
around a celestial body.
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion
Kepler's laws of planetary motion are three fundamental principles that describe the motion of planets around the Sun.
They were formulated by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century based on observations made
by the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe.
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First Law (Law of Ellipses): Every planet orbits the Sun in elliptical paths, with the Sun located at one of the two foci
(f) of the ellipse.
First Law

or
Second Law (Law of Equal Areas): A line connecting a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas (A) in equal time (T)
intervals, meaning planets move faster when closer to the Sun and slower when farther away.
Second Law

or
Third Law (Law of Periods): The square of the time period (T) of revolution of a planet is proportional to the cube of
the semi-major axis (a) of the ellipse traced out by the planet.
T2 ∞ a3 =>T2 = Ka3, where K is Kepler's constant.

Mass (m)

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Mass of a body is a measure of inertia of the body and hence it is also known as inertial mass. The mass of a body cannot
be zero. Mass is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of mass is kilogram.
Weight (W)
The weight of an object is the force with which it is attracted towards the earth. It is a vector quantity. The SI unit of
weight is Newton (N).
Weight of a Body at the Moon
The mass and radius of the moon are less than that of the earth, so the force of the gravity at the moon is also less than
that of the earth. The weight of an object on the moon will be about one-sixth of what it is on earth.
Weightlessness
It is a situation, in which the effective weight of the body becomes zero. Weightlessness is achieved-
(i) during freely falling under gravity
(ii) inside a spacecraft or satellite
(iii) at the centre of the earth

Floatation
An object floats if its density is lower than the density of water. For example, a plant's leaf floats on the water because
it has a lower density than water. Throwing a stone into water will cause it to sink because stones have a higher density
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than water.

Laws of Floatation
When a body floats in a liquid, the weight of the liquid displaced by its immersed part is equal to the total weight of the
body. This is the law of floatation, i.e. while floating the weight of the floating body = Weight of the liquid displaced by
its immersed part. There are three conditions of floating and sinking of objects.
These are:-
(i) If the buoyant force or upthrust exerted by the liquid is less than the weight of the object (F < W), the object will sink
in the liquid.
(ii) If the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the object (F = W), the object will float inside the liquid.
(iii) If the buoyant force is more than the weight of the object (F> W), the object will rise with some of its part outside
the liquid.

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Work, Energy and Power

Work
Work is defined as the transfer of energy that occurs when a force is applied to an object, and the object is displaced in
the direction of the force.
For example - Moving a table, Pushing and pulling a door, Lifting a rock, A batsman hitting a ball, A boat sailing in the
river, A cyclist paddling the cycle, etc.
W = F.S
where, W = work done,
F = force applied,
s = displacement or distance with direction.
The SI unit of work is newton-metre (N-m) or joule and the CGS unit is erg. It is a scalar quantity and Dimensional
Formula [M1L2T-2].
1 joule = 107 erg.
1 erg = 1 dyne cm.
Mathematical Form to Define Work
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Work done on a body is defined as the product of the force's magnitude and the distance the body moves in the applied
force's direction.

W = (F cosθ)s.
where, W = work done,
F = force applied,
s = displacement or distance with direction, and
θ = angle between the force and displacement. The value of work will be maximum at θ = 0° and minimum at θ = 90°.
Example - A box is pulled with a force of 25 N to produce a displacement of 15 m. If the angle between the force
and displacement is 30°, find the work done by the force.
Solution - Given,
Force (F) = 25 N,
Displacement (s) = 15 m,
Angle between F and s, θ = 30°.
As we know,
Work done = F x s x Cos θ
According to question,
Work done = 25 x 15 x Cos 30°
= 25 x 15 x √3/2 =324.75 J.

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Conditions When No Work is Done - As work depends on three factors, that is, force applied on the object,
displacement travelled by the body under the force, and an angle between force and displacement.
Case 1- When displacement becomes zero.
Example - A weightlifter holding a 150 kg mass steadily on his shoulder for 30 sec does 'no work' on the load during
this time.
Case 2- When the force applied becomes zero.
Example - A ball rolling on a slippery surface is not acted upon by the horizontal force, as there
is no friction, but there may be a large displacement.
Case 3- When the value of cose becomes zero or angle (θ) = 90°.
Example - When a block is rolled down on a smooth surface, the gravitational force there does not work. It is because
the force is perpendicular to displacement in this case.

Types of Work
Positive Work - If the applied force displaces the object in its direction, then the work done is known
as positive work.
Example - A boy pulls an object towards himself.
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Negative Work - If the force and displacement are in the opposite direction, then the work done is known as negative
work.
Example - The work that the buoyant force does when a coin sinks.

Zero Work - If the force and displacement act perpendicular to each other, then the work done is known as zero work.
Example A person standing still with bags in his hands is not doing any work because there is no displacement of the
bag.

Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces

Conservative Force

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Conservative Force is a type of force that moves an object from one place to another. This force is independent of the
path covered by an object and depends upon the initial and final positions only. Work done will remain zero in the
closed path. This force is reversible.
Examples - Electrostatic force, Gravitational force, Magnetic force, etc.
Non-Conservative Force
The non-conservative force depends on the area covered by a body and the final and initial position of the particle. Work
done will always remain a positive close path. This force is irreversible.
Examples - Frictional force, Air resistance, Viscous force, etc.
Power
Power is defined as the time rate at which work is done or energy is transferred.
Power (P) = Work (W) / Time (t)

= Force x Velocity.

Power is scalar quantity and its SI unit is J/s or watt (W). Its dimensions are [M1L2T -3].
1 watt = 1 joule/second = 1 kg m2 s-3

There is another unit of power, namely the horse-power (hp), 1 hp = 746 W.

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Example - A machine does 192 J of work in 24 Sec. What is the power of the machine?
Solution - Given,
work = 192 joule and time = 24 sec.
As we know,
Power = work / time = 192/24 = 8 watt.

Energy
The capacity of doing work is called energy. It is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of energy is 'joule' (same as that of work)
and CGS unit is 'erg'. kilojoule (kJ), a larger energy unit of energy, equals 1000 J. The dimensional representation of
energy is [M1 L2 T-2]
1 calorie (cal) = 4.2 joules, 1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 3.6 x 106 J = 3.6 mega joules (MJ).
The major advantage includes the easy conversion of one form of energy into another such as when lighting a
matchstick or reduction in speed on applying brakes or changing the direction of motion by turning the steering wheel.

Phenomenon
S.No Phenomenon Energy (J)
1. Energy spent in turning a page ≈ 10–3
2. Work done by human heart in a beat ≈ 0.5
3. Daily food intake of a person ≈ 107
4. Annual solar energy incident on earth ≈ 5×1024
5. Rotation energy of earth ≈ 1×1029
6. Big Bang in orgin of Universe ≈ 1×1068

Forms of Energy

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It exists in various forms, such as kinetic energy (associated with motion), potential energy (related to an object's
position or condition), thermal energy (associated with heat), and many other forms, and it can be transformed from
one form to another but is always conserved in a closed system.

Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion.
Examples - Moving Car, Walking & Running, Wind Mills, Bullet fired from a gun, etc.
The kinetic energy of an object increases with its speed. It is directly proportional to the mass of the object and to the
square of its velocity. An object with mass (m) and velocity (v) is given by the formula: Kinetic energy, K.E.= ½ mv2
Example A ball has a mass of 2Kg, suppose it travels at 10m/s. Find the kinetic energy possessed by it.
Solution - Given,
mass = 2 kg and
velocity = 10 m/s.
As we know,
Kinetic Energy = ½ mv2
According to question,
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Kinetic Energy = ½ x 2 x 10 x 10 = 100 J.

Potential Energy
The potential energy of an object is the energy possesses due to its position or configuration.
Examples: Water In Dams & Reservoirs, An object at the top of a hill, A lifted weight, Food before we digest it, A
charged battery, A wound spring of a watch etc.
An object's mechanical energy can be the result of its motion (i.e., kinetic energy) and/or the result of its stored energy
of position (i.e., potential energy). The sum of kinetic and potential energy is known as mechanical energy.

Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational potential energy is the energy of an object due to its vertical height.
If a body of mass (m) is raised through a height (h) against gravity, then its Gravitational Potential Energy, U= mgh
where, m is the mass (in kilograms), g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2 at the surface of the earth) and h is
the height (in meters). Examples A car that is parked at the top of a hill, Water flowing from the tap, Working of a
hydroelectric dam etc.

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Example - A mass of 2Kg is taken from the ground to the height of 10m. Find the potential energy of the object.
(g = 10 m/s2)
Solution - Given,
mass = 2 kg and
height = 10 m.
As we know,
Potential Energy = mgh
According to question,
Potential Energy = 2 x 10 x 10 = 200 J.

Elasticity
The property of the body by virtue of which it tends to regain its original shape and size after the removal of applied
forces, is called elasticity and body itself is called elastic body.
Some Terms Related to Elasticity
(i) Deforming Force The force which when applied changes the configuration of the body, is called deforming force.
(ii) Perfect Elastic Body A body which regains its original configuration immediately and completely after the removal
of deforming force, is called perfectly elastic body.
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e.g., quartz, phospher bronze.

(iii) Plastic Body A body which does not regain its original configuration at all on the removal of deforming force from
it, is called plastic body. e.g., putty, mud, paraffin wax, etc.
The body that remains in deformed shape even after the removal of deforming force, is called perfectly plastic body.
(iv) Elastic Limit It is the upper limit of deforming force upto which, if deforming force is removed, the body regains
its original form completely and beyond which, if deforming force is increased, the body loses its property of elasticity
and gets deformed permanently.
(v) Elastic After Effect The temporary delay in regaining the original configuration by an elastic body after the removal
of a deforming force, is called elastic after effect.
(vi) Elastic Fatigue The property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behaviour becomes less elastic under the
action of repeated alternating deforming forces, is called elastic fatigue.
(vii) Stress When a deforming force is applied on a body, it changes its configuration due to which an internal force
comes into play which tends to bring the body back to its initial configuration.
The internal restoring force acting per unit area of a deformed body, is called stress.
Stress = Restoring force / Area
Its unit is N/m2 and dimensions are ML-1 T-2 .
It is of two types
(a) Normal Stress When a deforming force acts normally (perpendicularly) over the area of cross-section of a body,
then internal restoring force is called normal stress.
(b) Tangential or Shearing Stress When a deforming force acts tangentially to the surface of the body and produces a
change in the shape of the body, the stress set up in the body is called tangential or shearing stress.
(viii) Strain When a deforming force is applied on a body, there is a change in the configuration of the body. The body
is said to be deformed.
The ratio of change in configuration to the original configuration, is called strain.

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Strain = Change in configuration / Original configuration

Strain is a ratio of two similar quantities, so it has no units and dimensions.
It is of three types
(a) Longitudinal Strain If there is a change in length alone due to deforming force, then strain in the body is called
longitudinal strain.
Longitudinal strain = Change in length (∆L)/ Original length (L)
(b) Volumetric Strain If there is a change in volume due to deforming force, then strain in the body is called volumetric
strain.
Volumetric strain = Change in volume (∆V) / Original volume (V)
(c) Shearing Strain If the deforming force produces a change in the shape of the body without changing its volume, the
strain is called shearing strain.
Shearing strain = Change in length of uppermost layer of the object (∆x) / Thickness of the object (h)
Thus, shearing strain is also defined as the ratio of displacement of a surface under a tangential force to the perpendicular
distance of the displaced surface from the fixed surface.
■ Glass is more elastic than rubber because for a given applied force per unit area, the strain produced in glass is much
smaller than produced in rubber.
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■ Water is more elastic than air because the volume of elasticity is reciprocal of compressibility. Further, the air is more
compressible than water.

Hooke’s Law (Modulus of Elasticity)

According to this law within the elastic limits, the stress is directly proportional to the strain produced in a body.
i.e., Stress ∝ Strain
or Stress = E × Strain ⇒ Stress/Strain = E
where, E is constant of proportionality, it is called modulus of elasticity.
Hooke’s law is valid only in the linear part of stress-strain curve.
There are three types of modulus of elasticity
1. Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (Y)
The ratio of longitudinal stress and longitudinal strain within the elastic limits, is called Young’s modulus.
i.e., Young’s modulus = Longitudinal stress / Longitudinal strain
Y = FL/ A∆L
where, L = original length, ∆L = change in length, A = area of cross-section and F = deforming force.
Its SI unit is Nm-2 or pascal and CGS units is dyne/cm2.
2. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (B)
The ratio of normal stress to the volumetric strain within the elastic limits, is called bulk modulus of elasticity.
i.e., Bulk modulus = Normal stress / Volumetric strain
⇒ B = - FV/ A∆V
where, V = original volume and ∆V = change in volume.
Its SI units is N/m2 or pascal and CGS units is dyne/cm2.
The negative sign indicates the fact that with an increase in pressure, a decrease in volume occurs.
Bulk modulus is involved in solids, liquids and gases. Bulk modulus for solids is much larger than that for liquids which
is again much larger than the bulk modulus for gases.

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Young’s modulus and bulk modulus for a perfectly rigid body is infinity.
3. Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus of Elasticity (η)
The ratio of shearing stress to the shearing strain within the elastic limits, is called shear modulus of rigidity.
i.e., Modulus of rigidity (η) = Shearing stress / Shearing strain
Its SI units is N /m2 or pascal and CGS unit is dyne/cm2.
Elastic Potential Energy
Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in elastic materials as the result of their stretching or compressing. It can be
stored in rubber bands, bungee chords, trampolines, springs, an arrow drawn into a bow, etc.
For objects like springs, elastic potential energy (U) can be calculated using Hooke's Law,
where k is the spring constant and x is the displacement from the equilibrium position: U=kx2.

Heat Energy
The energy possessed by a body due to its temperature is heat energy. All matter contains
heat energy.
Examples - Solar energy, Fuel cell energy, Melting ice etc.
The heat transfer, Q = m x c x ΔT,
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where Q refers to the heat transferred, m is mass of the substance, c is the specific heat and ΔT is the temperature
difference.
Dimensional Formula: [M1 L2 T-2]

Electrical Energy
It is defined as the energy which is caused by the movement of the electrons from one point to another within an electric
field. It is a type of kinetic energy and associated with an electric current. The formula for electrical energy is E=VxIxt
joules, where V is the potential difference, I is the current and t is the time.
The SI unit of electrical energy is joule. 1 joule = 1 volt > 1 ampere x 1 second.

Chemical Energy
It is the energy that arises during the chemical reaction when the molecules participating in the reaction have different
binding energies.
Examples Batteries, biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and coal.

Nuclear Energy
It is the energy absorbed or released during a nuclear reaction.

Work Energy Theorem

According to this theorem, Work done by a force in displacing a body is equal to change in its kinetic energy.
Work done = Change in kinetic energy.

Law of Conservation of Energy

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According to this law, energy can neither be created or destroyed; it can only be converted from one form to another.
The total energy before and after the transformation remains the same.
In mathematical form;
Potential energy (PE) + Kinetic energy (KE) = constant i.e. mgh+ ½ mv2 = constant
where,
PE= potential energy,
KE = kinetic energy,
m = mass of the body,
g = acceleration due to gravity (approx. 9.8 m/s2),
h height in metres, and
v = velocity of body at any time.
In 1842, Julius Robert Mayer discovered the Law of Conservation of Energy.
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Ex. for law of conservation of Energy

Transformation of energy
Equipment/Instrument Transformation of Energy
1. Microphone Sound energy into Electrical energy
2. Dynamo Mechanical energy intoElectrical energy
3. Loudspeaker Electrical energy into Sound energy
4. Solar Cell Solar energy into Electrical energy
5. Electirc cell Chemical energy intoElectrical energy
6. Electric motor Electrical energy intoMechanical energy
7. Musical instruments Mechanical energy into Sound energy
8 Bulb/ Tube Electrical energy into Light energy
9 Heater Electrical energy into Thermal energy
10 Candle Chemical energy into Light and Thermal energy
11 Coal Chemical energy into Thermal energy
12 Heat Engine Thermal energy (Heat energy) into Mechanical energy
Transformation of Energy
It is the process of changing energy from one form to another. Energy transformation is also known as energy
conversion. The process by which energy is transformed into less useful or more disordered forms, refers to dissipation
of energy.

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Some Energy Transformation

Microphone (Sound Energy to Electrical Energy); Geothermal Power Plant (Heat Energy to Electrical Energy); Burning
of wood (Chemical Energy to Heat and Light Energy); Electric motor (Electrical to Mechanical Energy); Electric
generator (Mechanical to Electrical Energy); Steam engine (Heat to Kinetic Energy); Loud speaker (Electrical to Sound
Energy); Solar cell (Light to Electrical Energy); Dry cell or Fuel cell or Battery (Chemical to Electrical Energy).

Einstein Mass Energy Equivalence

Einstein proposed the relationship between the mass and energy of objects; and states that mass and energy are the same
physical objects that may be converted into one another.
E = mc2
where,
E is the energy of the object in joules, m is its relativistic mass in kilograms, and c is the speed of light (approximately
3 x 108 m/s).

Collision
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A collision occurs when two objects come in contact with each other. It is also called impact.
For example, billiard balls colliding, a hammer hitting a nail, a falling object to the floor, etc.
There are two types of collision:
(a) elastic collision
(b) inelastic collision.
In all collisions the total linear momentum is conserved; the initial momentum of the system is equal to the final
momentum of the system.
In an elastic collision, momentum as well as the kinetic energy remains conserved.
The elastic collision formula of momentum is given by:
M1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1+ m2V2
The elastic collision formula of kinetic energy is given by
M1u12 + m2u22 = m1v12 + m2v22

where,
m1 - mass of 1st body
m2 - mass of 2nd body
u1 - initial velocity of 1st body
U2-initial velocity of 2nd body
V1 -final velocity of the 1st body
V2-final velocity of the 2nd body
Examples of Elastic Collision: When a ball at a billiard table hits another ball; When a ball is thrown on the ground, it
bounces back etc.
In an inelastic collision, momentum is conserved but the kinetic energy is not conserved.
When two objects collide under inelastic conditions, the final velocity with which the object moves is given by:
V=

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where,
v = final velocity (in m/s)
m1 = mass of the 1st object (in kg)
m2 = mass of the 2nd object (in kg)
V1 = initial velocity of the 1st object (in m/s)
V2 = initial velocity of the 2nd object (in m/s)
Examples of Inelastic Collisions: The accident between two cars or any other vehicles; A ball falling from a certain
altitude and unable to return to its original bounce etc.

Sources of Energy
There are many different sources of energy that can broadly be divided into two categories:
(a) Renewable Energy Sources - Energy derived from natural sources that are replenished at a higher rate than they are
consumed. Sunlight and wind are such sources that are constantly being replenished. These sources are freely available
in nature and do not cause any pollution.
(b) Non Renewable Energy Sources. These are limited reservoirs of energy and which require a longer time span for
replenishment. The fossil fuels (petroleum, coal, natural gas etc) are non-renewable sources of energy.
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Fuel
Fuel is a substance or material that can undergo a chemical or nuclear reaction to release energy in the form of heat,
light, or other forms of useful energy.
For example Biogas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), wood, coal, petrol, diesel, Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).

Characteristics of an Ideal Fuel

High energy content or high calorific value, Readily available, Efficient combustion, Stable and safe, Low residue, Cost-
effective, Versatile etc.

Combustion
A chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off energy in the form of heat or light, is called
combustion and the substance that undergoes combustion, is called a fuel. Burning of magnesium ribbon to form
magnesium oxide with heat and light is an example of combustion. Actually combustion is an oxidation process.
Combustible and Non-Combustible Substances
The substances which burn in the presence of air (or oxygen), are called combustible substances, e.g. wood, paper,
kerosene, charcoal, sulphur, magnesium, etc.
The substances which can not burn in the presence of air, are called incombustible substances, e.g. stone piece, sand
soil, bricks, etc.
Conditions Required for Combustion
(i) Air (oxygen) It is a supporter of combustion.
(ii) Ignition Temperature The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire, is called its ignition temperature.
Inflammable substances have very low ignition temperature and can easily catch fire with a flame, e.g. LPG, petrol,
alcohol, etc.
(iii) Fuel It is also required for combustion.
Types of Combustion

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There are four types of combustion:

(i) Rapid Combustion The process of combustion in which fuels like hydrocarbons burn rapidly (in a very small interval
of time) to produce heat and light, is called rapid combustion, e.g. burning of matchstick, explosion of fire cracker, etc.
(ii) Slow Combustion When the rate of combustion of any substance is slow, it is called slow combustion. Here, light
is not produced and heat can not increase the temperature of the reaction, e.g. inhalation (sucking oxygen).
(iii) Spontaneous Combustion When combustion of substance takes place at room temperature without the supply of
heat, it is called spontaneous combustion (auto-combustion).
e.g. white phosphorus undergoes combustion at room temperature, combustion of coal dust in coal mines and forest
fires. In this case, ignition temperature of substance is lower than room temperature.
(iv) Incomplete Combustion When the combustion of fuel takes place in insufficient supply of oxygen, it is called
incomplete combustion. Here, monoxides of substances are formed.
Conventional Sources of Energy
Fossil Fuels
These are hydrocarbon-containing materials such as coal, natural gas or oil, that were formed millions of years ago from
dead animals or plants in the ground. Fossil fuels emit carbon dioxide (CO2)
when burnt which is a major greenhouse gas and the primary source of
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pollution.
Thermal Power Plant
A thermal power plant is a type of power station in which heat energy is
converted to electrical energy. They are also called combustion power plants,
they operate with energy produced by a steam boiler fueled by coal, natural gas,
heating oil, as well as by biomass.
Hydro Power Plant
A hydro power plant is used to transform water's potential energy into electrical energy and can operate constantly. The
available electrical energy is proportional to the flow rate and the drop in elevation.
The basic principle of hydropower is using water to drive turbines. Components
of a hydroelectric plant are as follows Water intakes, Dam or weir, Spillways,
Turbines, Transformers, Powerhouse, Electrical power transmission lines.
There are three types of hydroelectric power plants:
(a) Run-of-the-river power plants,
(b) Hydroelectric power plants with a reservoir,
(c) Pumped-storage hydroelectric power plants.
Improvements in the Technology for Using Conventional Sources of Energy
Biomass
Biomass is organic matter that can be used to generate energy. It is made of
material that comes from living organisms, such as plants and animals. These are
called biomass feedstocks.
Bioenergy is a form of renewable energy generated when we burn biomass fuel.
Biomass energy can also be a non-renewable energy source.

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Biomass sources for energy include wood and wood processing waste (firewood, wood pellets and black liquor from
pulp and paper mills etc).
Bio - Gas
Biogas is an environmentally-friendly, renewable energy source produced by the breakdown of organic raw materials
such as food scraps, manure, sewage, agricultural waste and animal waste. It is a mixture of methane (CH), hydrogen
sulphide (H2S), carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen (H2). The difference between biomass and biogas is that, biomass
is the raw material and biogas is the end product.
Bio Gas Plant
A biogas plant is a facility that uses organic waste to produce methane-rich gas for
energy generation and other uses. It turns waste into sustainable energy and fertilizers,
with positive effects on the environment.
A biogas plant is a dome-like structure that has components like A digester or
fermentation tank, A gas holder, mixing tank, inlet and outlet chamber.
Advantages of Biogas Plant : Biogas plants are eco-friendly. It can help to fight climate
change. It can help to reduce carbon footprint. Biogas burns without smoke and has a
high calorific value.
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Wind Energy
The process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power or electricity is said to be wind energy. Wind
turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. It is a clean and renewable energy source.
Windmill or Wind Turbines
A windmill is a machine that changes the wind's kinetic energy into mechanical energy.
The rotation of the blades of a windmill is always in a clockwise direction. Daniel
Halladay, a resident of the United States, designed the first windmill in 1854.
There are two types of wind turbines: Horizontal-axis wind turbines and Vertical-axis
wind turbines.
A wind turbine basically works on the principle of conversion of energy from one form to another. Wind turbines use
wind to make electricity. Wind turns the propeller-like blades of a turbine around a rotor, which spins a generator, and
hence creates electricity.
Advantages of Wind Energy: It provides electricity without burning any fuel or polluting the air. It is a clean and
renewable energy source. It is an abundant and inexhaustible resource. It requires no recurring expenses for the
production of electricity.
Limitations of Wind Energy : Ideal wind sites are often in remote locations. Turbines produce noise and alter visual
aesthetics. Wind plants can impact local wildlife. The minimum wind speed necessary for satisfactory working of the
wind generator is about 15 km/h.

Non Conventional Sources of Energy

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Solar Energy
Solar energy is a powerful source of energy generated by the Sun. It is created by
nuclear fusion that takes place in the Sun.
Advantages of Solar Energy: It is good for the Environment and solar power plants
can be installed on underutilized land. It is not dependent on other sources of energy.
It is Renewable Energy. It is a Pollution free source and also has Low maintenance
costs.
Limitations of Solar Energy: Solar energy storage is expensive. Dependent on sunlight. High initial costs of installing
panels.

Solar Heat Devices

A solar heat device, also known as a solar thermal collector or solar heater, is a technology
designed to capture and utilize solar energy from sunlight to heat a fluid or air, which can then
be used for various heating applications.
Examples - Solar cooker, solar cells and solar heater etc.
Solar Cooker: Solar cooker is an apparatus for cooking food using the energy of direct sunlight, typically by means of
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reflective panels that concentrate the light on to a dark-coloured pot in an insulated box. It is a type of solar thermal
collector.
Solar Cooker Working Principle: Sunlight Concentration Converting Light Energy into Heat Energy → Trapping Heat
Energy.
Concave mirrors are used in these types of cookers because these mirrors reflect sunlight into a single focal point.
There are some basic types of solar cookers such as 'box', 'parabolic reflector' and 'panel cookers'.
Solar Cell
Solar cell is an energy conversion device which is used to convert sunlight into electricity by the use of the photovoltaic
effect. These cells are made from semiconductors like silicon (Si), germanium (Ge).
The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in a photovoltaic cell when it is exposed to
sunlight.
Photo/light + voltage = Photovoltaic.
Uses: For transportation, in calculators, in solar street lights, for traffic signals, in water pumping, in space exploration,
in environmental monitoring, to provide electricity to light houses in remote areas etc.
Energy from the Sea
The oceans contain a huge amount of energy such as tidal energy, wave energy, ocean thermal energy and others.
Tidal Energy
Tidal energy is a renewable source of energy, produced by the surge of ocean
waters during the rise and fall of tides. Using specially engineered generators
in suitable locations, tidal energy can be converted into useful forms of power,
including electricity.

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Wave Energy
Waves are a result of wind and ocean interactions. Kinetic and potential
energy associated with ocean waves can be harnessed using modular
technologies. Wave energy has the advantage of being predictable and less
volatile compared to some of the other renewable energy sources.
Ocean Thermal Energy
Ocean Thermal Energy (OTE) is the energy derived from the temperature difference between the surface of the ocean
and deeper layers of water. It can be converted into a usable form of energy like electricity.
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is the heat energy from the Earth - Geo (earth) + thermal (heat). It is the use of heat from the Earth's
interior under specific natural conditions.
Benefits of Geothermal Energy
(a) Renewable The heat flowing from Earth's interior is continually replenished by the decay of naturally occurring
radioactive elements.
(b) Clean Modern geothermal power plants emit no greenhouse gases and have life cycle emissions four times lower
than solar photovoltaics PV, and 6 to 20 times lower than natural gas.
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(c) Baseload Geothermal power plants produce electricity consistently, regardless of weather conditions.

Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is a form of energy released from the nucleus, the core of atoms, made up of protons and neutrons. This
source of energy can be produced in two ways: fission - when nuclei of atoms split into several parts, or fusion - when
nuclei fuse together.
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction or a decay process in which the heavy nucleus splits into smaller parts (lighter
nuclei).
An example of fission is when a uranium isotope 92U235 bombarded with a neutron breaks into two intermediate mass
nuclear fragments.
1 235
On +92U → 56Ba144 +36Kr89 +3 on1 + Energy
Nuclear Fusion
In fusion, lighter nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus while releasing massive amounts of energy. Fusion of hydrogen
nuclei into helium nuclei is the source of energy of all stars including our sun.
2 2
1H +1H → 2He3 + n +3.27 MeV

Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear power plants are a type of power plant that use the process of nuclear
fission in order to generate electricity. Nuclear power reactors use heat produced
during atomic fission to boil water and produce pressurized steam. The steam is
routed through the reactor steam system to spin large turbine blades that drive
magnetic generators to produce electricity.
Nuclear Energy of U235 →Heat Energy of Steam → Kinetic Energy of Turbine → Electrical Energy
There are several components of nuclear power plant

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(a) Fuel - Enriched uranium oxide is the most commonly used material. It is used simultaneously as a source of energy
and of neutrons in order to maintain the chain reaction.
(b) Moderator - It slows down the neutrons released from fission so that they cause more fission. The commonly used
moderators are water, heavy water (D2O) and graphite.
(c) Control rods or blades - These are used to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it.
(d) Coolant - A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it.
(e) Pressure vessel or tubes - Conveying the coolant through the surrounding moderator.
(f) Steam generator - It is used to make steam for the turbine, in a secondary circuit.
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Electrostatics
The branch of physics which deals with the study of charges at rest, the forces between them, fields and potential due
to these charges, is called electrostatics.
Laws of electrostatics: There are two laws of electrostatics. The first law states that like charges of electricity repel,
whereas unlike charges attract each other.
* The second law, also called Coulomb’s law, states that the force exerted between two point charges
(i) is directly proportional to the product of their magnitudes.
(ii) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, and
(iii) is inversely proportional to the absolute permittivity of the surrounding medium.

Electric Charge
Electric charge is a property of matter that gives rise to electrical forces between particles. It is of two types positive and
negative. It is a scalar quantity. Like charges (e.g., positive-positive negative-negative) repel each other, while opposite
charges (e.g., positive-negative) attract each other. The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C).
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Charging an object: An object/a material can be charged by friction, induction or conduction.

1. Frictional charging: It involves the transfer of electrons between the two objects that are rubbed together. When a
material deficient in electrons is rubbed with an another material having excess of electrons, it gains electrons and
become negatively changed leaving the other becoming positively charged such as rubber being electron deficient
become negatively charged when rubbed with animal fur leaving it to become positively charged.
2. Charging by induction : It is used for charging an object without actually touching the object to any other charged
object.

In the proces the charged object does not transfer electrons to or receive electrons from the object being charged. The
charged object merely serves to polarize the object being charged.
*The object being charged ultimately receives a charge that is opposite that of the charged object that is used to polarize
it.
3. Charging by Conduction : It requires the presence of a conductor because it involves the touching of two conductors.
Only a conductor can conduct charge to another conductor by carrying the excess charges, i.e. electrons to move about
and redistribute themselves. An insulator hinders such a movement of electrons between touching objects. This is
observed if an aluminium pie plate is placed upon a charged foam plate. When the neutral aluminium plate is placed

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upon the charged foam plate, the foam plate does not conduct its charge to the aluminium. Despite the fact that the two
surfaces were in contact, charging by contact or conduction does not occur.
* Electroscope : It typically consists of a conducting plate orknob, a conducting base and either a pair of conducting
leaves or a conducting needle. With all operating parts conducting, electrons are capable of moving from the knob on
the top of the electroscope to the needle or leaves the bottom of electroscope. Objects are typically touched to or held
nearby the plate or knob, thus inducing the movement of electrons into the needle or the leaves (or from the needle/leaves
to the plate/knob). The gold leaves or needle of the electroscope are the only mobile parts. Once an excess of electrons
(or a deficiency of electrons) is present in the needle or the gold leaves, there will be a repulsive effect between like
charges causing the leaves to repel each other. Whenever this movement of the leaves/needle is observed, one can deduce
that an excess of charge – either positive or negative is present there. It is important to note that the movement of the
leaves and needle never directly indicate the type of charge on the electroscope; it only indicates the presence or absence
of charge.
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* Electric field strength : A charge used for measuring the electric field strength is referred to as a test charge since itis
used for testing the field strength. It has a quantity of charge denoted by the symbol q. When placed within the electric
field, it experiences an electric force – either attractive or repulsive denoted by the symbol F. The magnitude of the
electric field is simply defined as the force per charge on the test charge.
Electric field strength = Force / Charge
* If the electric field strength is denoted by the symbol E then the equation can be rewritten in symbolic form as, E =
F/q.

Source Charge and Test Charge: The charge Q that creates the electric field is called the "source charge," while the
charge q that experiences the force due to the field is the "test charge".

Basic Properties of Electric Charge

Additivity of Charges: Charges, whether positive or negative, add up algebraically.
The total charge in a system containing multiple charges is the sum of individual charges, considering their signs.
Charge is Conserved: In isolated systems, the total electric charge remains constant. It cannot be created or destroyed.
When objects are charged by rubbing or other processes, electrons transfer from one object to another, but the total
charge remains the same.
Quantization of Charge: All free charges are quantized, meaning they are integral multiples of a fundamental unit of
charge denoted as 'e'. Charge on a body (q) is given by q = ne, where 'n' is an integer. The basic unit of charge is the
charge carried by an electron or proton. The value of basic unit of charge is 1.602192 x 10-19 C.

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The quantization of charge was first suggested by the experimental laws of electrolysis discovered by English
experimentalist Faraday. It was experimentally demonstrated by Millikan in 1912.

Coulomb's Law
Coulomb's law is a fundamental principle that quantitatively describes the electrostatic force between two point charges.
It states that the electrostatic force (F) between two point charges q1 and q2 is directly proportional to the product of
their magnitudes and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r) separating them.
Mathematically, it is expressed as:
| |
F∝ , or F = k

Where k is Coulomb's constant. In SI units, the value of k is approximately 9 x10° Nm2/C2. Coulomb's law also agrees
with Newton's third law.
Example - A positive charge of 6 x 10° C is 0.040 m from the second positive charge of 4 x 10° C. Calculate the
force between the charges.
Solution - Given,
q1 = 6 x 10° C,
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q2=4× 10° C,
r = 0.040 m
As we know,
| |
Fe = k

According to question,
. ( )
Fe = . .
.
Fe = .
= 134.85 N.

There are two cases on the basis of position of charge particle -

Case (1): When both the charges are situated in vacuum, then constant k = ,
| |
so that Coulomb's law is written as F =

εo is called the permittivity of free space. The value of εo in SI units is 8.854 x 10-12 C2N-1m-2.
Case (2): When both charges are situated in any medium, then constant k =

Relation between εo and ε

ε = εo x εr
where ε - permittivity of the medium, εr - relative permittivity.

Electric Field and Electric Field Intensity

Electric field describes the influence or force that electric charges exert on other charged particles in the surrounding
space.
The Electric field (E) at a point in space is a vector quantity that represents the force per unit positive charge experienced
by a test charge placed at that point, assuming it's a small positive charge that doesn't significantly affect the field itself.
Mathematically, the electric field (E) at a given point is defined as: E =

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where F and q represent electric force and charge respectively.

The SI unit of the electric field is N/C (newtons per coulomb) or Volt per meter. and the dimensional formula is [M1L1T-
3
A-1].
The direction of the electric field (E) at a point is the same as the direction of the electric force (F) that a positive test
charge would experience if placed at that point.
According to formula, if a test charge 'qo' is located at 'r' distance from 'q1' charge then the ratio of force applied on that
test charge and magnitude of test charge is called electric field intensity.
| |

E= =

The electric field depends on two factors magnitude of charge and distance of point from the charge. For the positive
charge, the direction of the electric field is radially outward and for the negative charge, the direction of the electric field
is radially inward.

Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines are three-dimensional curves that exist in the space surrounding electric charges. They are drawn
such that their tangent at any point indicates the direction of the electric field at that point. They provide a visual
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representation of the electric field's direction at every point in the surrounding space.

The electric field lines follow some important general properties:

(i) Electric field lines originate from positive charges and terminate at negative charges. In the case of a solitary charge,
they can either initiate from or end to infinity.
(ii) In a charge-free region, electric field lines can be taken to be continuous curves without any breaks.
(iii) Two electric field lines can never cross (or intersect) each other.
(iv) Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops.
* Lightning : During thunderstorm as the static charge build up in a storm cloud increases, the electric field surrounding
the cloud becomes stronger too. Normally, the air surrounding a cloud would be a good insulator to prevent the discharge
of electrons to the Earth. Yet, the strong electric fields surrounding a cloud are capable of ionizing the surrounding air
and making it more conductive. The ionization involves the shredding of electrons from the outer shells of gases
molecules. These molecules that compose air are thus turned into a soup of positive ions and free electrons. The
insulating air is transformed into a conductive plasma. The ability of a storm cloud’s electric fields to transform air into
a conductor makes charge transfer (in the form of a lightning bolt) from the cloud to the ground or even to other clouds.

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Electric Dipole
An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges (+q and -q) separated by a distance '2a'. The midpoint between
these two charges is known as the center of the dipole. The total charge of an electric dipole is zero.

Electric Dipole Moment (p)

It is defined as the product of electric charge and distance between two charges. It is a vector quantity. The direction of
the electric dipole moment points from the negative charge (-q) to the positive charge (+q).
Mathematically it is expressed as
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p = q x 2a.
Example Two charges 20 C and 20 C are separated from each other by a distance of 2 cm. Then find the
magnitude of the electric dipole moment.
Solution - Given,
The magnitude of charge of each particle (q) = 20 C and
distance between them (2a)=2 cm = 2 × 10-2 m.
As we know,
Electric dipole moment (p) = q x (2a)
According to question,
P = 20 C × 2 × 10-2 m = 0.4 C-m.
Electric Field at Axis and Equatorial due to Electric Dipole
Electric Field at Axis due to electric dipole - Consider, two charges +q and -q is located at 2a distance and a point P is
located at r distance from center of dipole and axis of dipole then it is expressed by the formula E =

Electric Field at equatorial due to electric dipole – At a point on the equatorial plane E = -

Where -ve sign represents that direction of electric field and dipole moment is opposite to each other.
Dipole in a Uniform Electric Field
Consider a dipole of dipole moment p is situated in uniform electric field E. Then the dipole experiences two forces +qE
and -qE in opposite directions due to the uniform electric field.
It means total forces exerted on the dipole due to uniform electric field is zero. But due to the uniform electric field, the
dipole rotates, which means a torque is applied on the dipole.
so Torque (τ) = force x perpendicular distance
T = F x 2a sinθ
T = qE x 2a sinθ
T = p E sinθ.

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This torque will tend to align the dipole moment (p) with the electric field (E) and when p is aligned with E, the torque
becomes zero.
Area Vector - A planar area vector is determined by the normal (perpendicular) to the plane. Although every plane has
two possible normals in physics calculations involving closed surfaces, we consistently consider the outward direction
of the area vector.

Electric Flux
Electric flux (ϕ) is defined as the total number of electric field lines passing normally through a given area. When the
electric field lines do not pass normally to the surface, we can calculate the electric flux by considering the component
of the electric field vector that is perpendicular to the surface. The unit of the electric flux is N C-1 m2.
Electric flux ΔϕE = E. ΔS cosθ.
where
E-electric field intensity and
ΔS-area vector,
[θ- it is angle between area element vector and electric field E).

Inverse square law

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This law explains the strength of light with respect to the distance of the source.
Inverse square law states that:
“The intensity of the radiation is inversely proportional to the square of the distance”.
light loses its brightness or luminosity as it moves away from the source. For example: when you switch on the light in
one corner of the room and when you move away from the source, the light appears dim or less bright due to an increase
in the distance (away from the source).

The below figure explains the source of light and the source distance relationship.

Consider the distance as 2, and when the distance is squared, it results in 4. The inverse of 4 would be 1/4.
So when we compare, we can note that the resultant is a quarter the original power.
Hence light intensity is 1/d2
If the distance between an object and the light source is doubled, a given area experiences one-fourth of the light from
the source.
When the distance from the source is tripled, the given area experiences one-ninth part of the light.
The Formula of Inverse-Square Law
I ∝ 1/d2

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Where,
d is the distance
I is radiation intensity

Gauss's Law
Gauss's Law states that the total electric flux (ϕ) through a closed surface is equal to 1/8 times the net electric charge
enclosed by that closed surface.
Mathematically it is expressed as ϕ=

Some important points regarding this law:

(a) Gauss's law is valid for any closed surface, regardless of its shape or size.
(b) The term "q" on the right side of Gauss's law represents the sum of all charges enclosed by the closed surface. These
charges can be located anywhere inside the surface.
(c) The surface chosen for applying Gauss's law is called a Gaussian surface.
(d) Gauss's law is often useful towards a much easier calculation of the electrostatic field when the system has some
symmetry.
(e) Gauss's law is based on the inverse square dependence on distance contained in Coulomb's law. Any violation of
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Gauss's law will indicate departure from the inverse square law.

Applications of Gauss's Law

The Gauss law is especially useful in determining electric field E, when the source distribution has simple symmetry.
(a) Field due to infinitely long straight wire of uniform linear charge density (λ):

E=

where k =

Vector significance; E= 𝑛

where r is the perpendicular distance of the point from the wire and 𝑛 is the radial unit vector in the plane normal to the
wire passing through the point.
E is directed outward if λ is positive and inward if λ is negative.
(b) Field due to Infinite plane sheet of uniform surface charge density (σ):
E= ɛ
𝑛

where 𝑛 is a unit vector normal to the plane, outward on either side.

(c) Field due to a uniformly charged thin Spherical shell:
E= (r ≥R)

(i) Outside the Shell (r > R): Electric field (E) is directed outward and given by

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E=

where r is the distance from the center of the shell to the point outside the shell.
(ii) On the Shell (r = R): Electric field (E) is directed outward and given by
E=

where R is the radius of the shell.

(ii) Inside the Shell (r < R): Electric field is zero (E= 0); there is no electric field inside the shell.

Equipotential Surface
An equipotential surface is a surface with a constant value of potential at all points on the surface. For a single charge
q, the potential is given by V = ɛ

Properties of Equipotential Surface

(a) No work is done in moving a charge between any two points on an equipotential surface.
(b) A straight-line drawn normal to the equipotential surface will give direction of the electric field at that point.
(c) Equipotential surfaces are close together in the region where the electric field is strong and far apart in the weaker
field.
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(d) Two equipotential surfaces never intersect each other.

Dielectrics
Dielectrics are those insulators, which transmit electric effects through them when they are placed in an electric field.
Examples :- water, glass, mica, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) etc.
Types of Dielectric
There are two types of dielectric
(i) Polar dielectric
(ii) Non polar dielectric.

Polar Dielectrics: If the center of positively charged nuclei does not coincide with the center of negatively charged
nuclei, then it is called a polar molecule. Due to their asymmetric shape of the molecules, they possess permanent dipole
moment. Examples - water (H2O), ammonia (NH3) etc.

Non-Polar Dielectric: If the center of positively charged nuclei coincides with the center of negatively charged nuclei,
then it is called non polar dielectric. Due to their symmetric shape of the molecules, they do not possess permanent
dipole moment.
Examples - oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2) etc.

Dielectric Strength
The maximum value of the electric field intensity that can be applied to the dielectric without breakdown is called
dielectric strength. For air it is about 3 x 106 Vm-1.

Polarisation (P)

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In polar or non-polar cases, a dielectric develops a net dipole moment in the presence of an external field. The dipole
moment per unit volume is called polarisation.

Capacitance (C)
The capacitance of a conductor is equal to the ratio of charge (Q) given to the conductor to its potential (V) due to the
given charge.
At any instant charge on the conductor Q is directly proportional to its potential (V).
Given by Q ∝ V => Q = CV.
Where C = is a constant known as capacity or capacitance of the conductor.

Its value depends on the size of the conductor and medium around the conductor. The SI unit is Farad (F) and the
dimensional formula is [M-1L-3T4A2]. 1 micro Farad (μF) = 10-6 F, 1 pico Farad = 10-12 F.
If charge on the conductor is zero, its potential is zero. As charge on the conductor increases gradually its potential also
increases.

Capacitor
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Capacitor, or electrical condenser is a device for storing a large amount of electric charge in a small space. A capacitor
consists of two metal plates separated by a non conducting medium called dielectric.

Advantages of capacitors
1. to block DC current while passing audio signals, pulses, or alternating current, or other time-varying wave forms.
This ability to block DC currents enables capacitors to be used for smoothening the output voltages of power supplies.
2. to adjust the frequency response of an audio circuit, or coupling together separate amplifier stages that must be
protected from the transmission of DC current.
Working characteristics of a capacitor : At DC, a capacitor has infinite impedance (open-circuit), at very high
frequencies a capacitor has zero impedance (short-circuit). All capacitors have a maximum working voltage rating, its
WV DC. So selecting a capacitor with a rating at least 50% more than the supply voltage is significant.
* A parallel plate capacitor is the simplest form of a capacitor. It can be constructed using two metal or metallised foil
plates at a distance parallel to each other, with its capacitance value in Farads, being fixed by the surface area of the
conductive plates and the distance of separation between them.

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Capacitor in Parallel and Series

For capacitors in the series combination, the total capacitance C is given by
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
In the parallel combination, the total capacitance C is: C = C1+ C2+C3+ …….+Cn.
where C1, C2, C3... are individual capacitances.
Example: Find the total capacitance for three capacitors connected in series, given their individual capacitances
are 1 μF, 5 μF and 8 μF.
Solution - Given, C1 = 1μF, C2 = 5 μF and C3 = 8 μF. According to question,
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
= + + =

C= = 0.755 μF.

Conductance
Conductance (G) is a measure of how easily electric current flows through a conductor. It is the reciprocal (inverse) of
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resistance (R). Its SI unit is Q or mho, also siemen. It is a scalar quantity and its dimensional formula is [M-1L-3T3A2].
The relationship between conductance and resistance is as follows: G =

Conductivity
Conductivity (σ) is a property of a material that quantifies its ability to allow the flow of electric current. It is the
reciprocal of resistivity (ρ). Its SI unit is Ω-1m-1 or mho m-1 or siemen m-1 and the dimensional formula is [M-1L-3T3A2].
The relationship between conductivity (σ) and resistivity (p) as follows:
σ=

The conductivity of conductor increases with increase in temperature and the conductivity of semiconductor also
increases with increase in temperature while there is no such effect of temperature on the resistivity of insulators. The
conductivity of metals and alloys increases as they are cooled.
The product of conductivity and resistivity or resistance and conductance for a material is always unity.

Classification of Materials in terms of Conductivity

(a) Conductors: These are the materials which allow the free flow of electrons from one particle to another. The flow of
electrons inside the conducting material or conductor generates an electric current. The force that is required to drive
the current flow through the conductor is known as voltage. Examples - Silver, copper, aluminum.
(b) Insulators: Insulators are materials that restrict the free flow of electrons from one particle to another and the charge
is seldom distributed evenly across the surface of an insulator.
Examples - Rubber, plastic, wood and glass.

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The energy (U) stored in a capacitor of capacitance (C), with charge (Q) and voltage (V) is given by:

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U = ½ Qv= ½ CV2= ½

The electric energy density (energy per unit volume) in a region with electric field (E) is ɛ0E2. where ε0 is permitivity

of free space.

Electric Current and its Effects

Electric Current
Electric Current (1) is the flow of electric charge through a conductor or a circuit. It is the rate at which electric charge
(usually carried by electrons) moves through a conductor.
Mathematically, I = Q/t, where Q is the electric charge in coulombs (C) that passes through a point in the circuit, and t
is the time in seconds (s) during which the charge flows.
The SI unit of electric current is ampere (A) in honour of French scientist Andre - Marie Ampere. It is a scalar quantity.
Example Find the amount of electric charge flowing through the circuit if an electric current of 5 A is drawn by
an electric appliance for 5 minutes.
Solution - Given,
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Current (1) = 5 A
time (t) = 5 x 60 = 300 Sec.
As we know,
I = Q/t
According to question,
Q = Ix t=5x300 = 1500 C.

Types of Electric Current

Electric currents can be categorized into two main types: direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC).
Direct current (DC) - In DC, the electric charge flows in one direction through the conductor. The magnitude and
direction of the current remain relatively constant over time.
Examples - Batteries and solar cells.
Alternating Current (AC) - An electric current whose magnitude changes continuously and direction changes
periodically, is called alternating current. It can be easily converted into DC with the help of a rectifier. In AC, energy
loss is minimum, so it can be transmitted over large distances. The power supply at our home is an example of alternating
current.

Current Density
The amount of current (I) flowing per second per unit area (A) normal to the flow, is called current density (j).
Mathematically, current density (j) = I/A
Its SI unit is ampere/metre2 and dimensional formula is [L-2A]. It is a vector quantity.

Electric Potential and Potential Difference

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Electric Potential is defined as the amount of work done by an external force when a unit positive charge (usually one
coulomb) is moved from infinity to a specific point in the electric field.
Electric potential difference: It represents the difference in electric potential between two points in an electric field.
The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V) and dimension formula is [ML2T-3A-1]. It is a scalar quantity.
If W is the work done in moving a charge Q from point B to point A, then the potential difference (VB- VA) between
these two points is given by
ΔV=VB-VA=

Smaller units of electric potential are 1 mV = 10-3 V and 1 μV = 10-6 V.

Large units of electric potential are 1 KV = 103 V and 1 MV = 106 V.
* The positive terminal of the battery has an electric potential that is equal to the voltage rating of the battery. The battery
energizes the charge to pump it from the low voltage terminal to the high voltage terminal. By doing so the battery
establishes an electric potential difference across the two ends of the external circuit.
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Requirements to establish an electric circuit : There are two primary requirements to establish an electric circuit.
These requirements are:
2 There must be an energy supply capable of doing work on charge to move it from a low-energy location to a high-
energy location to establish an electric potential difference across the two ends of the external circuit.
2 There must be a closed conducting loop in the external circuit that stretches from the high potential, positive terminal
to the low potential, negative terminal.

Ohm's Law
In 1827, G.S. Ohm discovered a basic law regarding flow of currents. It describes the relationship between three basic
electrical quantities - voltage (V), current (1) and resistance (R).
According to this law, the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
applied across its ends, provided the physical conditions (such as temperature) remain unchanged.
Mathematically, this definition can be expressed as: V α I or V = RI. where, R is the constant of proportionality, called
resistance.
Example: Resistance of an electric iron 50 Ω. 4.2A Current flows through the resistance. Find the voltage between
two points.
Solution - Given,
Resistance (R) = 50Ω and
Current (1) = 4.2 A.
As per ohm's law,
V = IR
According to question,

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Voltage (v) = 4.2 x 50 = 210 V.

Resistance
It is that property of a conductor by virtue of which it opposes (resists) any flow of charges through it. Resistance of a
conductor is given by R = V/ I
The SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω) and its dimensional formula is [ML2T-3A-2]. It is a scalar quantity.
Factors on Which the Resistance of a Conductor Depends
(i) Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor. The longer the conductor, the greater the resistance.
(ii) Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. The larger the cross-sectional area of the conductor,
the lower the resistance.
(iii) The resistance of a conductor depends on the nature of the material of which it is made. Conductors like copper and
aluminum have low resistance, while insulators like rubber and plastic have very high resistance.
(iv) Effect of temperature on different types of material is discussed as follows: Conductors (e.g., metals) Resistance
increases with increasing temperature. Semiconductors Resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
Electrolytes - Resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
Alloys : Resistance increases with increasing temperature, but the effect is relatively weak.
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Resistors
Resistors are the components that offer resistance to the flow of electrons, thereby controlling the current in a circuit.
Alloys like nichrome, manganin, and constantan are examples of materials commonly used to manufacture resistors due
to their stable and predictable resistance characteristics over a wide range of temperatures.

Resistivity
Resistivity (ρ) or specific resistance is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies its ability to resist the flow
of electric current. The resistivity (ρ) of a material is defined as the resistance (R) of a unit volume (V) of that material,
multiplied by its cross-sectional area (A), and divided by the length (L) through which the current flows.
.
Mathematically; ρ =

Its SI unit is ohm-metre (Q-m). and the dimensional formula is [ML3T-3A-2].

Resistivity is a material property of the conductor. It does not depend on length or thickness but depends on the nature
of the substance and varies only if its temperature changes.
Insulators such as glass, rubber, ebonite, etc have a very high resistivity while conductors have low resistivity. Alloys
are used to make heating elements of devices such as electric iron, heaters, etc. This is because they do not oxidise easily
at high temperatures. The high resistivity of alloys allows dissipation of electrical energy in the form of heat.
Example The area of the cross section of wire becomes half when its length is stretched to double. How is the
resistance of wire affected in new conditions?
Solution
Let the area of cross section of wire = A,
length of wire before stretching L,
Resistance of wire = R.
After stretching of wire, let area of cross section = A/2,
Length = 2L and Resistance = R1.

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According to question,
The ratio of resistance before stretching to resistance after stretching;
→ R: R1 = ∶ => R:R1 = 1:4

Thus, resistance increases four times after stretching of wire.

Resistivity of various materials

Materials are classified as conductors, semiconductors and insulators depending on their resistivities, in an increasing
order of their values. Metals have low resistivities in the range of 10-8 Ω -m to 10-6 Ω -m. They are good conductors of
electricity. Insulators like rubber and glass have resistivity of the order of 1012 Ω to 1017 Ωm. Both the resistance and
resistivity of a material vary with temperature.

Combination of Resistances
Two or more resistors can be joined to each other by different combination methods in order to achieve the desired value
of resistance in a particular circuit.
There are two methods of joining the resistors together such as,
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(i) series combination of resistors

(ii) parallel combination of resistors.
Series Combination of Resistances
When resistors are connected in series, they are arranged end-to-end so that the same current flows through each resistor
in the chain.
The total resistance (Rtotal) in a series combination is the sum of the individual resistances
(R1, R2, R3,…. Rn): Rtotal = R1+ R2+ R3 + ….. Rn.

In a series circuit, the current remains the same, but the voltage is divided across the resistors.
Example: If we have resistors with values of 10 ohms, 20 ohms, and 30 ohms connected in series, the total resistance
is 10 Ω +20 Ω +30 Ω = 60 Ω.

Parallel Combination of Resistances

When resistors are connected in parallel, they are arranged so that both ends of each resistor are connected to the same
two points (nodes).
The total resistance (Rtotal) in a parallel combination is the sum of the individual resistances
( , , ,……, ): = + + + ⋯…+

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In a parallel circuit, the voltage is the same across all resistors, but the current is divided among them.
Series circuit v/s Parallel circuit:

Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

The current is the same in every resistor; thus current is The sum of the current in each individual branch is equal
equal to that in the battery. to the current outside the branches.
The sum of the voltage drops across the individual The voltage drop is the same across each parallel
resistors is equal to the voltage rating of the battery. branch.
The overall resistance of the collection of resistors is The equivalent or overall resistance of the collection of
equal to the sum of the individual resistance values. resistors is given by the equation :
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 ...
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Example : If we have resistors with values of 10 ohms and 20 ohms connected in parallel, the total resistance is calculated
as :- = + =

which simplifies to RTotal = Ω

Inductance
It is the property of an electrical conductor by which a change in current through it induces an electromotive force in
both the conductor itself.
( )
Formula - Inductance (L) = ()

Its SI unit is Henery (H). Its dimensional formula is [MLT A]. It is a scalar quantity.

Inductor
An inductor is a passive component that is used in most power electronic circuits to store energy in the form of magnetic
energy when electricity is applied to it. It is denoted by the symbol L.
There are two methods of joining the inductors together such as:
(i) series combination of inductors.
(ii) parallel combination of inductors.

Series Combination of Inductors

When inductors are connected in series, they are arranged end-to-end so that the same current flows through each
inductor in the chain.
The total inductance (Ltotal) in a series combination is the sum of the individual inductance
(L1, L2, L3,…. Ln): Ltotal = L1+ L2+ L3 + ….. Ln.

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Parallel Combination of inductors

When inductors are connected in parallel, they are arranged so that both ends of each inductor are connected to the same
two points (nodes).
The total inductance (Ltotal) in a parallel combination is the sum of the individual inductance
( , , ,……, ):

= + + + ⋯…+
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Cells, EMF, Internal Resistance

An electric cell is a source of emf which maintains the constant flow of current across an electric circuit.
EMF (Electromotive Force (e)) is the voltage or electrical potential difference produced by a cell or battery when it is
not connected to an external circuit. EMF is measured in volts (V) and its dimensional formula is [ML2T3A-1].
When a source of emf is connected to an external resistance R, the voltage Vext across R is given by
ɛ
Vext = IR = R.

where r is the internal resistance of the source.

Internal Resistance of a Cell :- It is defined as the resistance offered by the electrolyte and electrodes of a cell when
the electric current flows through it.

Electric Power
It is defined as the amount of electric energy consumed in a circuit per unit time.
The energy dissipated per unit time is the power dissipated given by P = VI.
Using Ohm's law V = IR,

we get; P=I2R=

The SI unit of power is watt (W) and the dimensional formula is [ML2T-3].
Bigger units of power:
1 kilowatt (KW) = 103 W
1 megawatt (MW) = 106 W

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1 gigawatt (GW) = 109 W

Commercial Unit of Electrical Energy:
1 kWh = 1000 Wh = 1000 x 3600 Ws
= 3.6x106 Ws = 3.6 x 106 J.
Number of units consumed by electric appliances can be calculated by
Number of units =

Mobility
Mobility (µ) defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field. The SI unit of mobility is m2/Vs and is
104 of the mobility in practical units (cm2/Vs). Mobility is positive and its dimensional formula is [M-1L°T2A1].
( )
The mobility of charged particles is typically defined using the formula - μ = ( )

Drift Velocity (vd)

It is the Average velocity with which the free electrons drift towards the positive end of the conductor under the influence
of an external electric field. The SI unit of drift velocity is meters per second (m/s) and its dimensional formula is [LT-
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1
].
Kirchhoff Law
Kirchhoff's rules are very useful for analysis of electric circuits. Two rules are stated, namely;
(a) Junction Rule: At any junction of circuit elements, the sum of currents entering the junction must equal the sum of
currents leaving it.
(b) Loop Rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop must be zero.
Kirchhoff's junction rule is based on conservation of charge. Bending or reorienting the wire does not change the validity
of Kirchhoff's junction rule.

At junction a the current leaving is I1 + I2 and current entering is Is. The junction rule says I3 = I1 + I2. At point h current
entering is I1. There is only one current leaving h and by junction rule that will also be I,. For the loops 'ahdcba' and
'ahdefga', the loop rules give
- 30I1 – 41I3 +45= 0 and -30I1 +21I2 - 80 = 0.

Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone bridge is an application of kirchhoff's rules. The Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances
we can say R1, R2, R3, R4. The null-point condition is given by = Using which the value of one resistance can be

determined, knowing the other three resistances.

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The above mentioned relation, relating the four resistors is called the balance condition for the galvanometer to give
zero or null deflection. A practical device using this principle is called the meter bridge.

Potentiometer
The potentiometer is a device to compare potential differences. Since the method involves a condition of no current
flow, the device can be used to measure potential difference; internal resistance of a cell and compare emf's of two
sources.
Rheostat is a variable resistor with two terminals, used to control or limit the flow of current in an electrical circuit by
manually adjusting its resistance value.
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Heating Effect of Electric Current

When an electric current passes through a conductor (like a high resistance wire) the conductor becomes hot after some
time and produces heat. This is called the heating effect of Electric Current.
For this consider a current flowing through a resistor of resistance R. Let V be the potential difference across it.

The power input to the electrical circuit by the source (P) = V x

where, Q is charge.
The energy that is being supplied to the circuit by the source in time t
H = P x t or H = Vit
Applying Ohm's law to above equation we get H = i2Rt.
This is known as Joule's Law of heating.
Appliances like electric iron, kettle, toaster, heater, electric fuse, etc works on heating effect of electric current.
Electric Fuse is a safety device in electrical circuits that contains a wire made of a specific alloy with a defined melting
point. When the current in the circuit exceeds the fuse's rated value, the wire heats up and melts, breaking the circuit
and protecting against overcurrent hazards.
Fuses are connected in series with the main supply and come in various current ratings.
Examples Copper, zinc, aluminum, and an alloy of lead and tin are some materials mainly used as fuse elements.
Symbols of Some Commonly Used Components in Circuit Diagrams
Component Symbol

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An electric cell

A battery or a combination of cells.

Plug the key or switch open.

Plug key or switch closed.

Two non-touching wires.

Electric bulb.

A resistor of resistance R.

Variable resistance or rheostat.

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Ammeter.

Voltmeter.

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Magnetic Effect of Current and Magnetism

Magnetic phenomena are widespread in the universe, influencing everything from galaxies to atoms and even predating
human existence. The term "magnet" stems from the discovery of magnetic ore deposits on the Greek island of Magnesia
around 600 BC.
This chapter explores magnetism as a distinct subject, covering concepts like Earth's magnetic behaviour, the behaviour
of magnets and the Magnetic Effect of Current.

Magnetic Field
A magnetic field is a region around a magnet or a current-carrying conductor where
magnetic forces are exerted on other magnets or moving charges. It is a vector
quantity. It is measured in tesla (SI unit).
Electric field v/s Magnetic field:
* An electric field occurs wherever a voltage is present. Electric fields are created around appliances and wires wherever
a voltage exists. The strength of the electric field produced is proportional to the voltage. It is measured in volts per
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metre (V/m). The strength of an electric field decreases rapidly as one moves away from the source.
Electric fields can also be shielded by many objects, such as trees or the walls of a building.
* Magnetic fields are created whenever there is a flow of electric current. With increase in the
amount of currentflowing, the level of magnetic field increases too. Magnetic fields are measured
in milliGauss (mG).

Magnetic Field Lines

It is the region around the magnet where we are able to detect the magnetic force of the magnet. These imaginary lines
are sketched to trace the path that a magnetic north pole would naturally take when affected by the magnetic forces
present within the field.
Properties of Magnetic Field Lines
(i) The magnetic field lines of a magnet (or a solenoid) form continuous closed loops.
(ii) It originates from the north pole of a magnet and ends at its south pole.
(iii) The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger is the magnitude of the magnetic field.
(iv) The magnetic field lines never intersect each other.
(v) A tangent line drawn at any point to the magnetic field line gives the direction of the resultant magnetic field at that
point.
Electric lines of force v/s Magnetic lines of force :
Electric Field Magnetic Field
Nature Created around electriccharge Created around movingelectric charge and magnets
Units Newton per coulomb, volts per metre Gauss or Tesla
Force Proportional to the electric charge Proportional to charge andspeed of electric charge

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Movement in Perpendicular to the magnetic field Perpendicular to the electricfield

Electromagne
tic field
Pole Monopole or dipole Dipole only

Laws for finding the direction of the Magnetic Field

Fleming's Right Hand Rule
It states that if we stretch the thumb, middle finger, and index finger in such a way that they are mutually perpendicular
to each other. Then, the thumb signifies the direction of the conductor's motion, the middle finger indicates the induced
current's direction, and the index finger represents the direction of the magnetic field.
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Ampere's Swimming Rule

It dictates the direction of magnetic needle deflection due to the current in a wire. When a person swims along the wire
carrying current such that his face is always towards the magnetic needle with current entering his feet and leaving his
head then the North Pole of the magnetic needle is always deflected towards his left hand.

Maxwell Corkscrew Rule or Right-Hand Thumb Rule

It states that "When the thumb points in the direction of current flow (conventional current, from positive to negative)
in a wire, the fingers curl to indicate the direction of the magnetic field lines encircling the wire. This rule helps
determine the magnetic field's direction around a current-carrying conductor".
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

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When electric current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced around it. The pattern of magnetic field
produced by a current-carrying conductor depends on its shape. Different magnetic field patterns are produced by
current-carrying conductors having different shapes.
Magnetic field due to a Current Element: Biot-Savart Law

µ
dB = ∏

The Biot-Savart law states that the magnetic field (dB) produced by a current-carrying conductor at a distant point is
directly proportional to the current (1), the length of the conductor (dl), and the sine angle( e) between the conductor
element and the line connecting it to the point. It is inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r) between the
conductor and the point.
Magnetic Field Due To A Current Carrying Conductor
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In a simple electric circuit with a straight copper wire placed parallel to a compass needle, reversing the direction of the
current causes the compass needle to deflect in the opposite direction. This demonstrates the relationship between the
direction of electric current and the direction of the magnetic field it induces.
Magnetic field due to a Current through a Straight Conductor
The magnetic field generated by a straight conductor carrying current depends on the current's strength, and the distance
from the wire. The magnetic field produced by a current carrying straight wire depends inversely on the distance from
it. The Magnetic field lines forms concentric circles with center at the wire.

Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Circular Loop

In a current-carrying circular loop, magnetic field lines form concentric circles throughout the loop. At the centre of the
loop, these lines become straight and align in the same direction, perpendicular to the loop's plane, with maximum field
intensity. As you move away from the centre, the magnetic field strength decreases. Each segment of the loop contributes
to magnetic field generation within the loop.

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Magnetic Field due to a Current in a Solenoid

A solenoid is essentially a coil made up of numerous circular turns of insulated copper wire closely wound to create a
cylindrical shape. When a current passes through a solenoid, it generates a magnetic field. This magnetic field looks
similar to the field around a bar magnet, with one end of the solenoid behaving like a north pole and the other like a
south pole. Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field is uniform and forms parallel straight lines. This uniform field is
strong and can magnetize materials like soft iron when placed inside coil, creating an
The electromagnet, while outside the solenoid, the magnetic field strength approaches zero.
Magnetic field inside a solenoid, B = μonl
where,
B = Magnetic Field, n = number of turns of the coil per unit length, µo = permeability of free space = 4 x 10-7 Tm/A and
I = Current of the solenoid.
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Force On A Current-Carrying Conductor In A Magnetic Field

French scientist André-Marie Ampère (1775-1836) proposed that a magnet likewise exerts a force on a current-carrying
conductor, which is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
Experiment shows that force is exerted on the current-carrying rod when it is placed in a magnetic field. It proves that
the direction of force is also reversed when the direction of current through the conductor is reversed. It shows that the
direction of the force on the conductor depends upon the direction of current and the direction of the magnetic field. The
displacement of the rod is largest (or the magnitude of the force is the highest) when the direction of current is at right
angles to the direction of the magnetic field.

Fleming's Left-Hand Rule

According to this rule, stretch the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of your left hand such that they are mutually
perpendicular. If the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger in the direction of the
current, then the thumb will point in the direction of motion or the force acting on the conductor.

Force On A Moving Charge In A Magnetic Field

The magnitude of the magnetic force (F) on a charge (q) moving at a speed (v) in a magnetic field of strength (B) is
given by:-
F = qvBSinθ, where (θ) is the angle between the directions of v and B. This force acts at right angles to both the magnetic
field and the velocity of the particle. This force is often called the Lorentz force.

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Magnetism
Magnetism is the ability of certain objects, like magnets, to either pull towards each other (attraction) or push away from
each other (repulsion) because of a special force they have.

Magnetic Force
It is the attractive or repulsive force that one magnetic object exerts on another due to its magnetic properties. This force
is a consequence of the interaction between moving electric charges in the magnets and can either pull magnetic objects
together or push them apart, depending on their alignment.
Magnetic Fundamentals
(1) Every magnet has two poles: a north pole(N) and a south pole (S).
(ii) Like poles repel each other, and opposite poles attract each other.
Magnet
Magnets are objects that produce a magnetic field, which exerts an attractive or repulsive force on other materials or
magnets.
Magnets can be natural or artificial-
Natural Magnets are naturally occurring magnets, such as lodestone, which is a type of iron ore that has natural magnetic
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properties and Artificial Magnets are magnets created by humans through various methods, including rubbing a piece
of iron or steel against a permanent magnet or passing an electric current through a coil of wire.

Types of Magnets
(i) Permanent Magnets - These are magnets that retain their magnetic properties over a long period of time. Common
examples include Alnico, an alloy of iron, aluminium, nickel, cobalt and copper. The naturally occurring lodestone. The
bar magnets and horseshoe magnets.
(ii) Temporary Magnets - These materials become magnetic when exposed to a strong magnetic field but lose their
magnetism when the field is removed. Soft iron, Iron and steel are common temporary magnets.
(iii) Electromagnets - The magnets created by the flow of electric current through a coil of wire. Electromagnets are
used in electric bells, loudspeakers and telephone diaphragms.
Characteristics of Magnets
(i) Magnetic Attraction - Magnets attract materials containing iron, nickel, or cobalt.
(ii) Magnetic Repulsion - Like poles of magnets repel each other, while opposite poles attract.
(iii) Magnetic Field - Magnets create a magnetic field that can exert forces on other magnets or magnetic materials.
(iv) Induction - Magnets can induce magnetism in nearby materials, making them temporary magnets.
(v) Directional - When a bar magnet is freely suspended, it aligns itself in the north-south direction. The tip pointing
toward the geographic north is the north pole, and the tip pointing toward the geographic south is the south pole of the
magnet.
(vi) Retentivity - The capacity of a magnet to hold its magnetism even after being exposed to demagnetizing forces.
Bar Magnets
These are straight, rectangular magnets with a north pole at one end and a south pole at the other, exhibiting strong
magnetic properties and are widely used for various applications, including compasses and magnetic experiments.

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Earth Magnetism
Earth is a huge magnet. The Earth generates its own magnetic field, resembling a magnetic dipole with the magnetic
north pole located near the geographic south pole and the magnetic south pole near the geographic north pole. This field
causes a freely suspended magnet to align north-south.

Components of Earth's magnetism

(i) Angle of Declination: The angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographical meridian at a place.
The vertical plane passing through the axis of a freely suspended magnet is called Magnetic meridian.
The vertical plane passing through the true geographical north and south (or geographical axis of earth) is called
geographical meridian.
(ii) Angle of Dip: The angle between the axis of a freely suspended magnetic needle (which is free to rotate in the vertical
plane) and the horizontal plane at a place is called the angle of dip (or inclination) at that place.
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(iii) Horizontal Component of Earth's Magnetic Field: The component of Earth's magnetic field along the horizontal
direction in the magnetic meridian. It is denoted by BH.
BH = cosθ, I total intensity of earth's magnetic field, θ = angle of a dip at a place.
Formula for Earth's magnetic field,
Be = B + B , tan θ =

where, BH = Horizontal component and

BV = Vertical component and
θ = Angle of dip.

What are Magnetic Poles?

There are two magnetic poles that roughly divide a magnet into two halves. These are the two ends of the magnet. These
are known as the Magnetic North Pole and the Magnetic South Pole. These are those areas of a magnet that have
maximum magnetic strength.
If we bring two like poles close then they will repel each other, whereas when two unlike poles are brought close they
attract each other. These phenomena of attraction and repulsion are known as magnetism and the area around this
phenomenon is called a magnetic field. The act of magnetism is only experienced within the magnetic field.

Magnetic North Pole

If a bar magnet is suspended freely, it will align itself so that the North pole of the bar magnet points towards the
Magnetic North pole of the earth. The magnetic field lines originate from the Magnetic North Pole. The North Pole is
the one which is used to find any direction. The compass points help to find the Geographic North direction with the
help of this Magnetic North Pole.

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Magnetic South Pole

When a bar magnet is suspended freely, it will align itself so that the South pole of the bar magnet points towards the
Magnetic South Pole of the earth. It lies just opposite the North Pole. The magnetic field lines end or finish at the South
Pole.

Magnetic Pole Strength

Magnetic Pole Strength is the strength with which the materials get attracted to the magnet. It is a scalar quantity and
thus has only magnitude and no direction. It is denoted by the symbol m. The SI unit of Magnetic Pole strength is
Ampere-metre, represented as Am.
Magnetic Pole Strength Formula
The formula to find pole strength is given below,
m=M/2I , where
m is pole strength,
M is magnetic moment,
I is current.
Magnetic Moment Formula:
The magnetic moment is a vector relating torque of an object to the magnetic field. This is mathematically represented
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as:
τ=m×B
Where,
τ is the torque acting on the dipole
m is the magnetic moment
B is the external magnetic field
Magnetic Moment Unit:
In the definition for the current loop, the Magnetic moment is the product of the current flowing and the area, M = I A
So, the unit conferring to this definition is articulated by Amp-m2.
It can also be suggested in terms of torque and moment. Conferring to that, the torque is measured in Joules (J) and the
magnetic field is measured in tesla (T) and thus the unit is J T -1.
So, these two units are equivalent to each other and are provided by 1 Amp-m2 = 1 J T -1.
Magnetisation
It is the measure of the density of induced magnetic dipole moments within a material when it's in proximity to a magnet.
It can also be induced by running an electric current through the material, involving the movement or spin of electrons
in atoms or nuclei. It is also termed as magnetic polarization.

Magnetic Intensity (H)

The ability of a magnetic field to magnetize a material medium is called its magnetic intensity (H).
Its magnitude is measured by the number of ampere-turns flowing round the unit length of a solenoid, required to
produce that magnetic field. Its unit is ampere-turns per meter (Am-1).
H= where,

B = magnetic field inside vacuum

and

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μo = permeability of free space.

Magnetic And Non-Magnetic Materials

Magnetic Material - The materials that get attracted towards a magnet are magnetic. For example, iron, nickel and cobalt.
Non-Magnetic Material - The materials that are not attracted towards a magnet are non-magnetic. For example plastic,
copper, paper, aluminium, rubber, stone, etc.

Magnetic Substance
In the presence of a strong magnetic field, most substances exhibit some degree of magnetic behaviour. Using this
characteristic, magnetic substances are categorized into three distinct types.
(a) Diamagnetic Substances - Those substances which get feebly magnetized in the opposite direction of the magnetizing
field. Such substances are feebly repelled by magnets and tend to move from stronger to weaker part of the magnetic
field. Some diamagnetic materials are bismuth, copper, lead, silicon, nitrogen.
(b) Paramagnetic substances - Those substances which get weakly magnetised when placed in an external magnetic
field. They have a tendency to move from a region of the weak magnetic field to a strong magnetic field, i.e., they get
weakly attracted to a magnet.
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This type of magnetism that is exhibited by substances is known as Paramagnetism. Some paramagnetic materials are
aluminium, sodium, chromium, oxygen (at STP) and copper chloride.
(c) Ferromagnetic Substances - Those substances which get strongly magnetised when placed in an external magnetic
field. They have a strong tendency to move from a region of weak magnetic field to a strong magnetic field, i.e., they
get strongly attracted to a magnet. This type of magnetism that is exhibited by substances is known as Ferromagnetism.
The ferromagnetic property depends on temperature. At a high enough temperature, a ferromagnet becomes a
paramagnet. Some ferromagnetic materials are iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, etc.
Antiferromagnetism : The only element exhibiting antiferroma-gnetism at room temperature is chromium. It is similar
to ferromagnetic materials but the exchange interaction between neighbouring atoms leads to the antiparallel alignment
of atomic magnetic moments. Hence, the magnetic field cancels out and the material appears to behave in the same way
as a paramagnetic material.

Ferrimagnetism : It is only observed in compounds, which have more complex crystal structures than pure elements.
Within these materials the exchange interactions lead tothe parallel alignment of atoms in some of the crystal sites and
anti-parallel alignment of others. The material breaks down into magnetic domains, just like a ferromagnetic material
and the magnetic behaviour is also very similar, although ferrimagnetic materials usually have lower saturation

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magnetisations. For example in barium ferrite (BaO.6Fe2O3) the unit cell contains 64 ions of which the barium and
oxygen ions have no magnetic moment, 16 Fe3+ ions have moments aligned parallel and 8 Fe3+ aligned anti-parallel
giving a net magnetization parallel to the applied field but with a relatively low magnitude as only ‘+ve’ of the ions
contribute to the magnetisation of the material.

Hard magnetic materials v/s soft magnetic materials:

Hard Magnetic Materials Soft Magnetic Materials
The materials which retain their magnetism and are Soft magnetic materials are easy to be magnetized and
difficult to be demagnetized. demagnetized.
These materials retain their magnetism even after the They lose magnetism with time.
removal of the applied magnetic field.
They have large hysteresis loss due to large hysteresis They have low hysteresis loss due to small hysteresis
loop area. area.
Susceptibility and permeability are low. Susceptibility and permeability are high.
Coercivity and retentivity values are large. Coercivity and retentivity values are small.
Magnetic energy stored is high. Since they have low retentivity and coercivity, they are
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not used for making permanent magnets.

They possess high value of BH product. Magnetic energy stored is less.
The eddy current loss is high. The eddy current loss is less because of high resistivity.

Electromagnets
A type of magnet that is created by passing an electric current through a coil of wire. They work on the principles of
electromagnetism and they create electromagnetic fields. They are temporary magnets with a strong magnetic field.
The strength of an electromagnet can be increased with an increase in the number of turns in the coil and the current
flowing through it, using soft iron for the coil.

Eddy Currents
It is the induced current in a conducting body due to a change in magnetic flux. These currents flow in closed paths and
in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic flux. It shows both heating and magnetic effects. These currents are also
called Foucault currents as they were first discovered by Foucault.

Magnetic Flux
The number of magnetic field lines passing through a given area. It is denoted by φB . It is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit
is Weber (Wb) or tesla meter square (T m2) and its dimensional formula is [ML2T-2A-1].
φB = BA cosθ
where, φB = magnetic flux,
B = magnetic field,
A = Area of the surface through which flux passes and
θ = Angle between the surface and magnetic field line.

Electric flux v/s magnetic flux :

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* Electric flux is defined as the number of field lines or the concentration of field lines of an
electric field perpendicular to a surface. From Gauss’ Law, the value of electric flux through a
closed surface is given by φ = qenclosed/∈
* From Ampere-Faraday’s laws, a rate of change in electric flux has the ability to induce an
emf (potential difference).

Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux : It’s the magnetic flux density that remains in a
material when the magnetizing force is zero. The residual magnetism and retentivity are the
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same when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of
residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force does
not reach the saturation level.

Electromagnetic Induction
It involves the generation of current through the production of voltage, or electromotive force (EMF), resulting from
changes in a magnetic field. This occurs when a conductor is exposed to either a moving magnetic field (as in AC power
sources) or when a conductor moves within a stationary magnetic field.

Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

There are two laws of electromagnetic induction.
I. The first law of electromagnetic induction states that, "Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field,
an electromotive force is induced. Likewise, if the conductor circuit is closed, a current is induced, which is called
induced current". This law is also known as Faraday's Law.
II. The second law of electromagnetic induction states that "The magnitude of the induced EMF in a circuit is equal to
the rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit". i.e., E = - .This is known as Lenz's Law.

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Electric Motor
A rotating device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. Electric motors are used as an important
component in electric fans, refrigerators, mixers, washing machines, computers, MP3 players etc.
Principle - An electric motor (DC motor) works on the principle that when an electric current is passed through a
conductor placed normally in a magnetic field, a force acts on the conductor as a result of which the conductor begins
to move and mechanical energy is obtained. Application Fans, blowers, machine tools, turbines, pumps, power tools,
compressors, alternators, rolling mills, movers, ships etc.
The commercial motors use (i) an electromagnet in place of permanent magnet; (ii) large number of turns of the
conducting wire in the current carrying coil; and (iii) a soft iron core on which the coil is wound. The soft iron core, on
which the coil is wound, plus the coils, is called an armature. This enhances the power of the motor.
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Galvanometer
A galvanometer is an instrument that can detect the presence of a current in a circuit. The pointer remains at zero (the
centre of the scale) for zero current flowing through it. It can deflect either to the left or to the right of the zero mark
depending on the direction of current.
Conversion of galvanometer to Ammeter - A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting it in parallel
with a low resistance called shunt resistance.
Conversion of galvanometer to Voltmeter – A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting it in series with
high resistance.

Moving coil Galvanometer

A moving coil galvanometer is an instrument that is used to measure electric currents. It is a sensitive electromagnetic
device that can measure low currents even of the order of a few microamperes.
Principle - A current-carrying coil when placed in an external magnetic field experiences magnetic torque. The angle
through which the coil is deflected due to the effect of the magnetic torque is proportional to the magnitude of current
in the coil.

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Advantage
I. High sensitivity.
II. Not easily affected by stray magnetic fields.
III. The torque to weight ratio is high. The ratio of torque to the weight of the moving part of an instrument is known as
a torque/weight ratio.
IV. High accuracy and reliability
Disadvantage
I. It can be used only to measure direct currents.
II. Develops errors due to factors like ageing of the instrument, permanent magnets and damage of spring due to
mechanical stress.
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Electric Generator
A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Principle - Generator works on the principle of Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction i.e. when a coil is rotated in
a magnetic field, a magnetic flux change is produced in the coil, and as a result, an EMF or electromotive force is
produced in it.
In an AC (alternating current) generator, the current changes direction periodically. For example, it flows from one brush
to the other, and then it reverses. This reversal happens with every half rotation of the coil, resulting in an alternating
current.
To get a DC (direct current) that flows in one constant direction, a split-ring commutator is used. This ensures that one
brush always connects with the coil as it moves up, while the other connects with the coil moving down. This setup
produces a unidirectional current.
Most power stations constructed these days produce Alternating Current (AC). In India, the AC changes direction after
every 1/100 second, that is, the frequency of AC is 50 Hz. An important advantage of AC over DC is that electric power
can be transmitted over long distances without much loss of energy.

Domestic Electric Circuits

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In India, Electric power in homes uses live (red) wire and a neutral (black) wire. In our country, the potential difference
between the two is 220 V.
In our houses, electric wires pass through a meter and main fuse, connecting to separate circuits (15 A for high-power
appliances and 5 A for lights and fans) via the main switch. A green-insulated earth wire is connected to the earth to
ensure safety, especially for appliances with metallic bodies.
Also, appliances are connected in parallel with individual switches for on/off control to maintain equal potential
differences. Electric fuses are crucial safeguards, preventing damage from overloading and short-circuits, often caused
by damaged insulation or faulty appliances. Fuses melt due to Joule heating, interrupting the circuit when the current
exceeds safe limits.
Overloading can also result from voltage fluctuations and connecting excessive appliances to a single socket, posing
risks to both appliances and the circuit. Proper circuit protection is essential for electrical safety.

Transformer
A device that transfers electric energy from one alternating-current circuit to one or more other circuits, either increasing
(stepping up) or reducing (stepping down) the voltage.
Principle Transformer works on the principle of Mutual induction. It can be defined as the current flowing in one coil
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can induce a voltage in an adjacent coil.

Vs = Vp (Ns / Np)
The relationship between the voltage and the number of turns in each coil is given by:

=
Types of Transformer
(i) Step-up transformer - It converts a low voltage of high current into a high voltage of low current. In a step-up
transformer, the number of turns in the secondary coil is greater than the number of turns in the primary coil. The wire
of the primary coil is thicker than that in the secondary coil.
Application - Power plants, X-ray machines, microwaves, etc
(ii) Step-down transformer: It converts a high voltage of low current into a low voltage of high current. In a step-down
transformer, the number of turns in the primary coil is greater than the number of turns in the secondary coil. The wire
in the secondary coil is thicker than that in the primary coil.
Application - chargers for mobile phones, stereos, C.D. players, etc.
Ammeter
It is a measuring device that measures the current flowing through the circuit. It is always connected in series with the
circuit. The resistance in an ideal ammeter is zero.

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Voltmeter
It is a voltage-measuring device that measures the potential difference between two points of the circuit. It is always
connected in parallel with the circuit. The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinite.

Ammeter v/s Voltmeter

Character Ammeter Voltmeter
Connection It is to be connected in series mode. It is to be connected in in parallel mode.
Resistance It has low resistance It has high resistance
Uses It is used for finding the current flowing in the It is used for finding the potential difference in the
circuit. circuit.
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Circuit Circuit must be disconnected . Circuit does not need to be disconnected.

Accuracy Considered as less accurate Considered as more accurate

Potentiometer v/s Voltmeter : A voltmeter cannot be used for measuring the emf of a cell because a voltmeter draws
some current from the cell. To measure a cell’s emf, a potentiometer is used because in a potentiometer, there is no flow
of electric current.
Househodl circuits : All the household circuits are arranged in parallel. These circuits are connected with three different
wires of different colour insulation, red/brown for live wire, black/blue for neutral wire and green/yellow for earth wire.
In all these three wires, the earth wire is used as satety wire because it carries all the current if leaked to the body of
electrical appliance that carried to the earth at zero potential and hence, protecting the uses of the appliance.
Any form of over withdrawal of current from the circuit or unfortunate connecting of live wire. With neutral wire or
vice-versa causes the short circuit, the major cause of electrical fires in the domestic or industrial electric fires.
Difference between EMF and Potential Difference :
EMF of a Cell Potential Difference
Maximum potential difference between two Potential difference between two points is the difference of
electrodes of a cell when cell is in open circuit is potential between those two points.
called EMF of Cell.
EMF depends on nature of electrodes and Potential difference is interdependent on nature of electrodes and
electrolyte of the cell. electrolyte of the cell.
EMF is independent of the resistance of circuit. Potential difference depends on the Current flowing through the
circuit.
EMF is used for Source of Electric Current. PD is measured between any two points of electric circuit.
It is a cause. It is an effect.

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Modern Physics
Modern physics includes fundamental principles such as the photoelectric effect, Bohr's atomic model, X-rays, de
Broglie's concept of matter waves, radioactivity and nuclear physics.
In short, Modern physics means physics based on the two major breakthroughs of the early twentieth century: Relativity
(example Black holes) and Quantum mechanics (example - Superconductors).
Physics based on what was known before then (Newton's laws, Maxwell's equations, thermodynamics) is called
"classical" physics.

Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect refers to the phenomenon where electrons are emitted from a metal surface due to the influence
of light rays. The electrons released are termed photoelectrons, and the resulting current generated by these electrons is
referred to as photoelectric current.
The photoelectric effect is based on the law of conservation of energy.
A photocell is a technological application of the photoelectric effect. It is a device whose electrical properties are affected
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by light. It is also sometimes called an electric eye.

Terms Related to Photoelectric Effect
(i) Threshold Frequency -The minimum frequency of light necessary to eject the electrons from metallic surface is called
threshold frequency or cut-off frequency (vo). This minimum frequency depends on the nature of the material of the
emitter plate. Its unit is Hz and the dimensional formula is [T-1].
(ii) Work Function - The minimum energy needed for the electron to escape from the metal surface is called work
function (W or φo). Its unit is J, eV and the dimension formula is [M1L2T-2].
Mathematically, W = hvo, where h is planck's constant and vo is threshold voltage.
(iii) Threshold Wavelength - The maximum wavelength of incident radiation which can eject photoelectrons from a
metal surface is called threshold wavelength (Am) of that metal.
(iv) Stopping Potential - The minimum negative (retarding) potential at which the photocurrent stops or becomes zero
is called the cut-off or stopping potential. The stopping potential (V.) depends on the frequency of incident light, and the
nature of the emitter material. Its unit is volt (V).
Relation between work function (φo), threshold frequency (vo) and threshold wavelength (λmax) is;
φo = hvo = hc / λmax
where h is Planck's constant ( 6.626 x10-34 Js), C is the speed of light.

Laws of Photoelectric Effect

(i) There is no time lag between emission of electrons and incidence of light.
(ii) The number of emitted electrons is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
(iii) The kinetic energy of emitted electrons does not depend upon the intensity of incident light but it is directly
proportional to the frequency of incident light.
(iv) The number of emitted electrons does not depend on the frequency of incident light. If the frequency of incident
light is less than threshold frequency, then no electron will be ejected.

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(v) Photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time lag between the incidence of radiation and emission of
photoelectrons is very small or less than even 10 seconds.

Planck's Photon Hypothesis

In 1900, Max Planck explained the quantum nature of the energy of electromagnetic waves. The postulates of Planck's
quantum theory are as follows:
(i) The emission of radiation is not continuous, but takes place in the form of small bundles or packets of definite
amounts of energy which is called quanta.
(ii) A photon's energy is directly proportional to the frequency at which it occurs; that is, E ∝ v.
(iii) Radiation energy for a photon is the product of Planck's constant (h), and the frequency of radiation (v);
E=hv or E=hc/λ (since, v = c/λ) where 'c' is speed of light, and 'λ' is wavelength.
(iv) The quantum energy is a multiple of a whole number, such as hv, 2hv, 3hv, and so on, which is used to express the
total energy of radiation.

Example - A 200 W sodium street lamp emits yellow light of wavelength 0.6 μm. Assuming it to be 25% efficient
in converting electrical energy to light, the number of photons of yellow light it emits per second is?
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Solution –
Given,
Power (P) = 200 W and
wavelength (A) = 0.6 μm
The amount of energy converted into the light is 25%.
The energy of a photon in a yellow light is given by; 6.626×10-34× 3 × 108
.
E= = .
= 33 x 10-20 J

The energy radiated in the form of light;

200 x 25/100 = 50 watt
The number of photons emitted per seconds is;
= = 1.5 x 10-20

Einstein's Photoelectric Equation

The maximum kinetic energy (Ex)max is equal to the photon energy (hv) minus the work function (= hvo ) of the target
metal.
(Ek)max= ½ mv2= hv -φo= h(v - vo)
where, v is frequency of incident light and vo is threshold frequency.
This photoelectric equation explains all the features of the photoelectric effect.
The intensity of light of a given frequency is determined by the number of photons incident per second. Increasing the
intensity will increase the number of emitted electrons per second.
The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons is determined by the energy of each photon.

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Matter Waves or de-Broglie Waves

Radiation has dual nature (wave and particle). The dualism of matter is inherent in the de Broglie relation which contains
a wave concept and a particle concept.
De-Broglie proposed that the wavelength A associated with a particle of momentum p is given as λ = =

where, m is the mass of the particle and v is its speed.

This hypothesis has been basic to the development of modern quantum mechanics. It has also led to the field of electron
optics. In 1929, de Broglie was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons.
Properties of Matter Wave
(a) The de-Broglie waves cannot be electromagnetic in nature because electromagnetic waves are produced by motion
of charged particles. The de-Broglie wavelength is independent of the charge and nature of the material particle.
(b) If the particle is at rest (v = 0), then the de-Broglie wavelength is infinite (λ = ∞). Such a wave cannot be visualized.
X-rays
When cathode rays strike on a heavy metal of high melting point, then a very small fraction of its energy converts into
a new type of waves, called X-rays. It is a packet of electromagnetic energy (photon) that originates from the electron
cloud of an atom. X-rays were discovered by Roentgen in 1895.
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Properties of X-rays
Some characteristics of X-rays are given below
(a) X-rays are electromagnetic waves.
(b) X-rays show photoelectric effect.
(c) X-rays travel in straight line with the speed of light.
(d) These are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
(e) X-rays ionize the gas in which they pass. They are however less ionizing than alpha particles.
(f) Wavelength of X-rays is of the order of 1 Å (Angstrom).
(g) X-rays penetrate through different depths into different substances. Due to their high penetration power the impact
of X-rays can occur throughout a body.
Applications of X-rays
(a) X-rays have a large range of uses for medical, industrial and research purposes.
(b) CT scans (Computer tomography), Radiotherapy and fluoroscopy involve X-ray diagnostic techniques.
(c) X-rays are useful in revealing the images of the bones.
(d) These are also useful in cancer treatments with therapeutic techniques.

Nuclear Force
The force acting inside the nucleus or acting between nucleons (viz; protons and neutrons or proton and proton), is
called nuclear force.
Nature of Nuclear Force
(i) Nuclear force is the strongest force in nature.
(ii) It is independent of charge.
(iii) The Nuclear forces are called short-range forces. Nuclear forces operate over a very small distance.
(iv) It does not affect chemical processes or the physical properties of matter.
(v) It is a non-central, non-conservative force.

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(iv) It is dependent on spin or angular momentum of nuclei.

Nucleus Stability
The stability of the nucleus depends upon its neutron to proton (n/p) ratio. It is a concept that helps to identify the
stability of an isotope.
For light nuclei (A < 20) - n/p ratio should be equal to 1.
For heavy nuclei (A > 20) - n/p ratio increases progressively.

Mass Defect
The nuclear mass M is always less than the total mass (Em) of its constituents. The sum of the mass of neutrons and
protons forming a nucleus exceeds the actual mass of the nucleus. The difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents
is called the mass defect.
Mass defect (ΔM) = Number of protons x mass of a proton + number of neutrons x mass of a neutron - real mass of
nucleus i.e., ΔM = [Z mp + (A - Z) mn] - M, where (A - Z) represents the number of neutrons.
Properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma Rays
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During radioactivity, particles like alpha, beta & gamma rays are emitted by an atom, due to unstable atom trying to
gain stability. Hence, the atoms eventually decay by emitting a particle that transforms when they are unstable and
transforms the nucleus into a lower energy state. This process of decaying continues till the nucleus attains a stable
stage.
There exist three major types of radiations emitted by the radioactive particles namely:
* Alpha
* Beta
* Gama
These radiations are released from the nucleus of an atom. Their behavior differs from one another, though all the three
causes some ionization and carry some penetration power. Let’s discuss the properties of beta, alpha and gamma one by
one.
Alpha Rays
Alpha rays are the positively charged particles. Alpha-particle is highly active and energetic helium atom that contains
two neutrons and protons. These particles have the minimum penetration power and highest ionization power. They can
cause serious damage if get into the body due to their high ionization power. They are capable of ionizing numerous
atoms by a short distance. It is due to the fact that the radioactive substances that release alpha particles are required to
be handled after wearing rubber gloves.
Beta Rays
Beta particles are extremely energetic electrons that are liberated from the inner nucleus. They bear negligible mass and
carry the negative charge. A neutron in the nucleus splits into a proton and an electron on the emission of a beta particle.
Hence, it is the electron that is emitted by the nucleus at a rapid pace. Beta particles have a higher penetration power

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when compared to alpha particles and can travel through the skin with ease. Beta particles can be dangerous and any
contact with the body must be avoided, though their ionization power is low.
Gamma Rays
The waves arising from the high-frequency end of the electromagnetic spectrum that has no mass are known as gamma
rays. They hold the highest power of penetration. They are the most penetrating but least ionizing and very difficult to
resist them from entering the body. The Gamma rays carry a large amount of energy and can also travel via thick concrete
and thin lead.
The below table describes the characteristics of beta, alpha and gamma radiations and compares the masses and charges
of the three rays.
Property α β γ
ray ray ray
Nature Positive charged particles, Negatively charged particles Uncharged
2He 4 nucleus (electrons). ?~0.01a, electromagnetic radiation
Charge +2e –e 0
Mass 6.6466 × 10–27 kg 9.109 × 10–31 kg 0
Range ~10 cm in air, can be Upto a few m in air, can be Several m in air, can be stopped by
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stopped by 1mm of stopped by a thin layer of a thick layer of Lead

Aluminium Aluminium
Natural By natural radioisotopes By radioisotopes e.g.29Co68 Excited nuclei formed as a result of
Sources e.g.92U236 Gamma decay

Binding energy
It is the energy that must be required to separate a nucleus into its nucleons. The binding energy of a nucleus is the
energy holding a nucleus together. The greater the binding energy, the more energy is needed to separate the constituents,
thus, higher the stability of the nucleus.
Binding energy (Eb) is related to the mass defect and given by using Einstein's mass energy relation;
ΔEb = ΔMc2, where (c = speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s) and ΔM is the mass defect.

Binding Energy Per Nucleon

It is the ratio of the binding energy (Eb) of a nucleus to the number of the nucleons.
Packing Fraction
Term packing fraction was introduced for each nuclide to compare their excess mass.
It is defined as Packing fraction (f) = x 104

where,
A = Mass number or number of nucleons and
Δm = mass defect.
Significance of Packing Fraction - It gives an indication about the stability of the nucleus.
Packing fraction is positive for the isotopes having very high or low mass numbers and negative for the rest. In the case
of 6 C12, the packing fraction is zero.

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The more negative the packing fraction of an element, the nucleus will be more stable. A positive packing fraction
indicates that the concerned nucleus should be less stable.
Size of Nucleus
Atomic nuclei sizes are commonly expressed in terms of their radii. It has been found that a nucleus of mass number A
has a radius R = Ro A1/3, where Ro is the unit nuclear radius and its numerical value is taken as 1.2 fermi (1.2 x 10-15m).
The volume of a nucleus is proportional to A, the mass number.
The density of the nucleus is a constant, independent of A, for all nuclei. The density of nuclear matter is approximately
2.3 x 1017 kg m-3. This density is very large compared to ordinary matter.

Radioactivity
Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon in which an unstable nucleus undergoes a decay. Henry Becquerel first identified
this phenomenon in 1896 while working with uranium. The radiation was named Becquerel rays and the phenomenon
of emission of this radiation was named radioactivity. The elements exhibiting this phenomenon were called radioactive
elements.
Subsequently, scientists such as Madame Curie, Pierre Curie, and Schmidt observed that additional elements, including
radium, also displayed the phenomenon of radioactivity.
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In 1899, Lord Rutherford analyzed the Becquerel rays, and established the existence of two distinct components: a-
particles and B-rays. The existence of third radiation y rays was established by P. Villard.
Properties of α, β and γ-rays
Property α – rays β – rays γ -rays
Origin Nucleus Nucleus Nucleus
Symbol Helium nuclei (He24) Electron (-1e )0
Electromagnetic radiation of very short
wavelength
Mass 6.67 x 10-27 kg (same 9.11 x 10-31 kg (same As zero
as the mass of electron)
helium)
Ionising power Maximum Less than α -rays Minimum
Charge +2 (1.6 x 10-19C): +2e - (1.6x 10-19C); -e No charge
Nature Positively charged Negatively charged Neutral
Effect on Blacken the film to a Blacken the film to an Blacken the film to maximum extent.
photographic lesser extent intermediate extent.
plate
Velocity 1/10 of velocity of 33-92% of velocity of light. Same as light
light in vacuum
Penetrating Minimum (can hardly More than α -rays (can pass Maximum (can passthrough 8 cm thick
power pass through the through 10 mm sheet). lead block and 25 cm thick iron sheet).
paper).
Effect of Fields Deflected both by Deflected both by electric and No deflection
electric and magnetic magnetic fields.
fields.

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Artificial radioactivity
Natural and artificial radioactivity: what it is and typesArtificial radioactivity is any
radioactivity or ionizing radiation of human origin. It involves the creation of
radioisotopes through nuclear bombardment or irradiation processes. These
radioisotopes are used in various applications, such as medicine and nuclear power
generation.
An example of artificial radioactivity is that generated in nuclear medicine or in the nuclear fission reactions of nuclear
power plants to obtain electrical energy.
Radioactivity – Types of Radioactive Decay
In this article, we will look at the three types of radioactive decay namely, alpha, beta, and gamma decay. We will try to
understand how these particles are emitted and its effects on the emitting nucleus.

Radioactive Decay
The process of disintegration (break-up) of atomic nuclei (by emitting α, β and γ -rays) is called radioactive decay.
Sometimes, the break-up can be induced by bombarding stable nuclei with other light particles (like neutron and
protons). It is then called Artificial radioactivity.
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Three types of radioactive decay occur in nature:-

(a) The emission of an a-particle from a radioactive nucleus (called parent nucleus) changes it into a new nucleus
(daughter nucleus) with its atomic number decreased by two and its mass number decreased by four. It is also referred
to as Soddy-Fajan's Group Displacement Law.

Frederick Soddy won the 1921 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his research on radioactive decay and his formulation of
the concept of isotopes.
(b) The emission of a ẞ particle changes the parent nucleus into a daughter nucleus with its atomic number increased
by unity (if it is ẞ emission) but its mass number remains unchanged.
A
ZX →Z+1YA + -1e0 +v
(c) The emission of y-rays does not change the atomic number or the mass number of the parent nucleus and hence no
new nucleus is formed.
A
ZX → ZXA+Y

Units of Radioactivity
The SI unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq).
1 becquerel = 1 disintegration/second.
Curie is the traditional unit of radioactivity. 1 curie = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations/second.
Rutherford is also another unit of it. 1 Rutherford = 106 disintegration/second.

Half-Life
Half life is the time in which a radioactive substance remains half of its initial amount. It is denoted by (T1/2 or t1/2).

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T1/2= loge2 /λ = 0.693/ λ

where, λ is decay constant (or disintegration constant).
Half-life of any radioactive substance is a characteristic property of the radioactive nucleus and is inversely proportional
to its decay constant.
Average Life or Mean Life - The sum of the lifetimes of all the atoms divided by the total number of atoms.
i.e.,T= 1/ λ

Radioactive Series
Radioactive elements disintegrate and the new elements formed may be radioactive which also disintegrate. This forms
a series known as radioactive series.
There are four main series of radioactive elements.
The thorium series (4n series), the uranium series (4n + 2 series), the actinium series (4n + 3 series) and the neptunium
series (4n + 1 series).
Except the neptunium series, three of the sets are called natural or classical series.

Applications of Radioactivity
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In geology - Radiocarbon Dating (for determining the age of old fossils), Uranium Dating (for calculating the age of the
earth or rocky material), etc.
In medicine - Radiotherapy (treatment of cancer), tracer technique (medical diagnostics, detection of ulcer in any part
of the body). Co-60 (radiation therapy).
In agriculture - Improve the quality and yield of crops, fruits and vegetables.
In industry- y-radiations are used to find the flaws (or imperfections) in the inner structure of heavy machinery.

Nuclear Energy
It is a form of energy released from the nucleus (the core of atoms). This source of energy can be produced in two ways-
fission and fusion.
Nuclear Fission
It is a reaction where the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei, while releasing energy. For example,
the nucleus of an atom of
uranium-235 splits into two smaller nuclei, a barium nucleus and a krypton nucleus, when hit by a neutron.
1 235
On + 92U  56Ba141+36Kr92+3 on1 + Energy
The released energy can be used to produce steam and further generate electricity.

Nuclear chain reaction

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A reaction that, once started, continues to repeat itself. The nuclear chain reaction can be categorized into the following
two groups
(a) Uncontrolled Chain Reaction- It is a nuclear chain reaction in which fission neutrons keep on increasing until the
whole of the fissionable material is consumed. This reaction takes place in an atom bomb.
(b) Controlled Chain Reaction - It is a chain reaction that progresses steadily and in a balanced manner, devoid of any
explosion. This process results in the release of a substantial amount of energy, which can be easily regulated.
Example - Nuclear reactors.

Nuclear reactors
It is a device that can initiate a self sustaining controlled chain reaction of a fissionable material to generate electricity.
Example - Breeder Reactor.
Basic components of nuclear reactor are:-
Moderator - A material, such as ordinary water, heavy water, or graphite, that is used in a reactor to slow down high-
velocity neutrons, thus increasing the likelihood of fission. Heavy water, graphite and beryllium oxide are commonly
used moderators.
Coolant - A substance circulated through a nuclear reactor to remove or transfer heat. The coldwater, air, CO2, molten
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metal etc, are used as coolant.

Fuel Fissionable - Fuels used in nuclear reactors are 92U235, 92U230,94Pu239
Control Rods - A rod, plate, or tube containing a material such as hafnium, boron, etc., used to control the power of a
nuclear reactor.
Shielding - The whole reactor is protected with concrete walls which are 2 to 2.5 m thick, so that the radiations emitted
(like y-rays) during nuclear reaction may not produce harmful effects on the persons working on the reactor.
Application - They are used for basic research, radioisotope production, neutron scattering and radiography, and material
characterization and testing.
Nuclear Power Reactors : These reactors involve the fission of heavy atomic nuclei, the most common of which is
uranium-235, to produce heat that is transferred to a fluid which acts as a coolant. During the fission process, bond
energy is released that first becomesnoticeable as the kinetic energy of the fission products generated and also of the
neutrons being released. Since these particles undergo intense deceleration in the solid nuclear fuel, the kinetic energy
turns into heat energy.

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In case of reactors designed to generate electricity, the heated fluid can be gas, water or a liquid metal. The heat stored
by the fluid is then used either directly (in case of gas) or indirectly (in case of water and liquid metals like sodium) to
generate steam which is then fed into a turbine driving an alternator.
The use of nuclear power reactors shows the use of nuclear radioactive materials for the peacefull purpose.
* Types of Nuclear Power Reactors : It is common practice to classify power reactors according to the nature of the
coolant and the moderator plus, as the need may arise, other design characteristics.
Reactor Type Coolant Moderator Fuel
Pressurised water reactor Light water Light water Enriched uranium
(PWRVVER)
Boiling water reactor (BWR) Light water Light water Enriched
Pressurised heavy water reactor Heavy water Heavy water Natural uranium
(PHWR)
Gas-cooled reactors (Magnox, AGR, CO 2 Graphite Natural or enriched uranium
UNGG)
Light watergraphite reactor(RBMK) Pressurized boil in water Graphite Enriched uranium
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Breeder Reactor
Reactors producing more fissile material than that it consumes are called Breeder Reactors.
Fuels used in these reactors are Th232 and U238

Nuclear Fusion
Fusion means joining lighter nuclei to make a heavier nucleus, most commonly hydrogen or hydrogen isotopes to create
helium, such as- 1H1+1H2  He + on1 +3.27 MeV

Hydrogen Bomb
It contains a mixture of deuterium oxide (D2O) and tritium oxide (T20) in a space surrounding an ordinary atom bomb.
Thus, the first step of the reaction is endothermic, i.e., reaction between D2O and T2O is initiated by the energy obtained
from the explosion of an atom bomb. The second step of the reaction is exothermic, i.e., energy evolving.

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Electronics and Communications

Semi conductors
Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity between conductors and insulators, widely used in
electronic devices for their ability to control and amplify electrical signals. They form the basis of modern electronics,
powering everything from transistors to microchips.
Some common semiconductor materials are - Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Gallium arsenide (GaAs), Silicon carbide
(SiC), Indium antimonide (InSb), etc.
Properties of Semiconductor
(a) The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than an insulator but higher than a conductor.
(b) It shows a negative temperature coefficient of resistance that means resistance of a semiconductor will increase with
decrease in temperature and vice-versa.
(c) At absolute zero (zero Kelvin), semiconductors exhibit insulating behavior. This is because, at extremely low
temperatures, electrons lack the energy required for vibration, making it impossible for electrical current to flow.
(d) The conductivity of the semiconductors increases when impurities are added. The process of adding impurities to
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semiconductors is called doping.

(e) Semiconductors have relatively low thermal conductivity compared to conductors. This property can be
advantageous in certain applications like thermoelectric devices.

Applications of Semiconductor Devices

Mobile phones, laptop, Integrated Circuits (ICs), Transistors, Diodes, Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), Photovoltaic Cells
(Solar Cells), Optoelectronic Devices, Memory Devices, Microprocessors, Power Electronics, Temperature Sensors,
etc.
Advantages of Semiconductor Devices
(a) Energy Efficiency: They operate at low power levels and can switch rapidly, resulting in energy-efficient electronic
devices and longer battery life in portable devices.
(b) Reliability : Semiconductors have a longer operational lifespan compared to many other electronic components,
contributing to the reliability of electronic devices.
(c) Shock resistant: Semiconductors, unlike vacuum tubes, are shock-proof.
(d) Durability: They are less susceptible to mechanical vibrations and shocks compared to vacuum tubes, making them
suitable for rugged environments.
(e) Reduced Heat Generation: Unlike vacuum tubes, semiconductors generate less heat during operation, reducing the
need for extensive cooling systems in electronic devices.

Disadvantages of Semiconductor Devices

(a) Sensitivity: They are extremely sensitive to temperature changes and are quickly damaged by extreme heat.
(b) Complex Manufacturing: The fabrication of semiconductor devices is a highly complex and expensive process, often
requiring specialized equipment and cleanroom facilities.
(c) Environmental Concerns: The manufacturing and disposal of semiconductor devices can have environmental impacts
due to the use of hazardous materials and electronic waste generation.

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(d) Cost: The initial cost of semiconductor devices and their associated manufacturing processes can be relatively high,
particularly for cutting-edge technologies.
(e) Susceptibility to Radiation: Semiconductors are sensitive to ionizing radiation, which can degrade their performance
and reliability in certain applications, such as aerospace and nuclear environments.

Types of Semiconductor
There are two types of Semiconductor :-
Intrinsic Semiconductor
It is a pure semiconductor crystal with no intentional doping. It contains an equal number of electrons in the conduction
band and holes in the valence band at absolute zero, making it electrically neutral.
In intrinsic semiconductors, ne = the number of free electrons, nh is equal to the number of holes, . That is ne = nh = ni
where ni is intrinsic carrier concentration.
Extrinsic Semiconductor
It is a semiconductor crystal intentionally doped with specific impurities to modify its electrical properties. It can be
either n-type (doped with donor impurities) or p-type (doped with acceptor impurities), creating an excess of electrons
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or holes, respectively.
Extrinsic semiconductors have higher electrical conductivity compared to intrinsic semiconductors due to the presence
of additional charge carriers.
The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number of free electrons or holes in the semiconductor crystal.
Here impurities are of two types :-
(a) Pentavalent - Impurities which have 5 valence electrons.
Examples - Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P), etc.
(b) Trivalent - Impurities which have 3 valence electrons.
Examples - Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), etc.
On the basis of these impurities extrinsic semiconductor are of two types:

n-type Semiconductor
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is known as n- type semiconductor.
For n-type semiconductors,
ne > > nh
where,
nh number of holes and ne= number of electrons.
Conductivity - The current conduction in an n-type semiconductor is predominantly by free electrons i.e. negative
charges and is called n-type or electron type conductivity. So, the majority charge carrier in n-type semiconductor is free
electrons and minority charge carrier is holes.

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p-type Semiconductor
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is called p-type semiconductor.
For p-type semiconductors,
nh > > ne
where,
nh = number of holes and ne = number of electrons.
Conductivity- The current conduction in p-type semiconductor is predominantly by holes i.e. positive charges and is
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called p-type or hole-type conductivity. So, the majority charge carrier in p-type semiconductor is holes and minority
charge carrier is free electrons.

p-n Junction
When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor, the contact surface is called p-n junction.
Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction: diffusion and drift.
During the formation of a p-n junction, diffusion occurs due to the concentration gradient, with electrons moving from
the n-type to the p-type and holes moving from the p-type to the n-type.
Additionally, drift occurs as a result of the built-in electric field within the junction, causing further movement of charge
carriers.

Terms related to p-n Junction

(a) Depletion Layer - It is a region near the junction where mobile charge carriers (electrons and holes) are significantly
reduced, creating an electrically neutral zone. It acts like a barrier that opposes the flow of electrons from n-side and
holes from p-side.

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(b) Potential Barrier - It is a barrier that impedes the regular flow of charge across the junction, creating resistance to
the flow of charge. This barrier prevents current from flowing through the junction until an external voltage is applied
to overcome it. Potential barrier for Ge is 0.3 V and for Si is 0.7 V.
(c) Forward Biasing - It is the condition when an external voltage across the semiconductor diode is applied in such a
way that the p-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-side is connected to the negative
terminal. In this, the width of the depletion layer decreases.
(d) Reverse Biasing - It is the condition when an external voltage across the semiconductor diode is applied in such a
way that the n-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the p-side is connected to the negative
terminal. In this, the width of the depletion layer increases.

Semiconductor Diode
A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for the application of an
external voltage. It is a two terminal device.
Symbol:
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If the arrowhead of the diode symbol is positive with respect to the bar of the symbol, the diode is forward biased.
If the arrowhead of the diode symbol is negative with respect to the bar, the diode is reverse biased.
Application of a Junction Diode as a Rectifier
A diode acts as a rectifier, converting alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). When forward-biased, it allows
low-resistance current flow in one direction, but in reverse bias, it presents a high resistance, effectively blocking the
reverse current flow. This property makes it a fundamental component in AC to DC conversion circuits.

List of semiconductor materials : There are many different types of semiconductor materials that can be used
within electronic devices. Each has its own advantages, disadvantages and areas where it can be used to offer
theoptimum performance.

MATERIAL CHEMICAL Details Symbol / Formula

Germanium Ge It was used in many early devices from radar detection diodes to the first transistors.
Silicon S It is the most widely used type of semic-ondductor material. Its major advantage is that
it is easy to fabricate and provides good general electrical and mechanical properties.
Another advantage is that when it is used for integrated circuits, it forms high-quality
silicon oxide that is used for insulation layers between different active elements of the
IC.
Galliumarseni GaAs It is the second most widely used type of a semiconductor. It is widely used in high
de performance RF devices where its high electron mobility is utilised. It is also used as
substrate for other III-V semiconductors, e.g. InGaAs and GaIn As. However it is a
brittle material and has a lower hole mobility than silicon.

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Silicon carbide SiC It finds uses in power devices where its losses are quite low and operating temperatures
are higher than those of silicon-based devices. Silicon carbide has a breakdown
capability which is about ten times that of silicon itself.
Gallium nitride GaN It is starting to be morewidely used in microwave transistors where high tempe-ratures
and powers are needed. It is also being used in some microwave ICs. It has been used
in some blue LEDs.
Gallium GaP It has found many uses within LED technology from low to medium brightness LEDs
phosphide producing a variety of colours depend on the addition of other dopants.Pure Gallium
phosphide produces a green light, when nitrogen-doped, it emits yellow-green and
when ZnOdoped, it emits red.
Cadmium CdS It is used in photoresistorsand solar cells.
sulphide
Lead sulphide PbS It is used as the mineral galena in the very early radio detectors known as ‘Cat’s
Whiskers’ where a point contact was made with the tin wire onto the galena to provide
the rectification of the signals.
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Types of Diode
Zener Diode
It is a type of semiconductor device that is designed to operate in the reverse-biased mode. It is a highly doped pn
junction diode and has very narrow depletion layer.
Symbol:

Application:
(a) It is mostly used for voltage regulation.
(b) It protects devices from overvoltage.
(c) It is used in clipping circuits.
(d) It is used to shift voltage.
V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode
The diagram given below shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.

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The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode can be divided into two parts as follows:
(i) Forward Characteristics
(ii) Reverse Characteristics
Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode
The first quadrant in the graph represents the forward characteristics of a Zener diode. From the graph, we understand
that it is almost identical to the forward characteristics of P-N junction diode.
Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode
When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage, a small reverse saturation current Io flows across the diode. This
current is due to thermally generated minority carriers. As the reverse voltage increases, at a certain value of reverse
voltage, the reverse current increases drastically and sharply. This is an indication that the breakdown has occurred. We
call this voltage breakdown voltage or Zener voltage, and Vz denotes it.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
It is a semiconductor device, which can emit light when an electric current passes through it. LEDs are used in electronic
gadgets as indicator light. It is also used as a rectifier which converts an alternating current (AC) into direct current
(DC).
Symbol:
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Applications - Camera flashes, digital watches, optical communication, traffic signals, burglar alarms systems etc.
Photo Diode
It is a pn junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an electric current. It is used in reverse biasing.
Symbol:

Applications - Barcode scanners, Smoke detectors, Pulse oximeters etc.

Solar Cell
It is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar radiation falls on the p-n junction means it converts light
energy into electrical energy. It is also known as photovoltaic cells.
Symbol:

Transistor
It is a semiconductor device that can amplify or switch electronic signals by controlling the flow of charge carriers
(electrons or holes) between its three layers: the emitter, base, and collector.
Types of transistors : There are two types of transistors.
1. Bipolar transistor : It has terminals labelled base, collector and emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is,
flowing between the base and the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter
terminals.

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2. Field-effect transistor : It has the terminals labelled as gate, source and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a
current between source and drain.
* In transistors, the collector region is physically larger than emitter region. For its biasing, the emitter base junction is
alwasy forward biased while the collecter based junction is always reverse biased.
* Transistor and circuit : A transistor can be connected in a circut in the following three configurations; Common Base
(CB), Common Emitter (CE) and Common Collector (CC).
Types of Transistor
There are two types of transistor :-
(a) n-p-n Transistor: It consists of two regions of n-type semiconductor (emitter and collector) separated by a segment
of p-type semiconductor (base).
Symbol:

(b) p-n-p Transistor: It consists of two sections of p-type semiconductor (referred to as emitter and collector), with a
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section of n-type semiconductor (referred to as base) separating them.

Symbol:

Uses of Transistor
Transistor is used as:
(a) An amplifier. (b) An oscillator. (c) A switch.

* Knee voltage : It is defined as the forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly.
* Diode, forward or reverse biased : In p–n Junction diode when p-side is connected to +ve terminal and n-side to –ve
terminal of battery. The diode is called towards biased. When p-side is connected to –ve terminal and n-side to +ve
terminal of the battery, the diode is said to be reverse biased. A battery acts as a reverse bias to majority charge carriers
but fowards biased for minority carriers.
* Triode : It is a three terminal device whose state is dependent not only on its external power circuit, but also the signal
on its driving terminal or gate. Triodes transfer the electrical resistance. These can be used as amplifiers, switches or in
oscillators. They can be used individually in discrete components, or in large numbers as part of an integrated circuit
(IC).
* Four-terminal device : It converts a signal from one form of energy to another form of energy. These devices have a
source, gate, drain and body terminal, and are used for amplifying and switching electronics signals and power, much
like three-terminal devices. For example, these fourterminal devices can be used in a light switch circuit, converting
high power to low power for use in domestic lighting.
* Multi-terminal devices: These devices have a number of terminals that can perform a number of operations. The most
common of these are integrated circuits, which areused in virtually all electronic equipments today. Because the

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terminals are printed on the semiconductor material, usually silicon, all at the same time, rather than connected one by
one, these devices are affordable and relatively quick to produce. The construction of these devices also allows for
quicker functions.
Inverter v/s Converter :
Converter Inverter
Meaning Electrical devices used for converting the Electrical devices used for converting the voltage
voltage from alternating current (AC) to from direct current (DC) to alternating current
direct current (DC). (AC).
Types Analog-to-digital converter (ADC), Digital- Square wave inverter Quasi wave or Modified
to-analog converter (DAC), Digital-todigital square wave inverter True/Pure Sine wave
converter (DDC) inverters
Applicatons Convert, AC to DC; detectssignals; supplies Convert DC electricity from solar panels, batteries,
polarizedvoltage for welding fuel cells to AC for electric grids.
Disadvantages Poor current overload capacity; better Not ideal for inductive AC and motor loads;
quality; automatic regulators are more sensitive electronic devices can be damaged by
expensive than mechanical regulators. poor waveforms by low batteries
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Transistor as a switch
* Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as electronic switches which can be either in an “on” or “off” state
In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and
collector currents rise exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of reduced resistance from the collector to the
emitter. If the voltage difference between the collector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current would
be limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage. This is called saturation because current is
flowing from the collector to the emitter freely. When tranistor is saturated, the switch is said to be on and when not , it
is considered switched off.

Transistor as an amplifier
* The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage (Vin) may change the small current
through the base of the transistor; the current amplification of the transistor combined with the properties of the circuit
means that small swings in Vin produce large changes in Vout.

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From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio
transmission and signal processing. Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and
relatively inexpensive.

Integrated Circuit (IC)

It is a miniature electronic device that combines multiple electronic components, such as transistors, resistors, and
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capacitors, onto a single semiconductor chip. Applications - in microprocessors, computers, mobiles, etc.
Depending on nature of input signals, IC's can be grouped in two categories:
(a) Linear or Analogue IC: The linear IC's process analogue signals which change smoothly and continuously over a
range of values between a maximum and a minimum. The output is more or less directly proportional to the input, i.e.,
it varies. linearly with the input. One of the most useful linear IC's is the operational amplifier.
(b) Digital IC's: These circuits are designed to operate with discrete, well-defined output voltage levels, making use of
logic gates to process binary signals (Os and 1s). Logic gates are used for digital circuits.
Logic Gates
A logic gate is a circuit that has one or more input signals but only one output signal.
Five common logic gates (NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR) are represented by symbols and function definitions within
truth tables, which clarify their behavior with various input combinations. These gates are implemented using
semiconductor devices and are fundamental components in digital circuit design.

Types of Gates
There are three basic logic gates that make up digital circuits.
OR Gate
An OR gate is a logic gate that has two or more inputs but only one output. The output Y is 1 when either input A or
input B or both are 1s, that is, if any of the input is high, the output is high.
Symbol:

The "+" sign in Boolean algebra refers to the logical OR function. The Boolean expression for OR function is A + B =Y.
Truth Table:
Input output

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A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

AND Gate
The AND gate is a logic gate that has two or more inputs but only one output. The output Y of the AND gate is 1 only
when input A and input B are both 1.
Symbol:

The Boolean expression for AND function is A.B= Y. Here represents multiplication.
Truth Table:
Input output
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A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

NOT Gate
This is the most basic gate, with one input and one output. It produces a '1' output if the input is '0' and vice-versa. That
is, it produces an inverted version of the input at its output. This is why it is also known as an inverter.
Symbol:

Note that the small bubble on the inverter symbol represents inversion. The Boolean expression for NOT function is Y
= 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Truth Table:
Input Output
A Y
0 1
1 0

Combination of Basic Logic Gates

NAND Gate
It is a combination of AND gate and NOT gate. It is a universal gate.
Symbol:

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The Boolean expression for NAND function is Y = 𝐴. 𝐵.

Truth Table:
Input output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

NOR Gate
It is a combination of OR gate and NOT gate. It is a universal gate.
Symbol:
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The Boolean expression for NOR function is Y = 𝐴 + 𝐵.

Truth Table:
Input output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

LASER
LASER is an acronym of 'Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation'. It is an optical device which
produces an intensive beam of highly coherent, monochromatic light. It can travel over great distances without
spreading.

Types of LASER
(a) Gas LASER - A laser in which an electric current is discharged through a gas to produce coherent light. The most
common of all gas lasers is the helium-neon (He-Ne) laser. Argon-ion laser emits light in the range of 351-529 nm.
Carbon dioxide laser (CO2) can emit hundreds of kilowatts and are often used in industry for cutting and welding.
(b) Chemical LASER- It is the combination of hydrogen or deuterium gas with the combination products of ethylene
in nitrogen trifluoride.
(c) Solid State LASER - These are made by doping a crystalline solid host with ions that provide the required energy
states.

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(d) Fibre-Hosted LASER - A laser in which the active gain medium is an optical fiber doped with rare-earth elements.
(e) Semiconductor LASER - A solid state device that consists of two outer semiconductor layers separated by a middle
layer and generates laser radiation when charge carries of opposite polarity.
Applications of LASER
Lasers are used in destroying kidney stones, cancer diagnosis and therapy, creating plasma, optical fiber communication,
underwater communication networks, electronic industries, computer printers etc.

MASER
It is an abbreviation of 'Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation'. A MASER is a
device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves (i.e. microwaves), through amplification by stimulated emission.
Applications of MASER
(a) It is used to detect the actual position of the artificial satellites, fighter planes, unwanted missiles, etc.
(b) In ocean water, masers are today utilised to communicate some important messages.
RADAR
It is an abbreviation of 'Radio Detection and Ranging'. It is an electromagnetic sensor used for detecting, locating,
tracking, and recognizing objects of various kinds at considerable distances.
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Applications of RADAR
(a) It is used to detect and measure the position and distance of the cloud.
(b) It is used in ship navigation.
(c) It is used to explore the evidence of any metal or oil reserve.
(d) It is used to detect the outer layer of the atmosphere.

Modulation
The original low frequency message signal can not be transmitted to long distances. Hence, the modulation of low
frequency signal is done. Modulation is the phenomenon of superimposing the low frequency message signal (called
the modulating signal) on a high frequency wave (called the carrier wave). The resulting wave is called the modulated
wave which is transmitted.
Types of Modulation
There are three types of modulation
(i) Amplitude Modulation (AM) In this type of modulation, the amplitude of high frequency carrier wave is varied in
accordance to instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal.
(ii) Frequency Modulation (FM) In this type of modulation, the frequency of high frequency carrier wave is varied in
accordance to instantaneous frequency of modulating signal.
(iii) Pulse Modulation (PM) In this type of modulation, the continuous waveforms are sampled at regular intervals.
Infomation is transmitted only at the sampling times.

Demodulation
It is the reverse process of modulation which is performed in a receiver to recover the original modulating signals.
Demodulator performs the following functions
(i) Selecting the desired signal and rejecting the unwanted signals.

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(ii) Amplifying and demodulating the desired signal.

(iii) Displaying the original modulating signal in a desired manner.
Modem
Modem is a short form of modulator and demodulator. It performs the functions of both. It is a device that can connect
one computer to another across ordinary telephone lines.
Fax
The fax or facsimile telegraphy is the electronic transmission and reproduction of a document at a distant place. The
documents to be transmitted are first scanned by a light source.
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CHEMISTRY
States of Matter
Matter
Anything that occupies space and has mass is called Matter. It consists of particles such as atoms and molecules and
exists in various states, including solid, liquid, and gas, with distinct properties and behaviours.
The matter has the ability to undergo physical changes (such as changes in shape or state) and chemical changes (such
as reactions and transformations). It also exhibits properties such as inertia (resistance to changes in motion) and can be
classified as a pure substance or mixture based on its composition.
Early Indian philosophers classified matter in the form of five basic elements–the ‘Pancha Tatva’ – air, earth, fire, sky
and water. According to them, everything, living or non-living was made up of these five basic elements

Characteristics of Matter
(i) Matter is made up of very small particles that are beyond our imagination.
(ii) The particles have space in between them, called the intermolecular space.
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(iii) They are continuously moving, i.e. they possess kinetic energy.
As the temperature rises, speed of the particles increases. Due to which the kinetic energy of the particles increases.
(iv) They attract each other. The force of attraction responsible for keeping them together is called intermolecular force.
(v) The strength of this force of attraction varies from one kind of matter to another.

Particles of Matter
Atom - It is the basic unit of matter, composed of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) and retaining
the chemical properties of an element. It is the fundamental building block of all substances.

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The word atom has been derived from Greek word atomos meaning indivisible. An atom is the smallest particle of an
element that may or may not exist independently and retain all its chemical properties, i.e. takes part in chemical
reactions. Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties
Molecule- It is a group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. It represents the smallest unit of a
compound that retains its chemical properties and can exist independently or as part of a larger structure.
A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together. It can be defined as the smallest particle
of an element or a compound that is capable of independent existence and shows all the properties of that substance.
However, it does not take part in a chemical reaction.

Types of Molecules
These are of two types
(i) Homomolecules or Molecules of the Element - These are the molecules of an element constituted by the same type
of atoms, e.g. O2, H2, N2 etc.
The number of atoms constituting a molecule is called its atomicity, e.g., atomicity of phosphorus (P4 ) is four and of
sulphur (S8) is eight.
(ii) Heteromolecules or Molecules of the Compounds - In these molecules, atoms of different elements join together
in definite proportions.
Examples of Heteromolecules
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Compound Combining Elements Ratio by Mass

Water (H2O) Hydrogen, oxygen 1:8
Ammonia (NH3) Nitrogen, hydrogen 14 : 3
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon, oxygen 3:8

States of Matter
It refers to the physical forms in which matter can exist, such as solid, liquid and gas. Each state has distinct
characteristics based on the arrangement and movement of particles, with solids having a fixed shape and volume,
liquids taking the shape of their container, and gases filling the entire space available.

Solid State
It is characterized by a fixed shape and volume, with tightly packed particles that vibrate in fixed positions. Solids have
strong intermolecular forces, resulting in high density and resistance to changes in shape and volume.
Examples - Ice, Wood, Metals, Rocks, etc.
In this state of matter, the substances have definite mass, volume and shape, e.g. wood, table, pen, book, etc. The
intermolecular space in between the constituent particles of solid state is small, but the intermolecular forces are strong.
Thus, the constituent particles such as atoms, molecules or ions can not move but can only oscillate about their mean
position. This is the reason why solids are incompressible and rigid, i.e. have definite shape and size. Because of the
presence of strong intermolecular forces, these are highly densed and generally have high melting point.

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Classification of Solids
Crystalline Solid - They have a highly ordered arrangement of particles in a repeating
three-dimensional pattern, giving them a well-defined geometric shape.
Examples : Table Salt (NaCl), Diamond (C), Quartz (SiO2), graphite, etc.
1. Ionic solids: - These are composed of oppositely charged ions because of strong attraction between opposite charges;
it takes a lot of energy to overcome ionic bonds. This means that ionic compounds have
very high melting points. While the crystals themselves are hard, brittle and
nonconductive, most ionic compounds can be dissolved in water, forming a solution of
free ions that will conduct electricity example: - NaCl (Sodium chloride), it is also called
table salt.

2. Molecular solids: These are composed of covalently bonded molecules attracted to each other by electrostatic forces
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(called vander walls forces).

This electrostatic force of attraction between the two poles is weaker than ionic or covalent bonding. So, Molecular
solids tend to be softer than ionic crystals and have lower melting point.

These non polar molecular solids will not dissolve in water, but will dissolve in a non-polar solvent, such as benzene
and octane. Polar molecular solids, such as sugar, dissolve easily in water.
Example: - ice, sugar, chlorine (Cl2),carbon dioxide, iodine, sulphur S8, HCl, Fullerene "buckyballs".
3. Network covalent solids: There are no individual molecules. The atoms are covalently bonded in a continuous
network, resulting in huge crystals. These solids are very hard, they do not dissolve in water and they do not conduct
electricity.
Example: - diamonds, amethysts (it is a violet variety of quartz)
4. Metallic solids: - These are made up of metallic bond, the valence electrons are not donated
or shared as they are in ionic and covalent bonding. Rather, the electron clouds of adjacent atoms
overlap so that electrons become delocalized.
Amorphous Solid - They lack a regular, long-range order in their atomic arrangement, resulting in
a more random structure.
Examples - Glass, rubber, and plastics, which have a non-crystalline or vitreous nature.

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Difference Between Amorphous and Crystalline Solid

S.no. Amorphous solid Crystalline solid
1 Does not have definite geometrical shape Has definite geometrical shape
2 Melt over a wide range of temperature They have sharp melting point
3 isotropic anisotropic
4 unsymmetrical symmetrical
5 Break at irregular cleavage planes Breaks at Smooth cleavage planes

Liquid State
It is characterized by a fluid with particles that are close together but not rigidly arranged. They have a fixed volume but
can change their shape to conform to the container they occupy. They exhibit surface tension and the
ability to flow.
In this state, the substances have no fixed shape but have a fixed volume. They take up the shape of
the container in which they are kept, e.g. water, oil, milk, etc. The upper surface of the liquids is
always planar whatever be the shape of the container. Liquids flow and change their shape, so they
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are not rigid and are called fluids (substance which can flow).
In liquids, intermolecular forces are no longer strong enough to hold the particles together, that’s why they are less
densely compressed. However, the forces are still sufficient so that particles cannot escape each other’s environment, so
they have sufficient mobility and fixed volume.
Examples - Water, Milk, Oil, Alcohol, etc.

Gaseous State
It is characterized by particles that are apart and move freely in all directions. They have no fixed
shape or volume, as they expand to fill the container they occupy. They have low density, are highly
compressible, and exhibit rapid diffusion and effusion.
They consist of particles of irregular shape. The arrangement of particles in amorphous solid is
disordered, e.g. glass, rubber and plastics. Amorphous solids are also called pseudo solids or
supercooled liquids.
Examples - Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon dioxide, Helium, etc.
In gaseous state, the intermolecular forces are very weak, so the intermolecular spaces between the molecules are very
large. This is the reason that gases are highly compressible as compared to solids and liquids. Gases also flow in the
container in which they are kept, so they are also called fluids.
Further, gases expand more as compared to liquids and solids when heated due to the weaker intermolecular forces as
compared to liquids and solids.
■ Gaseous Pressure In the gaseous state, the particles move about randomly at high speed. Due to this they hit each
other and also the walls of the container. That’s why gases exert pressure on the walls of the container.
Difference Between Solid, Liquid & gas
S Solid Liquid Gas
N
o.
1. The molecules, atoms or ions are The particles are loosely packed The particles are more loosely packed
very closely packed that is why than those in solid. than those in solid and liquid.
they are firm and tightly packed.

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2. They are firmly held together by They are loosely held by the force of They are loosely held by the force of
the force of cohesion. However, cohesion. Hence, they can vibrate, they can vibrate, they can vibrate,
vibration and rotational motion rotate, translate with minimum rotate, translate with no restriction.
about their fixed position is restriction and are no logner held in
possible. fixed position.
3. They have definite fixed mass. They haved efinite fixedmass. They havedefinite mass.
4. They have definite shape. They haveindefinite shape. They haveindefinite shape.
5. They have definite or fixed They have definite or fixed volume. They haveindefinite volume.
volume.

Other States of Matter

Now-a-days, there is a discussion on two more states of matter, but these states occur only in extreme conditions of
temperature and pressure. These are
Plasma - It is a state of matter in which gas is ionized, resulting in a collection of charged particles. It is
highly electrically conductive and exhibits unique properties such as the ability to generate magnetic
fields. Plasma is often called "the fourth state of matter".
It consists of super energetic and super excited particles. These particles are in the form of ionised gases.
The fluorescent tube (filled with helium or any other gas) and neon sign bulbs (filled with neon) consist
of plasma. The sun and the stars glow because of the presence of plasma in them. The plasma is created
in stars because of very high temperature.
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Examples-Stars, lightning, and fluorescent lights.

Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) - It is a state of matter that occurs at extremely low temperatures, where a large
number of bosons (particles with integer spin) occupy the lowest quantum state. It exhibits quantum
phenomena such as wave-like behaviour and superfluidity. Bose-Einstein Condensate is often called
"the fifth state of matter".
This state is named after the name of scientists Satyendra Nath Bose (India) and Albert Einstein. The
BEC is formed by cooling a gas of extremely low density, about one-hundred-thousandth the density
of normal air, to super low temperatures.
In 2001, Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman of USA received the Nobel Prize
in Physics for achieving ‘Bose-Einstein Condensate’.
Examples: Ultra-cold gases of atoms such as helium-4 and rubidium-87.

Diffusion - The process of intermixing of two different types of matter on their own is called diffusion.
The process of intermixing of particles of two different types of matter on their own is called diffusion, e.g. on adding
a drop of ink into water, it spreads evenly throughout the water. On heating, the speed of particles increases which results
in more intermolecular space or less intermolecular forces, thus diffusion becomes faster. That’s why the smell of hot
sizzling food reaches you several metres away. But to get the smell from cold food you have to go close.
Example - On adding a drop of ink into water, it spreads evenly throughout the water. On heating, the speed of particles
increases which results in more intermolecular space or less intermolecular forces, thus diffusion becomes faster.
Solids, liquids and gases can diffuse into liquids. The rate of diffusion of liquids is higher than that of solids. Because
in liquid state, particles move freely and have greater intermolecular space as compared to that in the solid state. Due to
high speed of particles and large space between them, gases show the property of diffusing very fast into other gases.

Effect of Change of Temperature on Matter

Expansion and Contraction - Most substances expand when heated and contract when cooled, leading to changes in
size and volume.
Change of State - Temperature changes can cause matter to transition between different states, such as solid to liquid
or liquid to gas.

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Chemical Reactions - Temperature influences the rate of chemical reactions. Reaction rates increase with increase in
temperature.
Physical Property Changes - Temperature can alter the physical properties of matter, including density, viscosity, and
electrical conductivity.
On heating the solid, kinetic energy of the particles increases. Due to which they start vibrating with greater speed (at
their fixed position). The energy supplied by the heat overcomes the forces of attraction between the particles. Due to
reduction in force of attraction, the particles leave their fixed position and start moving freely. Due to this, a stage is
reached when solid melts and starts to convert into liquid.

Effect of Change of Pressure on Matter

Compression and Expansion - Changing the pressure of a gas can compress or expand it, resulting in changes in
volume and density.
Change of State - Altering the pressure can induce changes in the state of matter, such as the condensation or
vaporization of liquids or the sublimation of solids.
Solubility - Pressure impacts the solubility of gases in liquids. Higher pressures generally increase the solubility of
gases.
Structural Changes - Pressure can cause structural modifications in materials, such as the deformation or compaction
of solids under high-pressure conditions.
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By increasing pressure and reducing temperature, we can change a gas into liquid and a liquid into solid and reverse is
achieved by decreasing pressure and increasing temperature.
■ Due to latent heat of vaporisation, particles in steam, i.e. water vapour at 373 K (100°C) have more energy than that
of water at the same temperature. That’s why steam causes severe burns than that of water at 100° C.
■ At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is low, therefore, the vapour pressure of a liquid becomes equal to atmospheric
pressure at low temperature, i.e. water boils at a temperature less than 100°C and hence, food requires more time to
cook.
■ Inside the pressure cooker, pressure is high and hence, water boils at a temperature higher than 100°C. Thus, less time
is required to cook the food.
■ In the presence of impurity, boiling point increases and freezing point decreases.
■ Solid carbon dioxide is stored under high pressure. It gets converted directly to gaseous state on decreasing pressure
to 1 atm without coming into liquid state. That’s why it is also called ‘dry ice’ or ‘dry kold’.

Interconversion of States of Matter

Sublimation - It is the process in which a substance transitions directly from a solid to a gas without passing through
the liquid state.
Example - Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) sublimating into gas upon exposure to room temperature.

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Deposition - It is the process in which a gas directly converts into a solid without going through the liquid phase. An
example is frost forming on a cold surface as water vapour in the air changes into solid ice crystals.
Fusion - It is the process of melting, where a solid substance is heated and transitions into a liquid state. It occurs at the
substance's melting point, such as ice melting into the water when heated.
Solidification - It is the process by which a liquid transforms into a solid state. It occurs when a substance is cooled
below its freezing point, such as water freezing into ice.
Vaporization - It is the conversion of a liquid into a gas phase, either through evaporation (at the liquid's surface) or
boiling (throughout the liquid). An example is water turning into water vapour when heated.
Condensation - It is the transition of a gas into a liquid state, resulting from cooling or increased pressure. It involves
the formation of liquid droplets from vapour, such as water vapor condenses into water droplets on a cold surface.
Boiling Point - It is the temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas phase throughout its volume. It represents the
specific temperature at which the liquid's vapour pressure equals atmospheric pressure, resulting in rapid vaporization.
Melting Point -The temperature at which a solid substance changes into a liquid phase. It represents the specific
temperature at which the solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium.
Latent Heat - It is the amount of heat absorbed or released by a substance undergoing a change of state such as ice
changing to water or water to steam at constant temperature.
Latent heat of fusion is defined as the amount of heat energy that is required to change 1 kg of a solid into liquid at
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atmospheric pressure at its melting point.

is defined as the amount of heat energy that is required to change 1 kg of a solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure at
its melting point. Particles in water at 0°C have more energy as compared to particles in ice at the same temperature,
because of the presence of latent heat of fusion.
Latent heat of vapourization - is defined as the heat energy required to change 1 kg of a liquid to gas at the atmospheric
pressure at its boiling point. Temperature remains constant during boiling due to latent heat of vapourisation.
Latent heat of vapourization - is the heat energy required to change 1 kg of a liquid to gas at the atmospheric pressure
at its boiling point. Temperature remains constant during boiling due to latent heat of vaporisation.

Chemical Classification of Matter

It is a systematic way of categorizing different substances based on their chemical composition and properties. It helps
in understanding the fundamental building blocks of matter and how they interact. This classification is important for
studying chemical reactions, identifying substances, and predicting their behavior.

It can be classified into pure substance and mixture.

Pure Substances
It is a type of matter that has a fixed chemical composition and distinct physical properties. It consists of only one type
of atom or molecule.
There are two types of pure substances: (1) Elements and (2) compounds.

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Elements - They are pure substances composed of atoms of the same type, distinguished by their atomic number. It
cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means. Each element has its unique set of physical
and chemical properties, such as melting point, boiling point, reactivity, and atomic structure.
Examples - Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (0), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N), Sodium (Na), Iron (Fe).
Robert Boyle was the first scientist to use the term element in 1661. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-94), a French
chemist defined an element as a basic form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by any physical
chemical process. Infact, an element is that fundamental matter which is composed of only one kind of atoms. Elements
can be solids like Aluminium (Al), Iron (Fe), Gold (Au), Silver (Ag) etc., liquids like Mercury (Hg), Bromine (Br), etc.,
and gases like Argon (Ar), Helium (He), Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H), etc.
Presently, there are 118 elements out of which 94 are naturally occurring and rest are artificially made.
Types of elements
There are 118 known elements which have further been
classified into three types based on their chemical and
physical properties. These are:

Metals Non-metals Metalloids

These are about 80% of known These elements mostly found in gaseous
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elements characterized by their state are characterized by their These are eight elements which share
properties of own bright lustre, properties of poor conductivity of heat the properties of both metals and non-
ductility, malle- ability, and electricity, low melting and boiling metals. These are boron, silicon,
corrosibility, good heat and points. Chemically most of them react germanium, polonium, arsenic,
electrical conductivity, high with oxygen to form acidic oxides and antimony, tellurium and astatine.
do not normally react with acids.
melting and boiling points.
Chemically, most of them react
with oxygen to form basic oxides
and react with dilute acids to form
respective salts producing
hydrogen gas. Bromine is the only
liquid non-metal; iodine is solid
with metallic lustre. Other solid
non- metals include carbon,
silicon, sulphur, etc.

Symbols for Some Elements

Element Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol
Aluminium Al Copper Cu Nitrogen N
Argon Ar Fluorine F Oxygen O
Barium Ba Gold Au Potassium K
Boron B Hydrogen H Silicon Si
Bromine Br Iodine I Silver Ag
Calcium Ca Iron Fe Sodium Na
Carbon C Lead Pb Sulphur S
Chlorine Cl Magnesium Mg Uranium U
Cobalt Co Neon Ne Zinc Zn
Symbols have been taken from the names of elements in Latin, German or Greek. The first letter of a symbol is always
written as a capital letter and the second letter as a small letter.
Elements can be normally divided into metals, non-metals and metalloids. We will describe their properties later.
Compounds - It is a substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more different elements in a fixed ratio.
They have properties. different from their constituent elements.

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They have a specific chemical formula that represents the types and numbers of atoms present. Examples Water (H2O),
carbon dioxide (CO2), sodium chloride (NaCl), glucose (CH12O6).
A compound can be broken down into its elements by chemical or electrochemical reactions, but not by any physical
process. It is considered as a homogeneous mixture. The physical and chemical properties of the compound are different
than those of its constituent elements. Compounds can be broadly categorised to organic (those with C as main
constituent) and inorganic (those in which C is not the main constituent).

Concentration and units of related quantities

Concentration unit S.I. unit
Mass concentration kg/m3 (equal to g/L).
Molar concentration mol/m3. However, more commonly the unit mol/L (= mol/dm3) is used.
Volume concentration Dimensionless; it is expressed as a number, e.g., 0.18 or 18%; its unit is 1.
Normality Mol m–3
Molarity Mol L-1
Molality Mol kg-1
Mole fraction Sum of all mole fractions is equal to unity.

Mixture
It is a combination of two or more substances that are physically mixed together but not chemically bonded.
Examples - Cement (sand, water, gravel), Smoke and fog (smog), sand and water, seawater (salt and water).
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Most of the matter present around us exist in the form of mixtures of two or more pure components. Thus, mixtures are
impure substances and do not have constituents in fixed proportion, e.g. air (a mixture of various gases like O2, N2, CO2
etc.), sea water, minerals, soil, etc., are all mixtures.
The mixtures can be separated into their constituents by simple physical or mechanical processes

Types of Mixtures :-
Homogeneous Mixture - It is the type of mixture in which the components mixed are uniformly distributed throughout
the mixture.
Examples - Sugar solution, air.
These mixtures have a uniform composition throughout.
Examples of such mixtures are salt in water, sugar in water, methanol and water, vinegar, toothpaste, soap (toilet), soft
drinks, etc.
These are also known as true solutions. In these solutions, diameter of solute particles is less than 1 nm
Heterogeneous Mixture - It contains two or more constituent parts that mix but remain physically separate.
Examples - Mixtures of salt and sugar, grains and pulses along with some dirt, etc.
These mixtures contain physically distinct parts and have non-uniform compositions. Mixtures of
sodium chloride and iron fillings; dust particles in air; salt and sulphur; oil and water; colloids (milk);
and suspensions are the examples of heterogeneous mixtures. Dust
Colloids - These are intermediate mixtures between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures, where particles are
dispersed but not dissolved.
Examples - Milk, blood, toothpaste, jelly, fog, cloud.
Suspension - A heterogeneous mixture in which solid particles are suspended in a liquid or gas but will settle over time.
Example - Muddy water, where soil particles are suspended in water.
Characteristic Solution Colloid Suspension
Nature Homogeneous Visually homogeneous Heterogeneous

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Particle size < 1nm 1nm -1mm > 1mm

Stability Physically stable Physically stable Needs stabilizing agent
Tyndall effect No Yes Yes
Separation by centrifugation No Yes Yes

Separation of the Components of a Mixture

Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their respective constituents by simple physical methods like hand
picking, sieving, filtration that we use in our day-to-day life. Sometimes special techniques have to be used for the
separation of the components of a homogeneous mixture.
Filtration - The process of separating solid particles from a liquid or gas using a filter.
Example - Separation of sand from water using filter paper.
Application of filtration in daily life - Water Purification, air filtration, coffee brewing, oil and
fuel filtration.
Distillation - The process of separating a liquid mixture based on differences in boiling points.
It is based on the difference in the boiling points of the liquids in the given mixture. On boiling, liquid having lower
boiling point vaporises first and collected separately. Chloroform and aniline; acetone and water are separated by this
process. The two opposite process, i.e. vaporisation and condensation are involved in this process. Because first the
liquid vaporises and then the vapours are cooled down to condense again into liquid form.
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Example - Separation of alcohol from a water-alcohol mixture.

Application of distillation in daily life - petroleum refining, desalination of water, etc.
Fractional Distillation: To separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids for which
the difference in boiling points is less than 25 K, i.e. for the liquids which have nearly same
boiling point, fractional distillation is used, e.g. separation of different gases from air,
different fractions from petroleum products etc. The apparatus is similar to that of simple
distillation except that a fractionating column is fitted in between distillation flask and
condensor.
It is used to separate a mixture of methanol and acetone; components of composite oil like petrol, diesel, etc and
components of aqueous air.
Distillation Under Reduced Pressure ; It can be used for those liquids which have very high boiling points and those,
which decompose at or below their boiling points. Glycerol decomposes much before its boiling point, so it is separated
from spent-lye in soap industry or purified by distillation under reduced pressure.
Steam Distillation: This technique is applied to separate substances which are steam volatile and are immiscible with
water. In this process, steam is passed through the mixture. The pure organic compound (which is steam volatile) comes
out with steam and condensed and collected separately.
Separating funnel is used to separate these organic compounds from water. It is used to separate the mixture of ortho
and para nitrophenols (non-volatile). Aniline, sandal wood oil, terpentine oil, eucalyptus oil etc., are extracted or purified
by this process.
Decantation - The process of pouring off a liquid from a mixture, leaving behind the
settled solid or sediment.
Example: separation of oil from water by allowing them to settle and then pouring off
the oil layer.
Chromatography - The process of separating components of a mixture based on their differential affinity to a mobile
phase and a stationary phase. Example - Separation of different pigments in ink using paper chromatography.
This name is based on Greek word ‘Kroma’ meaning colour. It is the modern technique for separation and purification
of organic compounds and is applicable for those mixtures, components of which have different adsorption capacities.

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This method was invented by Tswett. It is used for those solutes that dissolve in the same
solvent. It is used to separate colours in dye; pigments fromnatural colours, drugs from
the blood and coloured components of black ink.
Application of chromatography in daily life food testing, beverage testing, drug testing,
forensic testing.
Centrifugation - The process of separating solid particles from a liquid mixture by applying centrifugal force, causing
the denser particles to settle at the bottom.
Example - Separation of red blood cells from plasma in a blood sample.
It is a process that involves use of centrifugal force for sedimentation of heterogeneous mixture. The principle is that
the denser particles are forced to the bottom and the lighter particles stay at the top when spun rapidly.
It is also used
■ in diagnostic laboratories for blood and urine tests, impurities particles are separated by the process of centrifugation,
■ in diaries and home to separate butter from cream,
■ in washing machines to squeeze out water from wet clothes.
Application of Centrifugation in daily life - Drying wet clothes in the spin tub of a washing machine, extraction of
DNA for forensic and experimental purposes, separation of blood components in medical science, working of roller
coasters in an amusement park.
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Magnetic Separation - The process of separating magnetic substances from a mixture using
magnets or magnetic fields.
Example - Separation of iron filings from a mixture of iron and sulfur.
Sublimation - By the process of sublimation, the mixture of those two solids is separated in
which one solid is sublimate. In this process, the mixture is heated due to which the sublimate
substance is vaporised and the vapours are collected and cooled down to get the pure solid.
Sublimates like naphthalene, anthracene, camphor, benzoic acid, NH Cl 4 , HgCl2, dryice,
salicylic acid, iodine etc., can be separated (from non-sublimates) or purified by this
technique.
Crystallization - The process of separating a solid dissolved in a liquid by cooling or evaporation, causing the solid to
form crystals.
This method is used to purify solids. It is a process that separates a pure solid in the form of its crystals from a solution.
In it, the substance to be purified is dissolved in a suitable solvent and the solution is concentrated (by heating) upto the
saturation point. Now, the solution is cooled slowly. Crystals of pure solid separate out, impurities remain in the solution,
called the mother liqour. The crystals are filtered, dried and separated.
This technique is used in the purification of salt that we get from sea water and in separation of crystals of alum from
impure samples.
Example - Separation of sugar from a sugar-water solution by heating and allowing the sugar to crystallize.
Evaporation - It is the process by which a liquid changes into a gas state at the surface, below its boiling point.
We can separate the volatile components (solvent) from its non-volatile components (solute) by the method of
evaporation, e.g. recovery of salt from sea water. The rate of evaporation increases with rise in temperature, surface
area, wind speed and decrease in humidity.
By the Use of Separating Funnel : We can separate a mixture of two immiscible liquids by the use of separating funnel.
The principle is that immiscible liquids separate out in layers depending upon their densities.
It is used
■ to separate mixture of oil and water.

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■ in the extraction of iron, the lighter slag is removed from the top by this method to leave the molten iron at the bottom
in the furnace.
Factors affecting evaporation include temperature, surface area, humidity, and airflow.

Application of Evaporation in daily life

Drying Clothes - Wet clothes are hung outside or placed in a dryer, and evaporation helps in removing moisture and
drying them efficiently.
Cooling Effect- Sweating is a natural cooling mechanism of the body. As sweat evaporates from the skin's surface, it
takes away heat, providing a cooling effect.
Air Conditioning - Air conditioners work by evaporating refrigerant chemicals, which absorb heat from the surrounding
air, leading to cooling.
Salt Production - The process of obtaining salt from seawater or brine involves evaporating the water, and leaving
behind salt crystals.

Physical and Chemical Change

Physical change - It refers to a transformation in the physical properties of a substance without any change in its chemical
composition. It can involve changes in state, shape, size, or phase, but the chemical identity of the substance remains
the same.
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Examples - Melting ice cubes into water, freezing water into ice, boiling water into steam.
Characteristics of Physical Change - There is no change in the chemical composition or identity of the substance. It
is reversible in most cases. It involves changes in physical properties like state, shape, size, or phase.
Chemical Change - It involves the formation of new substances with different chemical compositions and properties.
It occurs when the bonds between atoms are broken and rearranged, resulting in the formation of new chemical
compounds.
Examples - Burning wood and producing ash, Digesting food in the body, Rusting of iron, etc.
Characteristics of Chemical Change :-
They form new substances with different chemical properties. It is irreversible in most cases. It involves breaking and
forming chemical bonds.

Atomic and Molecular Masses

Atomic Mass - It refers to the average mass of atoms in a given element, expressed in atomic mass units (u). It is
determined by the sum of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus.
For example, the atomic mass of Carbon is approximately 12.01 u, while the atomic mass of Oxygen is around 16.00 u.
Atomic mass of an element is the relative mass as compared with an atom of carbon-12 and is expressed in amu (atomic
mass unit). Atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as a mass exactly equal to one twelth the mass of one carbon-12 atom.
According to the latest
IUPAC recommendations, amu is written as ‘u’ (unified mass).
1 amu = 1.66056 10- 24 g
Average Atomic Mass
Many naturally occurring elements exist as more than one isotope. Usually, the atomic mass used for an element is the
average atomic mass obtained by taking into account the natural abundance of different isotopes of that element.
Molecular mass - It refers to the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule. It is calculated by adding up
the atomic masses of the constituent atoms.
For example, the molecular mass of water (H2O) is approximately 18.02 atomic mass units, while the molecular mass
of carbon dioxide (CO2) is around 44.01 atomic mass units.

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Example - The molecular mass of water (H2O) = 2 x atomic mass of hydrogen + 1 x atomic mass of oxygen = 2 (1.008
u) + 16.00 u = 18.02 u.
Average atomic mass - It is the weighted average mass of all the naturally occurring isotopes of an element. The average
atomic mass is expressed in atomic mass units (amu).
Formula mass - It refers to the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a chemical formula. It is calculated by
multiplying the atomic mass of each element by the number of atoms present in the formula and adding them together.
It is used to determine the mass of a compound or molecule and is expressed in atomic mass units (amu).
Formula unit mass of NaCl can be calculated as:
NaCl = 1 x 23 + 1 x 35.5 = 58.5 u
Equivalent mass or Equivalent weight - The equivalent mass of a substance is obtained by dividing its molecular mass
(or formula unit mass) by its valency.
Equivalent mass/weight = Molecular mass / Valency

Physical and Chemical Changes

In a physical change, a substance undergoes a change in its physical properties such as shape, size, colour and state. It
is generally reversible, i.e. the original substance is further obtained by reversing the reaction conditions. In such a
change no new substance is formed. Conversion of matter from one state to another like evaporation of water, melting
of ice, freezing of water, boiling of water, formation of clouds, stretching of spring, etc., are the examples of physical
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change.
A change in which one or more new substances are formed, i.e. the internal molecular composition of original substance
is deformed, is called a chemical change. Burning of magnesium ribbon, coal, wood or leaves is a chemical change. A
chemical change is also called a chemical reaction. Ripening of fruits, process of photosynthesis occurring in plants
(CO2 and H2O converted to glucose), light of sun, rusting of iron, curdling of milk, etc., are some other examples of
chemical change.
During burning of a candle, both physical and chemical changes take place.
■ Firefly have a specific organ for emitting light. This process of generation of light is called bioluminescence

Laws of Chemical Combinations

The combination of elements to form compounds is governed by the following five basic laws.
Law of Conservation of Mass - This law was put forth by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789. It states that in a chemical
reaction, the total mass of the reactants is equal to the total mass of the products. Mass is neither created nor destroyed
during a chemical reaction, but is only rearranged.
In a chemical reaction, Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products
Law of Definite Proportions - This law was given by a French chemist, Joseph Proust. It is also known as the Law of
Constant Composition, which states that a compound always contains the same elements in the same fixed ratio by mass.
Regardless of the source or method of preparation, a compound's composition remains constant.
e.g. CO2 always contains carbon and oxygen elements combined in the ratio of 3 : 8 by weight irrespective of the source.
That’s why it is also called law of constant proportions.
Law of Multiple Proportions - This law was proposed by Dalton in 1803. It states that if two elements can combine to
form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element, are in
the ratio of small whole numbers.
e.g. hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two compounds, namely, water and hydrogen peroxide.
Hydrogen + Oxygen  Water
2g 16 g 18 g
Hydrogen + Oxygen  Hydrogen peroxide

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2g 32 g 34 g
Here, the masses of oxygen (16 g and 32 g) which combine with a fixed mass of hydrogen (2 g) bear a simple ratio, i.e.
16 : 32 or 1 : 2.
Gay Lussac's Law of Gaseous Volumes - This law was given by Gay Lussac in 1808. It states that when gases combine
or are produced in a chemical reaction they do so in a simple ratio by volume, provided all gases are at the same
temperature and pressure.
Hydrogen + Oxygen  Water
100 mL 50 mL 100 mL
Thus, the volumes of hydrogen and oxygen (100 mL and 50 mL) which combine together bear a simple ratio of 2 : 1.
Avogadro's Law - In 1811, the Italian chemist Amedeo Avogadro proposed that “equal volumes of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain the same numberof molecules regardless of their chemical nature and physical
properties”. This number called Avogadro’s number is 6.022 × 1023. It is the number of molecules of any gas present in
a volume of 22.41 L and is the same for the lightest gas (hydrogen) as for a heavy gas such as carbon dioxide or bromine.
The law can be stated mathematically as V/n = k where V is the volume of the gas, n is the amount of the substance of
the gas and k is a proportionality constant.
 The most important consequence of Avogadro’s law is to realise that the ideal gas constant has the same value for all
gases. when p is the pressure and T is the temperature of the gas.

= constant
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It has the same value for all gases, independent of the size or mass of the gas molecules.

Berzelius hypothesis : Jacob Berzelius, a Swedish chemist is considered, along with Robert Boyle, John Dalton
and Antoine Lavoisier, to be one of the founders of modern chemistry. He studied and proposed that equal volumes of
all the gases comprise an equal number of atoms under the similar conditions of temperature and pressure. When
practised at the law of combining volumes, this hypothesis forecasts that the atoms are divisible and, hence, it is contrary
to the hypothesis made by Dalton.

Mole Concept
It is a fundamental concept in chemistry that relates the quantity of a substance to its mass. It is based on Avogadro's
number, which states that one mole of any substance contains 6.022 x 1023 particles.
A mole is a unit of measurement used to count atoms, molecules, ions, or other particles. It allows easy conversion
between the mass of a substance and the number of particles it contains.
The mole is the SI base unit for an amount of a chemical species. The word mole was introduced around 1896 by
Wilhelm Ostwald who derived it from Latin word ‘moles’ means ‘a heap’ or ‘a pile’. In 1967, this word was accepted
as a unit of chemical substances under SI system. It is represented by the symbol ‘mol’.
1 mole of any substance is defined as
■ the amount which weighs exactly same as its formula weight in gram.
■ the amount which has same number of entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of C-12 isotope, i.e. 6.022 x 1023
entities. The number 6.022 x 1023 is called Avogadro’s number and represented by N0 or NA. Thus,
1 g atom = 6.022 x 1023 atoms
1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 atoms
A mole is the chemist’s counting unit.
■ the mass of 1 mole of a substance is equal to its relative atomic or molecular mass in gram.
■ the amount which occupies 22.4 L at STP (if it is taken for a gas).
Number of moles = Amount of substance in gram / Molecular weight/Atomic weight in gram
= Number of particles at STP / Avogadro’ s number = Volume of gas at STP (in litre) / 22.4

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Structure of Atoms
The existence of atoms has been proposed since the time of early Indian and Greek philosophers (400 B.C.) who were
of the view that atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter. The word 'atom' has been derived from the Greek
word 'a-tomio' which means 'uncut-able' or 'non-divisible'.
Atom was considered as the smallest particle upto the 19th century. A series of experiments were performed to reveal
the structure of the atom as well as to explain its important properties. These experiments indicated the divisibility of
atom into sub-atomic particles and showed that atoms possess a definite internal configuration and composition.

Subatomic Particles
The experimental observations made by scientists towards the end of nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century
established that atoms can be further divided into subatomic particles, i.e., electrons, protons and neutrons.
The theory of Dalton did not hold long and it was proved through the experiments of research workers like JJ Thomson
(1897), Rutherford (1911), Neils Bohr (1912), Vector, Chadwick, Moseley etc., that atom is made up of smaller particles,
called the sub-atomic particles like electron, proton, neutron, positron, neutrino, meson etc. However, former three are
considered as the fundamental particles and later are appeared only for a short instance during the microparticles
exchange mechanism. Thus, these are not the fundamental particles.

Fundamental Particles
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Fundamental particles are the smallest building blocks of matter and are classified into Electrons, Protons and Neutrons.
Electron (e-)- A negative charge particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom. It was discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897
during his experiments with cathode rays.
Characteristics of Cathod rays and their particles are:
(i) These rays themselves are not visible but their behaviour can be observed with the help of fluorescent or
phosphorescent materials.
(Note that television picture tubes are cathode ray tubes).
(ii) In the presence of electrical or magnetic field, the behaviour of cathode rays
are similar to that expected from negatively charged particles, called electrons.
The mass of an electron is approximately 9.1 x 10-31 kilograms and the charge
is -1.6 x 10-19 coulomb.
Charge to Mass Ratio of Electron,

= 1.758820 x 1011 C kg-1,

where 'me' is the mass of the electron in kg and 'e' is the magnitude of the charge on the electron in coulomb (C).
: e/m ratio of electron was found to be independent of the nature of gas and electrode used. Therefore, electrons are
fundamental particles of all kinds of matter
Proton (p+) - E. Goldstein in 1886 discovered the presence of new radiations in a gas discharge and called them canal
rays.
These rays were positively charged radiations which ultimately led to the discovery of another sub-atomic particle. This
sub-atomic particle had a charge, equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to that of the electron. It was given the name
of proton by Rutherford in 1919.
It is a positively charged stable particle. The mass of a proton is approximately 1.67 x 10-27 kilograms and the charge is
+ 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb.
Neutron (n°) - The positive charge of a nucleus is due to the positively charged particles called protons. It was
discovered by James Chadwick in 1932 by bombarding a thin sheet of beryllium by α -particles. It carries no electric

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charge, that means it is neutral. The mass of proton and neutron are nearly equal. Mass of a free neutron is 1.674 x 10-
27
kg (i.e. nearly equal to that of proton).
Key Points ;
■ The mass of electron is considered to be negligible and its charge is -1.
■ The mass of proton is taken as one unit and its charge as +1.
■ Hydrogen or protium is the only atom that does not possess neutrons.
■ John Dalton is considered as the originator of modern atomic theory.
■ Atoms can only be observed using scanning tunneling microscope.
■ All atoms are reactive except atoms of noble gases.
■ Helium is the smallest atom and has radius of 32 x 10-12 m, while cesium (Cs) is the largest atom with a radius of 225
x 10-12 m.
■ The existence of atoms had been proposed by Indian and Greek Philosophers (400 BC).
Measured masses and charges of the three elementary particles
Particle Symbol Charge Mass
Electron e- - 1.6 × 10-19C 9.1 × 10-31kg
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Proton P+(H+) 1.6 ×10-19 C 1.672 × 10-27 kg

Neutron n0 0.00C 1.674 × 10-27 kg

Non-Fundamental Particles
The subatomic particles other than electrons, protons and neutrons are called non-fundamental particles.
Positron (e+) - It was discovered in 1932 by Carl D. Anderson. It is an elementary particle with the same mass as an
electron but carries a positive charge. Its symbol is e+.
Antiproton (p-) - It was discovered in 1955 by Emilio Segre and Owen Chamberlain. It is an elementary particle with
the same mass as a proton but carries a negative charge.
■ For every fundamental particle, there exists an identical fundamental particle just opposite in some property. It is
called antiparticle of that fundamental particle.
e.g. Electron and positron are identical in all respects, except that charges on them are opposite. So, positron is an
antiparticle of electron
Neutrino (v) and Antineutrino (v-) - Neutrinos were first proposed by Pauli in 1930 and experimentally confirmed in
1956. They are electrically neutral, low-mass particles that interact weakly with matter, making them difficult to detect.
Antineutrinos, the antimatter counterparts of neutrinos, were also discovered and possess similar properties. Both have
zero rest mass and charge.
π-mesons (pi-mesons) - It exists in three forms: with charge e (or 1), with charge 0, and with charge -e (or -1).
It was predicted theoretically in 1935 by the Japanese physicist Yukawa Hideki, the existence of mesons was confirmed
in 1947 by a team led by the English physicist Cecil Frank Powell.
Quarks and Bosons - Quarks are elementary particles and fundamental constituents of matter. They are the building
blocks of protons and neutrons. It possesses fractional electric charges and experiences a strong nuclear force.
Bosons are another class of elementary particles that mediate fundamental forces in nature.
Boson  Meson + Photon
They have zero or integer spin values and follow Bose-Einstein statistics, allowing multiple identical bosons to occupy
the same quantum state.

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Atomic Models
These models aim to explain the distribution of electrons, protons, and neutrons within an atom and their interactions.
(a) Dalton's Atomic Theory
(b) Thomson's Atomic Model
(c) Rutherford's Atomic Model
(d) Bohr's Model of Atom

Dalton's Atomic Theory

The atomic theory of matter was first proposed on a firm scientific basis by John Dalton, a British school teacher in
1808. According to Dalton's atomic theory, all matter, whether an element, a compound or a mixture is composed of
small particles called atoms.
Dalton's atomic theory was able to explain the law of conservation of mass, law of constant composition and law of
multiple proportions very successfully.
Postulates of Dalton's Atomic Theory
(a) All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
(b) Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed. Furthermore, atoms cannot be divided into smaller particles.
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(c) All atoms of a specific element are identical in mass, size, and other properties. However, atoms of different elements
exhibit different properties and vary in mass and size.
(d) Atoms of different elements can combine with each other in fixed ratios in order to form compounds.
(e) Atoms can be rearranged, combined, or separated in chemical reactions.
Limitations of Dalton's Atomic Theory
(a) It does not explain why atoms of different elements have different masses, sizes, valencies, etc.
(b) It failed to explain why atoms of the same or different elements combine to form a molecule.
(c) It does not explain the nature of binding force between the atoms of molecules responsible for the existence of matter
in solids, liquids and gases.
(d) It failed to explain the law of gaseous volumes.

Thomson's Atomic Model

The discovery of electrons was done by J.J. Thomson in 1897.
J.J. Thomson, in 1898, proposed that an atom possesses a spherical shape (radius approximately 10-10 m) in which the
positive charge is uniformly distributed. The electrons are embedded into it in such a manner as to give the most stable
electrostatic arrangement.
This model was also known as the 'plum pudding', 'raisin pudding' or 'watermelon
model'. The mass of the atom is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the atom.
Thomson was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1906, for his theoretical and
experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases.
Postulates of the Thomson Atomic Model
(a) Atoms are composed of positively charged matter with embedded negatively charged electrons.
(b) The positive and negative charges are evenly distributed throughout the atom.
Drawbacks of the Thomson Atomic Model

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(a) The model couldn't explain the observed scattering of alpha particles in the gold foil experiment, which led to the
discovery of the atomic nucleus.
(b) It didn't account for the existence of neutrons, which were later discovered to be another fundamental particle within
the atomic nucleus.
(c) It failed to explain how the positive charge holds on the electrons inside the atom.
(d) It failed to explain an atom's stability.
(e) The theory did not mention anything about the nucleus of an atom.
Rutherford's Atomic Model
It is also known as the Nuclear Model or the Planetary Model. Rutherford
(Father of nuclear physics) and his students (Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden)
in 1911 performed an a-particle scattering experiment in which they bombarded
very thin gold foil with a-particles. On the basis of this experiment, he proposed
the 'Nuclear Model of the Atom'.
Postulates of Rutherford's Atomic Model
(a) There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all the
mass of an atom resides in the nucleus.
(b) The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths.
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(c) The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
(d) Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
Drawbacks of Rutherford's Atomic Model
(a) It couldn't explain the stability of the atom or why the electrons do not fall into the nucleus due to electrostatic
attraction.
(b) It says nothing about the distribution of the electrons around the nucleus and the energies of these electrons.
Bohr's Model of Atom
Bohr introduced the concept of discrete energy levels and explained the stability of atoms. He got the Nobel Prize for
his work on the structure of the atom in 1922.
Two developments played a major role in the formulation of Bohr's model of atom.
(a) Dual character of the electromagnetic radiation which means that radiations possess both wave-like (Phenomena of
Diffraction and Interference) and particle -like (Photoelectric Effect) properties.
(b) Experimental results regarding atomic spectra can be explained only by assuming quantized electronic energy levels
in atoms.

Postulates of Bohr's Atomic Model

(a) The electrons move around the nucleus in definite circular orbits. These orbits are also called 'shells' or 'energy
levels'.

A Few Energy levels in an Atom

These orbits or shells are represented by the letters K, L, M, N, .... or the numbers, n = 1, 2, 3, ....

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(b) Each orbit is stationary and has a definite energy. These circular orbits or shells with definite energy are called 'orbital
shells'.
(c) Bohr labelled these orbits or energy levels by the quantum number 'n'. The first shell, closest to the nucleus, is
designated by the alphabet 'K'. The second shell is designated by 'L', the third by 'M', and the fourth by 'N' and so on.
The K, L, M, N shells can accommodate a maximum of 2, 8, 18, 32 electrons respectively. The lowest energy level is
called the 'ground state'.
The electrons can move in only those circular orbits where, the angular momentum (mvr) is a whole number multiple
of h/2π, i.e. it is quantised.

Mvr = ;n=123,,,K

(d) Electrons do not radiate energy while revolving in these shells of fixed energy. The energy is radiated or absorbed
only when the electrons transit from one energy level to another.

ΔE =E2 – E1=

Drawbacks of Bohr's Atomic Model

(a) It could not explain the fine details of atomic spectra beyond hydrogen.
(b) It did not provide a clear explanation for the exact shapes of atomic orbitals.
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(c) It was unable to explain the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of magnetic field (Zeeman effect) or an electric
field (Stark effect).
(d) It could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical bonds.

Characteristics of an Atom
An atom is characterised by its atomic number and mass number which are described below

Atomic Number (Z)

The atomic number is defined as the total number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom. The number of electrons
in a neutral atom is equal to the number of protons.
For example, the element hydrogen has an atomic number of 1, which means it has one proton in its nucleus. Similarly,
oxygen has an atomic number of 8, indicating it has eight protons.
Atomic number (Z) =Number of protons in the nucleus =Number of electrons in an atom
Moseley’s Law
Moseley showed that properties of elements show more dependency on their atomic numbers as compared to their
atomic mass. He compared elemental properties with atomic mass and atomic number separately through simple graphs
and concluded more precise and accurate result in favour of atomic number.

Mass Number (A)

The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called Mass Number. It represents the total
mass of an atom. Protons and neutrons are collectively called 'nucleons'.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
A = Number of protons + Number of neutrons.
Number of neutrons = A - Z
For example, Carbon has six protons and typically has six neutrons in its nucleus.
Therefore, the mass number of carbon is 12 (6 protons + 6 neutrons = 12).
An atom (X) can be represented as Z AX.

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■ Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons.

■ When number of electrons are greater than number of protons, the atom carries negative charge and is called the
anion. Similarly, if number of protons are greater than number of electrons, the atom carries positive charge and is called
the cation.
Element Symbol Atomic number(Z) Mass number(A) No. of neutrons
(no. of protons) (No.of protons + neutrons)
Nitrogen N 7 14 14 – 7 = 7
Potassium K 19 39 39 – 19 = 20
Cobalt Co 27 59 59 – 27 = 32
Lead Pb 82 207 207 – 82 = 125

Different Atomic Species

Atoms can exist in several forms which are shown below
Isotopes
The word isotopes comes from Greek words ‘isos’ (means ‘equal’) and ‘topos’ (means ‘place’), meaning equal or same
place. Isotopes of an element is defined as the atoms of an element having same number of protons or electrons (i.e.
atomic number) but differ in number of neutrons (mass number).
The atoms of the same element having the same number of electrons and protons but differ in the number of neutrons.
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They have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Examples: Hydrogen - Protium (1H1), Deuterium (1H2 or D) and Tritium (1H3 or T), Carbon - 6C12 and 6C14 Chlorine -
35
17CI and 17C137.
■ Hydrogen is the only element whose isotopes have unique names.
■ Polonium has the maximum number of isotopes.
They have similar chemical properties because they have the same number of protons and electrons, which determines
an element's chemical behavior. However, they may have different physical properties, such as density or stability due
to variations in their atomic mass. They occupy the same position in the periodic table.
Isobars –
It is derived from the Greek words ‘isos’ (means ‘equal’) and ‘baros’ (means ‘weight’) meaning equal or same weight.
Atoms of different elements having same mass number (A) but different atomic number (Z), are termed as isobars
Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, which have the same mass number, are known as isobars.
This means that they have the same number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) but different numbers of protons.
Examples: Argon (18Ar40), Potassium (19K40) and Calcium (20Ca40).
■ Artificial isobars are obtained by the emission of β-particles from radioactive elements

Isotones-
They are different elements that have the same number of neutrons but different mass number as well as atomic number.
Examples: Oxygen-16 (8 protons, 8 neutrons) and Nitrogen-15 (7 protons, 8 neutrons), Carbon-12 (6 protons, 6
neutrons) and Boron-11 (5 protons, 6 neutrons), etc.
Isoelectronic - The ions in which the number of electrons are the same are called isoelectronic. Examples Sodium ion
(Na) and Neon (Ne). Chlorine ion (CI) and Argon (Ar), etc.
Isodiaphers - The atoms of chemically different elements which have similar differences between their number of
protons and neutrons.
Example - Plutonium (94Pu239) and Uranium (92U235).

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Structural Features of an Atom

In the present perspective, the structural features of an atom are as follows:

Shell and Subshell

The orbitals or paths of different and definite energies in which the electrons revolve, are called shells. The energy of
innermost shell is lowest and of outermost shell is largest. Symbols K, L, M, N are used to represent various shells from
lower to upper energy. Each orbit or shell consists of one or more subshells depending upon the three dimensional
graphic plot of electronic wave function and the internal atomic compostion.
Each subshell is associated with one or more orbitals that are represented by the small letters s, p, d and f respectively.
Shell Subshell Orbital Total Number of
Electrons
K- Shell ( n=1) 1 (only s) 1 2
L-Shell ( n = 2) 2 (s & p ) 1+3=4 8
m- Shell ( n = 3) 3 (s, p & d) 1+3+5=9 18
N- Shell ( n = 4) 4 (s, p,d & f ) 1+3+5+7=16 32
O -Shell ( n = 5) 5 (s,p,d,f & g) 1+3+5+7+9=25 50
P- Shell ( n = 6) 6 (s,p,d,f,g & h ) 1+3+5+7+9+11=36 72
Q- Shell ( n =7 ) 7 (s,p,d,f, g, h & i) 1+3+5+7+9+11+13=49 98

Orbitals
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The three-dimensional space, present around the nucleus of an atom, where probability of finding an electron is
maximum, is called orbital. Each orbital is associated with a fixed number of electrons, e.g. the maximum number of
electrons present in s, p, d and f subshells are 2, 6, 10 and 14 respectively.
Shapes of Orbitals
The s-orbitals are spherical in shape and have symmetrical orientation. For all s-orbitals, there are (n - 1 ) number of
spherical nodes where probability of finding an electron is zero.

The p-orbitals are three in number and dumb-bell shaped with two lobes of same size on each side of nucleus. The two
lobes are separated by a plane in which the probability of finding an electron is zero.

The d-orbitals are five in number. Four of these have a double dumb-bell shape whereas fifth is dumb-bell in shape with
collar of high electron density.

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Electronic Configuration :
Distribution of Electrons in Different Orbits (Shells)
It is an arrangement of electrons in various shells, subshells and orbitals of an atom.

Bohr Bury Scheme

The distribution of electrons into different orbits of an atom was suggested by Bohr and Bury in 1921. According to
them, the electrons enter in the orbit in accordance with the following rules:
(i) Maximum number of electrons in a shell is given by the formula 2n2.
(n = 1 2 3 , , , K for K, L, M,….shells)
(ii) The outermost shell can have a maximum of 8 electrons.
(iii) The penultimate orbit can not have more than 8 electrons until there are 2 electrons in the outermost orbit.
(iv) To have more than 2 electrons in the outermost orbit, there must be 18 electrons in the penultimate orbit and 2
electrons in the outermost orbit.
(v) To have 18 electrons in an orbit, the inner orbital must be complete and the outermost and the penultimate orbit must
have 2 and 8 electrons respectively.
(vi) Electrons are filled in shells in stepwise manner, i.e. from inner to outer.
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Electrons Distribution in Various Shells for Some Elements

Distribution of Electrons
Name of Element Symbol Atomic Number Number of Electrons K L M N
Hydrogen H 1 1 1 - - -
Helium He 2 2 2 - - -
Beryllium Be 4 4 2 2 - -
Neon Ne 10 10 2 8 - -
Sodium Na 11 11 2 8 1 -
Argon Ar 18 18 2 8 8 -
Potassium K 19 19 2 8 8 1

Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom

Two important developments which contributed significantly in the formulation of such a model were:
(a) Dual behaviour of matter.
(b) Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
Dual Behaviour of Matter
The French physicist, de Broglie in 1924 proposed that matter, like radiation, should also exhibit dual behaviour i.e.,
both particle and wavelike properties.

He gave the following relation between wavelength (λ) and momentum (p) of a material particle : λ = = ,

where 'm' is the mass, 'v' is velocity and 'p' is momentum of the particle. The branch of science that takes into account
this dual behaviour of matter is called quantum mechanics.
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle
Werner Heisenberg, a German physicist in 1927, stated the uncertainty principle which is the consequence of dual
behaviour of matter and radiation. It states that "it is impossible to determine simultaneously, the exact position and
exact momentum (or velocity) of an electron".

Mathematically, ΔXx ΔPx ≥

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where 'Δx' is the uncertainty in position and 'Δpx,' is the uncertainty in momentum (or velocity) of the particle.
Significance of Uncertainty Principle: It rules out existence of definite paths or trajectories of electrons and other
similar particles.
The effect of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is significant only for motion of microscopic objects and is negligible
for that of macroscopic objects.
Schrodinger Wave Equation: For the wave motion of the electron in the three dimensional space around the nucleus,
he put forward an equation known as Schrödinger wave equation. It is written as: Ĥ ψ = E ψ,

where ′𝐻′ is Hamiltonian operator, "ψ" is wave function and ‘E’is energy.
Important Features of the Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
(a) The energy of electrons in atoms is quantized i.e., can only have certain specific values.
(b) Both the exact position and exact velocity of an electron in an atom cannot be determined simultaneously (Heisenberg
uncertainty principle).
(c) An atomic orbital is the wave function [ψ] for an electron in an atom.
(d) The probability of finding an electron at a point within an atom is proportional to the square of the orbital wave
function i.e., |ψ|2 at that point. |ψ|2 is known as 'probability density' and is always positive.
Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
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Atomic orbitals are precisely distinguished by what are known as quantum numbers. Each orbital is designated by three
quantum numbers labelled as 'n', 'l' and 'ml’.
Principal quantum number ('n') - A positive integer with value of n = 1,2,3 and so on, determines the size and to large
extent the energy of the orbital.
Azimuthal quantum number ‘l’ (orbital angular momentum or subsidiary quantum number) - It defines the three
dimensional shape of the orbital.
Magnetic orbital quantum number ('mI') - It gives information about the spatial orientation of the orbital with respect
to the standard set of co-ordinate axis.
All these quantum numbers are not enough to explain the line spectra observed in the case of multi-electron atoms, that
is, some of the lines actually occur in doublets (two lines closely spaced), triplets (three lines closely spaced) etc. This
suggests the presence of a few more energy levels than predicted by the three quantum numbers.
Electron spin quantum number ('ms') - An electron spins around its own axis, much in a similar way as earth spins
around its own axis while revolving around the sun. 'm,' refers to the orientation of the spin of the electron.
The two orientations are distinguished by the spin quantum numbers ms which can take the values of +1Ú2 or -1Ú2. These
are called the two spin states of the electron and are normally represented by two arrows, ↑ (spin up) and ↓ (spin down).

Quantum Numbers
The quantum numbers are the set of four numbers that give complete information about
(i) the position or energy (i.e. orbit number or shell),
(ii) subshell,
(iii) orientation (i.e. orbitals of the subshell) and
(iv) spinning (i.e. direction of rotation in the orbital) of an electron.

Principal Quantum Number (n)

It is a positive integer with value of n = 1 2 3 , , , K. It identifies the shell or orbit number of an electron. It also determines
the size and energy of the orbital. As the value of ‘n’ increases, energy of orbital increases. n = 1 shows that electron is
present in normal state.

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Azimuthal Quantum Number or Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)

It is used to describe subshell or angular momentum of the revolving electron. In other words, it defines the three
dimensional shape of the orbital.
If l = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …
Subshell = s, p, d, f, g,…
For principal quantum number n, l has the values from 0 to ( n - 1).
e.g. if n = 1, then l = 0 and if n = 3 then l = 0 1 2 , ,
The value of l also has a slight effect on the energy of the subshell the energy of the subshell increases with l (s < p < d
< f ).
Magnetic Quantum Number (m)
It determines the orientation of orbitals in space or direction of an orbital in the space of magnetic field. Its value depends
upon the value of l. Its values vary from – 1,……0……,+1.
Total values of m = (2l+1 ) = number of orbitals in a subshell (l )
If l = 0, then m = 0 (i.e. there is only 1 s-orbital)
If l = 1, then m = - 1,0,+1(i.e. there are three p-orbitals)
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If l = 2, then m = - 2, -1, 0,+1,+2 (i.e. there are five d-orbitals)

Spin Quantum Number (S)
It represents the spin of an electron in an orbital. Quantum mechanically, two types of spins are possible for an electron,
these are clockwise or anti-clockwise. The value of S may be + ½ or – ½ .The spinning electron possesses spin angular
momentum which is quantised. Thus, an orbital cannot hold more than two electrons and these two electrons should
have opposite spins.
Quantum Number Symbols Value Significance
1. Principal Quantum n Integral value 1, 2, 3, 4 Indicates energy, distance of the eletrom from
number etc. the nucleus and the size of the electron orbit
2. Azimuthal Quantum l Depend upon n, l = Indicates the shape of electron orbit, namely
number integral value from 0 to circular or elliptical with diffrent ellipticity.
(n – l).
3. Magnetic Quantum m Depends upon, l, m = Indicates the orientation of electron orbit in
number integral values from –l space (concept of orbitals).
through 0 to + l
4 Spin Quantum s For each value of m, Indicates the spin of electron while moving
number itis + ½ or – ½ about its own axis.

Electronic Configuration of Atoms

The distribution of electrons into orbitals of an atom is called its electronic configuration. The electronic configuration
of different atoms can be represented in two ways:
(i) sa pb dc... notation (ii) Orbital diagram. The s subshell (1 orbital) has two electrons, p- subshell (3 orbitals) has six
electrons, d- subshell (5 orbitals) has ten electrons and f- subshell (7 orbitals) has fourteen electrons in total.
The hydrogen atom has only one electron which goes in the orbital with the lowest energy, namely 1s. The electronic
configuration of the hydrogen atom is 1s1.
The electrons that are added to the electronic shell with the highest principal quantum number are called 'valence
electrons'.
Electronic Configuration is an arrangement of electrons in various shells, sub-shells and orbitals in an atom.

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Name of Shell The value of 'n' Maximum electrons present (2n2)

K (first shell) 1 2 × 12 = 2
L 2 2 × 22 = 8
M 3 2 × 32 = 18
N 4 2 × 42 = 32

For example, sodium atom (Na) contains 11 electrons. Out of 11 electrons of sodium atom, the first 2 electrons will
occupy K shell, the next 8 electrons will occupy L shell and the remaining 1 electron will go to M shell. So, the electronic
configuration of sodium atom will be: K (2), L (8), M (1) or 2,8,1.

Valence Electrons and Valency

The electrons in the outermost shell are known as valence electrons. The number of valence electrons determines the
combining capacity of an atom in an element. Valency is the combining capacity of the elements to form compounds.
For example, one atom of nitrogen combines with three atoms of hydrogen to form ammonia gas (NH3). Here, Valency
of nitrogen is three as nitrogen has 5 electrons in its valence shell. It can therefore accept three electrons to complete its
octet.
(a) If the number of valence electrons is four or less, then the valency is equal to the number of the valence electrons.
(b) If the number of valence electrons is more than four, then the valency (8 - Number of valence electrons).

Stability of Orbitals
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The exactly half-filled and fully filled orbitals have greater stability than other configurations. It is due to the following
reasons:
(a) Symmetrical distribution of electrons, and
(b) Exchange energy: The amount of energy released when electrons with the same spin, swap positions in degenerate
orbitals is called Exchange energy.
Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
Atomic orbitals have different shapes according to their type. There are four types of orbitals, each with a different shape
and represented by the letters s, p, d, and f. An s-orbital has a spherical nucleus in the center, a p-orbital is dumbbell-
shaped, and four of the five d orbitals are cloverleaf shaped. The fifth d orbital is fashioned like a long dumbbell with a
doughnut in the center.
Energies of Orbitals
The energy of the orbitals increases as follows: 1s< 2s = 2p < 3s = 3p = 3d < 4s = 4p = 4d = 4f <...
The orbitals having the same energy are called 'degenerate'.

Filling of Orbitals in Atom

Aufbau Principle
The word 'Aufbau' in German means 'building up'. The principle states that In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals
are filled in order of their increasing energies.
The order in which the energies of the orbitals. increase and hence the order in which the orbitals
are filled is as follows: 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p
< 7s...
For example, carbon has 6 electrons and its electronic configuration is 1s22s22p2.
Although 5g, 6g, 6h, 6f, 7g, 7h, 7d, 7f orbitals are also possible but electrons do not enter in these
orbitals under normal conditions.
e.g. 11Na = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

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Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

It states that "pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same subshell (p, d or f) does not take place until each
orbital belonging to that subshell has got one electron each i.e., it is singly occupied".
According to this law, “Pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same subshell (p, d or f) does not take place
until each orbital belonging to that subshell has got one electron each, i.e. it is singly occupied.” This is because in such
a condition, spin multiplicity or stability is maximum but energy is minimum.
Valence and Core Electrons
Electron present in the outermost orbit of the atom is called valence electron and the electron
present in the innermost orbit of the atom is called core electron.
e.g. Mg (12) - (2, 8) (2)
Core electron Valence electron
The chemical properties of elements depend upon valency of element, which is calculated from the number of valence
electrons.
If number of valence electrons = 1, 2 or 3
Valency = Number of valence electrons
If number of valence electrons ≥ 4
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Valency = 8 - Number of valence electrons.

The energy of valence electrons is higher than that of the core electrons.
Element Atomic number Core Electrons Valence electron
Sodium 11 2 , 8, 1
Calcium 20 2, 8, 8, 2
Aluminium 13 2, 8 3
The electronic configuration of Cr(24) and Cu(29) are the
only two exceptions which do not occur w.r.t. this rule.
Cr : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d5, 4s1 ( not 3d4, 4s2)
Cu : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2,3p6, 3d10, 4s1 ( not 3d9 , 4s2)
Pauli Exclusion Principle
It was given after the introduction of concept of quantum number. The number of electrons to be filled in various orbitals
is restricted by the exclusion principle, given by the Austrian scientist Wolfgang Pauli (1926), according to which “No
two electrons in an atom can have the same set of all the four quantum numbers. If two electrons have same values of
n, l and m (three quantum numbers), then they must differ in the value of s (i.e. if it is + ½ for one, it must be – ½ for
other). The maximum number of electrons in the shell with principal quantum number n is equal to 2n2.
Table of Allowed Quantum Numbers
n l m1 Number of Orbital name Number of
orbitals electrons
1 0 0 1 1s 2
2 0 0 1 2s 2
1 –1,0,1 3 2p 6
3 0 0 1 3s 2
1 –1,0,+1 3 3p 6
2 –2,–1,0,+1,+2 5 3d 10
4 0 0 1 4s 2
1 –1,0,+1 3 4p 6
2 –2,–1,0,+1,+2 5 4d 10
3 –3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3 7 4f 14

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Hybridization : It refers to the phenomenon of mixing up of atomic orbitals of similar energies and formation of
equivalent number of entirely new orbitals of identical shape and energy. The newly formed orbitals are called “hybrid
orbitals”. During hybridization:
* The number of hybrid orbitals generated is equal to the number of pure atomic orbitals that participate in hybridization
process.
* There is no application for isolated atoms. It only explains the bonding scheme in a molecule. Covalent bonds in
polyatomic molecules are formed by the overlap of hybrid orbitals or of hybrid orbitals with unhybridized ones.
* sp-hybridization : It involves the combination of one s and one p-orbitals to form two hybrid orbitals of equal energy,
e.g., in BeF2 molecule, the sp-hybridized orbitals of Be overlap with the half-filled orbitals of two fluorine atoms to give
a linear shape.
* sp2 -hybridization: It involves the combination of one s and two p-orbitals to form three hybrid orbitals of equal energy,
e.g., in BF3 molecule; the sp2 hybridized orbitals are oriented at an angle of 120°. When three sp2 hybridized orbitals
of B overlap with three p-orbitals of fluorine, three
π -bonds are formed with bond angle 120°. The shape of BF3 molecule is thus trigonal planar .
Types of Atomic orbitals Representing direction of hybrid orbitals Examples
hybridization involved formed along with bond angles
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sp One s + One p BeCl2, BeH2, C2H2

sp2 One s + two p BF2, NCl3,C2H2, CO3–

sp3 One s + Three p CH4, CCl4,NH2-

Tetrahedral

Hybridi Shape, with angles

Formula Number Shape angle Bond Bonding
zation number

1 single
sp AX2 2 Linear 180 o bond/lonepair and
two doublebonds

2 single
sp2 AX3 3 Trigonal planar 120 o bonds/lonepairs and
onedouble bond

sp2 AX2N Bent 120

4 single bonds/
sp3 AX4 4 Tetrahedral 109.5o lonepairs at 109 o
28’toeach other.

sp3 AX2N2 Bent 109.5 o

sp3 AX3N TrigonalPyramidal 109.5 o

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o
120 5 single
sp3d AX5 5 TriangularBipyramidal
.90’ bonds/lonepairs

6 single bonds/
sp3d2 AX6 6 Octahedral 90 o
lonepairs

***** Space for Rough work ******

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Periodic Table
Periodic Table of Elements
Elements are classified on the basis of similarities in their properties. At present, 118 elements are known to us, out of
which 98 are naturally occurring while remaining are synthesised artificially by man. Main objective of classification
of elements is to make the study of 118 elements more convenient, systematic and organised.
Need for Classification of Elements
The factors that led the scientists to classify the elements were as follows:
(a) Different methods of synthesis of elements.
(b) Various sources of elements.
(c) Different properties of elements.

Development of Classification
The first classification of elements was into two groups metals and non-metals. The four major attempts were made for
classification of elements. They are as follows:
(a) Dobereiner's Triads
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(b) Newlands' Law of Octaves

(c) Mendeleev's Periodic Law & Periodic Tables
(d) Modern Periodic Table

Dobereiner's Triads
In 1817, J.W. Dobereiner, a German chemist made groups of three elements each and called them triads. All three
elements of a triad were similar in their physical and chemical properties.
He proposed a law known as Dobereiner's law of triads. According to this law, "when elements are arranged in order of
their increasing atomic masses, the atomic mass of the middle element is nearly equal to the arithmetic mean of the other
two elements and its properties are intermediate between those of the other two". For example:
Triad 1: This triad consisting of alkali metals i.e Lithium (Li), sodium (Na) and potassium (K) with their respective
atomic masses 7u, 23u and 39u constitute a Dobereiner's triad. The atomic mass of sodium (middle element) is half-way
between those of the other two (lithium and potassium).
Triad 2: This triad consisting of alkaline earth metals i.e., Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr) and Barium (Ba) with their
atomic masses 40 u, 88 u and 137 u respectively constitute a Dobereiner's triad.
Triad 3: This triad is comprised of halogen elements i.e., Chlorine (CI), Bromine (Br), Iodine (1) with their atomic
masses 35.5u, 80u and 127u respectively.
Element Atomic weight Element atomic weight Element atomic weight
li 7 Ca 40 Cl 35.5
na 23 sr 88 Br 80
K 39 Ba 137 I 127

Limitations of Dobereiner's Triads: This classification did not receive wide acceptance since only a few elements
could be arranged into triads.

Newlands' Law of Octaves

John Alexander Newlands arranged the elements in the increasing order of their atomic masses. He observed that, "every
eighth element had properties similar to the first element". Newlands in 1866 called it the "Law of Octaves". It was due
to its similarity with musical notes where every eighth note is the repetition of the first one.

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For example, starting from lithium (Li), the eighth element is sodium (Na) and its properties are similar to those of
lithium. Similarly, beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg) show similar properties. Fluorine (F) and chlorine (CI) are also
similar chemically.
Merits of Newlands' Classification
(a) Atomic mass was made the basis of classification.
(b) Periodicity of properties (the repetition of properties after a certain interval) was recognised for the first time.
Element Li Be B C N O F
Atomic Weight 7 9 11 12 14 16 19
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Atomic Weight 23 24 27 29 31 32 35.5
Element K Ca
Atomic Weight 39 40

Demerits of Newlands' Classification

(a) It was not applicable to elements of atomic masses higher than 40 i.e only applicable upto calcium (Ca).
(b) With the discovery of noble gases, it was found that it was the ninth element which had the properties similar to the
first one and not the eighth element. This resulted in the rejection of the very idea of octaves.
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(c) Newlands assumed that only 56 elements existed in nature.

(d) To fit the elements in his table, he adjusted two elements in the same slot such as cobalt and nickel while placed iron
away from these two despite they have similar properties.The elements that were discovered later could not be adjusted
into the octave pattern.

Mendeleev's Periodic Law and Periodic Table

In 1869, D'mitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist propounded Mendeleev's Periodic Law, which was stated as, "the
chemical and physical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses".

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table published earlier

A periodic function is the one which repeats itself after a certain interval. Mendeleev arranged the elements in the
increasing order of their atomic masses in the form of a table which is known as the Mendeleev's Periodic Table.

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Main Features of Mendeleev's Periodic Table

(a) The elements are arranged in rows and columns in such a way that the elements with similar properties occupy the
same vertical column or group.
(b) The horizontal rows are called periods. There are six periods in his periodic table. These are numbered from 1 to 6.
Each one of the 4th, 5th and 6th periods have two series of elements.
(c) Properties of elements in a given period show regular gradation (i.e., increase or decrease) from left to right.
(d) The vertical columns present in it are called groups. There are eight groups numbered from I to VIII.
(e) Groups I to VII are further divided into A and B subgroups. However, group VIII contains three elements in each of
the three periods.
(f) All the elements present in a particular group are chemically similar in nature. They also show a regular gradation in
their physical and chemical properties from top to bottom.

Merits of Mendeleev's Periodic Classification

(a) Classification of All Elements: Mendeleev's classification included all the 63 elements known at that time on the
basis of their atomic mass.
(b) Correction of Atomic Masses: Atomic masses of some elements like Be (beryllium), Au (gold), In (indium) were
corrected based on their positions in the table.
(c) Prediction of New Elements: Mendeleev predicted the existence of unknown element for the vacant space below
silicon and thus belonging to the same group IV B, of the periodic table. He called it eka-silicon (meaning, one position
below silicon). In 1886, C.A. Winkler discovered this element and named it as germanium. Ekaboron (scandium) and
eka-aluminium (gallium) are two more examples of unknown elements predicted by Mendeleev.
(d) Valency of Elements: The valency of elements was given by the group number. For example, all the elements in
group 1, i.e., lithium, hydrogen, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium have valency 1.

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Limitations of Mendeleev's Periodic Table

(a) Position of Hydrogen: The position of hydrogen which is placed in group IA along with alkali metals is ambiguous
as it resembles alkali metals as well as halogens (group VII A).
(b) Position of Isotopes: Mendeleev's periodic table did not provide any space for different isotopes. For example, two
isotopes of carbon are represented as C2, C14 but placed at the same position.
(c) Anomalous Pairs of Elements: At some places, an element with greater atomic mass had been placed before an
element with lower atomic mass due to their properties. For example, cobalt (Co) with higher atomic mass (58.9u) was
placed before nickel (Ni) with lower atomic mass (58.7u).
(d) Grouping of Chemically Dissimilar Elements: Elements such as copper and silver have no resemblance with alkali
metals (lithium, sodium, etc), but have been grouped together in the first group.
(e) Separation of Chemically Similar Elements : Elements which are chemically similar such as gold and platinum
have been placed in separate groups.

Modern Periodic Law

In 1913, Henry Moseley, an English physicist discovered that the atomic number and not the atomic mass is the most
fundamental property of an element. Atomic number (Z) of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of its
atom. An atom is an electrically neutral entity. The number of electrons is also equal to its atomic number, i.e., the
number of protons.
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The Modern Periodic Law states that, "the chemical and physical properties of elements are periodic functions of their
atomic numbers, i.e., if elements are arranged in the order of their increasing atomic number, the elements with similar
properties are repeated after certain regular intervals".
By taking atomic number as the basis for classification, removed major defects from it such as anomalous pairs and
position of isotopes.
It is noticed that all the elements having similar electronic configuration have similar properties. Thus, the re-occurrence
of similar electronic configuration is the cause of periodicity in properties of elements.

Modern Periodic Table

The periodic table based on the modern periodic law is called the Modern Periodic Table. Presently, the accepted modern
periodic table is the Long Form of Periodic Table. It may be regarded as an extended form of Mendeleev's table.

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It was given by British chemist Moseley in 1913 on the basis of his discovery that atomic number is the most
fundamental property. It is a tabular form of modern periodic law, according to which, “the physical and chemical
properties of the elements are the periodic function of their atomic numbers’’. This table removed almost all the
drawbacks of Mendeleev’s periodic table.
Numerous forms of periodic table have been devised from time to time. A modern version, so called long form of the
periodic table of elements, which is based on the electronic configuration of elements, is the most convenient and widely
used.
Characteristics of Long Form of Periodic Table
(i) The horizontal rows are called periods and the vertical columns are called groups.
(ii) The groups are numbered from 1 to 18 and there are altogether 7 periods.
(iii) Elements having similar outer electronic configurations in their atoms are arranged in the vertical columns, i.e.
groups or families. That’s why elements of a group possess similar chemical properties.
(iv) The period number corresponds to the highest principal quantum number (n) of the elements in the period and each
period marks a new electronic shell getting filled.
(v) The first period contains 2 elements and the subsequent periods consist of 8, 8, 18, 18 and 32 elements respectively
and seventh period is incomplete.
(vi) In this form of the periodic table, 14 elements of both six and seventh periods (lanthanoids and actinoids
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respectively) are placed in separate panels at the bottom.

Features of Long Form of Periodic Table
(a) Groups: There are 18 vertical columns in the periodic table. Each vertical column is called a group. The groups
have been numbered from 1 to 18.
All elements present in a group have similar electronic configurations and have the same number of valence electrons.
For example, in case of Group 1 (alkali metals) and Group 17 elements (halogens), as one moves down a group, more
and more shells are added.
All elements of Group 1 have only one valence electron. Lithium (Li) has electrons in two shells, Sodium (Na) in three,
Potassium (K) in four and Rubidium (Rb) has electrons in five shells. Similarly, all the elements of Group 17 have seven
valence electrons, however the number of shells is increasing from two in fluorine (F) to five in iodine (1).
Characteristics of Groups
(i) All the elements of a group of the periodic table have the same number of valence electrons and hence, have almost
similar chemical properties.
(ii) Atomic size, electropositive nature, metallic nature, reducing nature of elements and basic nature of oxides all
increase from top to bottom in a group.
(iii) Electronegative nature, ionisation potential, electron affinity, non-metallic nature and acidic nature of oxides all
decrease down a group with increasing atomic number.
(iv) Reactivity of metals increases down the group but that of non-metals decreases down the group.
(b) Periods: There are seven horizontal rows in the periodic table. Each row is called a period. The elements in a period
have consecutive atomic numbers. The periods have been numbered from 1 to 7.
The period number is also the number of the shell which starts filling up as we move from left to right across a particular
period. For example, in elements of 3rd period (n = 3), the third shell (M shell) starts filling up as we move from left to
right.
The first period is the 'shortest period' of all. It contains only two elements; Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He).
The second and third periods are called 'short periods' containing 8 elements each.
The fourth and fifth periods are 'long periods' containing 18 elements each.

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The sixth and seventh periods are 'very long periods' containing 32 elements each.
Characteristics of Periods
(i) The number of valence electrons in elements increases from 1 to 8 on moving from left to right in a period.
(ii) The elements in a period have consecutive atomic numbers.
(iii) The valency of element increases from 1 to 4 and then decrease to 0 (zero) on moving from left to right in a period,
with respect to hydrogen.
(iv) Atomic size, electropositive nature, metallic nature, reducing nature of elements and basic nature of oxides all
decrease from left to right in a period.
(v) Electronegative nature, non-metallic nature, acidic nature of oxides, ionisation potential all increase from left to right
in a period. In a period, electron affinity also increases from left to right.
(c) Groups or clusters of groups- There are also nicknames given to the groups or a cluster of groups on the basis of
the similarity of their properties, as given below:
(i) Group 1 elements except hydrogen, are called "Alkali Metals".
(ii) Group 2 elements are called "Alkaline Earth Metals".
(iii) Group 3 to 12 elements are called "Transition Metals".
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(iv) Group 16 elements are called "Chalcogens".

(v) Group 17 elements are called "Halogens".
(vi) Group 18 elements are called "Noble Gases".
Prediction of number of group and period of an element
* Number of shells in an atom determines period in the periodic table.
* Number of valence electrons determines group in the periodic table.
* For s-block elements; group number = electrons in the valence shell .
* For p-block elements; group number = + 10 electrons in the valence shell.
* For d-block elements; group number = electrons in ns-shell + electrons in (n – 1) d shell.
Categorization of Elements into 's', 'p', 'd' and 'f' Blocks
The electronic configuration of atoms provides a theoretical foundation for the periodic classification. Elements of a
group exhibit similar chemical properties because they have same electronic configuration of their outermost shell.
Depending upon the type of orbital receiving the valence electron, the elements can be classified into following four
blocks:
(a) s-block Elements: It consists of all alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.
(b) p-block Elements: It consists of all elements from group 13 to group 18.
(c) d-block Elements: It consists of all elements from group 3 to group 12, except Lanthanoids and Actinoids.
(d) f-block Elements: It consists of lanthanoids (Z = 58 to 71) and actinoids (Z = 90 to 103).

s-Block Elements
(i) In these elements, valence electron(s) enters in s-orbital.
(ii) Group-1 and 2 (IA and IIA) of the periodic table belong to this block.
(iii) Group-1 (IA) of the periodic table is collectively called as alkali metals.
(iv) Group-2 (IIA) of the periodic table is collectively called as alkaline earth metals.

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(v) The general electronic configuration of s-block elements is (noble gas) ns1 for alkali metals and (noble gas) ns2 for
alkaline earth metals.
(vi) These elements are soft metals, electropositive and form basic oxides.

p-Block Elements
(i) In p-block elements, valence electron(s) enters in p-orbital.
(ii) Valence shell electronic configuration is ns2 np1-6.
(iii) Group 13 to 18 (IIIA to VIIIA) are p-block elements in the periodic table.
(iv) It is the only block which contains metals, non-metals and metalloids.
(v) Heavier members of this block show inert pair effect, i.e. their lower valency becomes more stable. e.g. + 2 valency
is more stable for Pb as compared to its + 4 valency. Similarly, + 1 valency is more stable for Tl as compared to its + 3
valency.
Ununseptium, recently discovered, a superheavy chemical element with atomic number 117, is a member of group-17
in the periodic table below the five halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine). Its synthesis was claimed
in Dubna, Russia by a joint Russian-American collaboration.
In 2014, the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Germany also claimed to have successfully repeated
original experiment. Ununseptium is a temporary systematic name that is intended to be used before a permanent one is
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established. It is commonly called ‘element-117’ instead of ununseptium.

d-Block Elements
(i) These elements are called transition elements (except zinc, cadmium and mercury).
(ii) In d-block elements, valence electron(s) enters in d-orbital.
(iii) Valence shell electronic configuration is (n-1 ) d1-10 ns 1 – 2.
(iv) This block contains the elements of group-3 to 12 of the periodic table.
(v) The three series of transition metals are known 3d series (Sc to Zn),4 d series (Y to Cd) and 5 d series (La to Hg,
excluding Ce to Lu).

f-Block Elements
(i) The f-block consists of two series lanthanoids (fourteen elements following lanthanum) and actinoids (fourteen
elements following actinium) of the periodic table.
(ii) Electronic configuration of lanthanoids is 6s2 5d0-2 4f 1-14.
(iii) Electronic configuration of actinoids are irregular.
(iv) Elements of this block are also called inner-transition elements.
(v) Elements beyond uranium (at. no. 92) are man-made elements, i.e. synthesised by man artificially. So, these are
called transuranic or synthetic elements. All these elements are radioactive in nature, e.g. neptunium (Np), plutonium
(Pu), americium (Am), curium (Cm), berkelium (Bk), californium (Cf), einstenium (Es), mendelevium (Md), etc.
■ s- and p-block elements are collectively called representative elements.
■ Hg, Zn, Cd are d-block elements but not the transition elements .
■ All elements of s, d and f block are metals except hydrogen
Highest and Lowest Properties of Some Elements
Highest/Lowest Properties Elements Highest/Lowest Properties Elements

Lightest element (non-metal) Hydrogen Element having highest ionisation potential Helium

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Heaviest element Osmium Element having least ionisation potential Caesium

Lightest metal Lithium Metal having highest melting point Tungsten
Liquid metal Mercury Element having highest electron affinity Chlorine
(i.e. electron accepting tendency)
Liquid non-metal Bromine Most electronegative element Fluorine
Best conductor (metal) Silver Strongest oxidant Fluorine
Second best conductor Copper Strongest reductant Lithium

Best non-metallic conductor Graphite (an Monoatomic gases Inert or noble

allotrope of gases
carbon)
Group of gaseous elements zero group
Most ductile and malleable Gold Element stored in kerosene oil Sodium
metal
Most reactive metal Caesium Element present in bones and teeth Calcium
Most reactive non-metal Fluorine Most poisonous metal Plutonium

Types of Elements
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(a) Main Group Elements: The elements present in Groups 1 and 2 on the left side and Groups 13 to 18 on the right side
of the periodic table are called 'representative' or 'main group elements'.
(b) Noble Gases: Group 18 on the extreme right side of the periodic table contains noble gases. Their outermost shells
contain 8 electrons (except Helium (He) which contains only 2 electrons).
Their main characteristics are:
(i) They have stable configuration due to the presence of 8 electrons in their valence shell.
(ii) Their combining capacity or valency is zero.
(iii) They do not react and so are almost inert.
(iv) All the members are gases.
(c) Transition Elements: The middle block (d-block) of the periodic table (Groups 3 to 12) contains transition elements.
Their two outermost shells are incomplete. These elements represent a transition (change) from the most electropositive
element to the most electronegative element, hence they are named as transition elements. Their main characteristics
are:
(i) All these elements are metals and have high melting and boiling points except mercury (Hg) which is liquid at room
temperature, gallium (Ga) and caesium (Cs).
(ii) They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
(iii) Some of these elements get attracted towards magnets.
(iv) Most of these elements are used as Catalysts.
(v) They exhibit variable valencies.
(d) Inner Transition Elements: These elements, also called 'rare-earth elements', are shown separately below the main
periodic table. These are two series of 14 elements each. The first series called 'lanthanoids' consists of elements 58 to
71 [cerium (Ce) to lutetium (Lu)]. They all are placed along with the element 57, lanthanum (La) in the same position
(Group 3, Period 6) because of very close resemblance between them. Inner transition elements consist of f-block
elements.

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The second series of 14 rare-earth elements is called actinoids. It consists of elements from 90 to 103 [thorium (Th) to
lawrencium (Lr)] and they are all placed along with the element 89, actinium (Ac) in the same position (group 3, period
7).
In all rare-earth elements (lanthanoids and actinoids), three outermost shells are incomplete. They are therefore called
inner transition elements.
(e) Metals: Metals are present in the left hand portion of the periodic table. The strong metallic elements; alkali metals
lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), francium (Fr), and alkaline earth metals -
beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), radium (Ra) occupy groups 1 and 2
respectively.
(f) Non-metals: Non-metals occupy the right hand portion of the periodic table. Strong non-metallic elements i.e.,
Halogens - Fluorine (F), Chlorine (CI), Bromine (Br), lodine (1), Astatine (At), and Chalcogens Oxygen (O), Sulfur (S),
Selenium (Se), Tellurium (Te), Polonium (Po), occupy groups 17 and 16 respectively.
(g) Metalloids: Metalloids are the elements that show mixed properties of both metals and non-metals. They are present
along the diagonal line (zig-zag line) starting from group 13 (Boron) and going down to group 16 (Polonium).

Merits of the Modern Periodic Table

(a) Position of Isotopes: All isotopes of an element have the same atomic number and therefore, occupy the same
position in the modern periodic table.
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(b) Anomalous Pairs: The anomaly regarding all these pairs disappears when atomic number is taken as the basis for
classification. For example, cobalt (Z = 27) would naturally come before nickel (Z =28) even though its atomic mass is
little more than that of nickel.
(c) Electronic Configuration: The elements having a certain pattern of electronic configuration are placed in the same
group of the periodic table. It relates the properties of elements to their electronic configurations.
(d) Separation of Metals and Non-metals: The position of metals, non-metals and metalloids are clearly established
in the modern periodic table.
(e) Position of Transition Metals: It makes the position of the transition elements quite clear.
(f) Properties of Elements: It reflects the differences, the trends and the variations in the properties of the elements in
the periodic table.

Variation of Various Periodic Properties in Periods and Groups

(i) Valency : It generally increases from 1 to 7 in a period with respect to hydrogen but with respect to oxygen, it first
increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases to 0. For alkali metals (i.e. sodium, potassium, etc.) it is 1, for alkaline earth
metals (i.e. magnesium, calcium, etc.) it is 2, for aluminium it is 3 and for nitrogen it varies from −3 to + 5.
(a) Atomic Size: The size of atoms decreases from left to right in a period but increases from top to bottom in a group.
In a period the atomic number and therefore the positive charge on the nucleus increases gradually which tends to pull

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the electrons closer to the nucleus and reduces the size. In a group as one goes down, a new shell is added to the atom
which is farther away from the nucleus.
Atomic size is the distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell of an isolated atom. It is also
known as atomic radius.
(b) Metallic Character: Metallic character increases from top to bottom in a group as tendency to lose electrons
increases. This increases the electropositive character and metallic nature. Metallic character decreases in a period from
left to right. It is because the ionization energy increases in a period. This decreases the electropositive character and
metallic nature.
* Non-Metallic Character: It is the tendency of an element to form anion by the gain of electrons. It increases along a
period from left to right and decreases in a group on moving downwards.
(c) Atomic Number: The atomic number of elements increases from left to right in a period. It increases from top to
bottom in a group.
(d) Ionization Enthalpy: Ionization enthalpies generally increase across a period and decrease down a group. Ionization
Enthalpy is the energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an isolated atom in the gaseous state
for one mole of an element. It is expressed in kJ mol-1 (kilojoules per mole).
It generally increases along a period from left to right due to increase in effective nuclear charge but ionisation energy
of group-2 elements (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr) is larger than the ionisation energy of group-3 (B, Al, Ga, In) elements.
Similarly, ionisation energy of group-15 elements (N, P, As) is larger than ionisation energy of group-16 (O, S, Se)
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elements because of the stable configuration of group-2 elements (ns2) and group-15 elements (ns2, np3 ) than that of
group-3 elements ( ns2, np1 ) and group-16 elements ( ns2, np4 ) respectively.
It generally decreases along a group on moving downwards due to increase in atomic size.
(e) Electron Gain Enthalpy (ΔegH ): Electron gain enthalpies, in general, become more negative across a period and
less negative down a group. Electron gain enthalpy is the energy released for one mole of neutral atoms in a gaseous
state when an electron is accepted by each atom.
X(g) + e- → X- (g)
where X represents an atom.
Cl (g) + e- →Cl- (g): ΔE = - 349 kJ mol-1
The negative value shows release of energy and hence tendency to greater stabilization.
(f) Electronegativity : Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period and decreases on moving down a
group. Electronegativity is defined as a measure of the ability of an atom to attract the electron pair in a covalent bond
to itself. Fluorine (F) with a value of 4.0 is the most electronegative element while caesium (Cs) and francium (Fr) are
the least electronegative elements with a value 0.7 each.
The Pauling scale is commonly used to determine the electronegativity of elements.
(g) lonic Size: As you move down a group, the ionic radius increases. This is because each row adds a new electron
shell. Ionic radius decreases on moving from left to right across a period.
A cation is always smaller than its atom (e.g. Na+ is smaller than Na) and an anion is always bigger than its atom (e.g.
Cl- is bigger than Cl).
Density: It is defined as mass per unit volume and increases on moving down a group as well as along a period from
left to right but density of gold is higher than that of mercury. The order of density of steel, mercury and gold is steel <
mercury < gold.

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Chemical Bonding and Chemical Reactions

Chemical Bond
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions, etc) together in different chemical species is called a
chemical bond. During the formation of a chemical bond, energy is released, i.e., it is an exothermic process and occurs
with the decrease in free energy of the system.

Valency
The combining power (or capacity of mutual combination) of an element is called its valency. Valency of noble gases,
previously called inert gases [i.e. Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe) and Radon (Rn)] is
zero. They generally do not take part in chemical bonding because they have completely filled or very stable outermost
shell, i.e. 8 electrons (octet) in their outermost shell (except He atom, which has 2 electrons in its outermost shell).
In other words, noble gases have no tendency to lose, gain or share the electrons and hence, they exist in free or
monoatomic form. Valency of an element is equal to the number of electrons lost or gained during the formation of a
compound. It generally depends upon the number of valence electrons.
If an atom has 1, 2, 3 or 4 valence electrons, then its valency = number of valence electrons.
If an atom has 5, 6, 7 or 8 valence electrons, then its valency = − 8 number of valence electrons.
e.g. In Na (2, 8, 1), there is one valence electron, so it loses the valence electron to achieve octet in valence shell and
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forms Na+(2, 8).

■ The word ‘valence’ came from Latin word ‘valentia’ meaning ‘strength, capacity’.
■ The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are called the valence electrons and the outermost shell is
called the valence shell.
Kössel-Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding
Lewis postulated that atoms achieve the stable octet when they are linked by chemical bonds.
Lewis Symbols: G.N. Lewis, an American chemist introduced simple notations to represent valence electrons in an
atom. These notations are called Lewis symbols. The dots represent electrons. Such structures are referred to as Lewis
dot structures.
For example, the Lewis symbols for few of the elements of second period are as under:

Significance of Lewis Symbols: The number of dots around the symbol represents the number of valence electrons.
This number of valence electrons helps to calculate the common or group valence of the element.
(Electronic Theory of Chemical Bonding [Octet Rule]: Kossel and Lewis in 1916
developed an important theory of chemical combination between atoms known as electronic
theory of chemical bonding that was based on inertness of noble gases.
According to this theory, "atoms can combine either by transfer of valence electrons from one
atom to another (gaining or losing) or by sharing of valence electrons in order to have an octet
in their valence shells".

Ions
* The electrically charged species atoms or group of atoms are known as ions.
* The positively charged ion is called cation and is obtained by the lose of one or more electrons from an atom. The
negatively charged ion is called an anion and is obtained by the gain of one or more electrons.

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e.g. Sodium chloride (NaCl). Its constituent particles are positively charged sodium ion Na+(cation) and negatively
charged chloride ion Cl− (anion).
All metallic elements form cations (e.g. Na+ , Mg2+ , Ca2+ , Al3+), so also called electropositive elements while all non-
metallic elements form anions (e.g. F- , Cl- , O2- , CO32- ), so also called electronegative elements.
* H +and NH4+ cations are made from non-metals

Types of Bonding
Bonding is broadly classified into two groups:
(a) Chemical bonding (ionic or electrovalent, covalent and coordinate bond)
(b) Physical bonding (hydrogen and vander Waals' bonding)
lonic or Electrovalent Bond: The bond formed, as a result of the electrostatic attraction between the positive and
negative ions was termed as the electrovalent bond. The electrovalence is thus equal to the number of unit charge(s) on
the ion.
The compound formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal atom is known as ionic or electrovalent
compound.
For example In case of NaCl (Sodium chloride),
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(i) Sodium atom has one electron in its valence shell so it loses its one electron to attain octet in its outer shell and forms
Na+ ion.
(ii) Similarly, Cl atom has 7 electrons in its valence shell so it gains one electron from sodium to attain octet in its outer
shell and forms Cl− ion.
(iii)the Na+ and CI- ions bind together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
Other examples of ionic compounds are Magnesium chloride (MgCl2), Calcium oxide or Quicklime (CaO), Ammonium
Chloride (NH4CI), Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), etc.
■ The electrovalency is equal to the number of unit charge(s) present on the ion(s). Thus, in the above example
electrovalency of Na and Cl is 1.

Characteristics of ionic or electrovalent compounds:

(a) They are generally crystalline solids, i.e., have definite shape.
(b) They are hard and brittle in nature.
(c) They have high melting and boiling points.
(d) They are non-volatile and have high density.
(e) These are soluble in polar solvent like water (H2O).
(f) They can conduct electricity in their aqueous and molten state.
Covalent Bond: The bond formed due to sharing of electrons between two similar atoms or different atoms having
almost similar electronegativity is called covalent bond. The sharing occurs in such a way that the formed molecules
achieve a permanent electronic structure just like noble gases.
The compounds that are the result of sharing of electrons are called covalent compounds.
Examples of covalent compounds: hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), water (H2O), and methane(CH4), carbon
dioxide (CO2), etc.

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Types of Covalent Bonds:-

(a) Single Covalent bond : when two atoms share one electron pair they are said to be joined by a asingle covalent
bond.
For example, the HCL molecule has one Hydrogen atom that has one valence electron and one Chlorine atom has 7
valence electrons. Here the single bond formed is by sharing one electron from each atom.

(b) Double covalent bond: If two atoms share two pairs of electrons, the covalent bond between them is called a
double covalent bond.
For example, in the carbon dioxide molecule (CO2), we have two double bonds between the carbon and oxygen atoms.

Double bonds in CO2 molecule

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(c) Triple covalent bond: When combining atoms share three electron pairs as in the case of two nitrogen atoms in
the N2 molecule, a triple covalent bond is formed.

N2 molecule

Covalency
In a covalent compound, covalency of an atom is the number of electrons which are supplied by that atom for sharing.
e.g. In H2 molecules, covalency of each hydrogen is 1, in N2 molecules, covalency of each nitrogen atom is 3 and in
CH4, covalency of C is 4 and of H is 1.

(d) Polar covalent bond: A polar covalent bond is a bond in which the electron pair is shared unequally between
the two bonded atoms because of differences in their electronegativities.
Example of polar covalent compound - Hydrochloric acid (HCL), where both hydrogen (H) and chloride (CI) have
different electro-negativities.
Polar covalent compounds can exist as solids due to greater force of interactions. They have greater melting and boiling
point than non-polar compounds. They conduct electricity in the solution state due to the mobility of ions. They are
highly soluble in polar solvents like water. They have a net dipole moment. A dipole moment is a measure of the polarity
of a chemical bond between two atoms in a molecule.

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(e) Non-polar covalent bond: A non-polar covalent bond is a bond in which the electron pair is shared equally
between the two bonded atoms.
Example of non-polar covalent compound hydrogen gas (H2). The two hydrogen atoms are identical, so the bond
between them is non-polar. The dipole moment for non-polar molecules is zero.
Characteristics of covalent compounds:
(a) They exist as gases or liquids or soft solids.
(b) They have generally low melting and boiling points.
(c) They are insoluble in water but dissolve in organic solvents.
(d) They are non-conductors of electricity in solid, molten or aqueous state.
Shapes and Bond Angle of Some Covalent Molecules
Molecule Shape Bond Angle Examples
Linear 180° Beryllium chloride (BeCl2) , ethyne (C2H2), carbon dioxide (CO2), zinc
chloride (ZnCl2) and hydrogen (H2)
Trigonal planar 120° Boron trifluoride (BF3), boron trichloride (BCl3), boron hydride(BH3) ,
aluminium chloride (AlCl3) , ethene (C2H4)
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Tetrahedral 109.5° Methane (CH4) , ammonium ion (NH+4), carbon tetrachloride(CCl4), silicon
tetrachloride (SiCl4)
Trigonal 90°,120° Phosphorus pentachloride (PCl5), phosphorus pentafluoride (PF5)
bipyramidal
Octahedral 90° Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
Bent Less than 120° Sulphur dioxide (SO2) , ozone (O3)
Pyramidal Less than 109°.281 Ammonia (NH3) , phosphine (PH3) , phosphorus trifluoride (PCl3)
V- Less than 109°.281 Water (H2O), hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
shape/angular
See-saw Less than 109°.281 Sulphur tetrafluoride (SF4) , sulphur tetrachloride (SCl4)
T-shape 90° Chlorine trifluoride (ClF3)
Square Less than 90° Less than 90° Iodine pentachloride (ICl5)
pyramidal
Square planar 90° Xenon tetrafluoride (XeF4) , Cupraammonium ion [Cu(NH3)4]2+

Coordinate bond: It is a subtype of a covalent bond. It is an alternative covalent bond in which the electron pair is
shared by only one atom. Coordinate bonds may also be referred to as 'dative bonds' or 'dipolar bonds'. Examples of
coordinate bond are - Formation of ammonium ion (NH4+), hydronium ion (H3O+).

Characteristics of coordinate compounds:

(a) The melting and boiling points of these compounds are higher than that of covalent compounds but lower than that
of ionic compounds.
(b) Some of them exhibit isomerism.
(c) Sharing of electrons takes place in a definite direction, hence it is a directional bond.

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(d) They are weaker than ionic bonds.

(e) Like covalent compounds, these are poor conductors of electricity.
■ Some compounds have both types of bonding, i.e. ionic as well as covalent bonding, e.g. sodium hydroxide (NaOH),
potassium hydroxide (KOH), sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), etc.
■ The electrons of an atom that do not involve in bonding are called lone pair of electrons. e.g

Hydrogen bond: Hydrogen bonds are the type of attractive intermolecular forces caused by the dipole-dipole
interaction between a hydrogen atom bonded to a strongly electronegative atom of the same or another nearby
electronegative atom.
Example of hydrogen bonding - Water (H2O). A highly electronegative oxygen atom is connected to a hydrogen atom
in the water molecule. Other examples of hydrogen bonding Hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, alcohol and carboxylic acid.
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These bonds are present in inorganic molecules like water as well as in organic molecules like DNA.
Types of Hydrogen Bonding: There are two types of H-bonds as mentioned below:
(a) Intermolecular Hydrogen Bonding It occurs when hydrogen bonds are formed between molecules of the same or
distinct substances.
Examples Hydrogen bonding in water, alcohol, ammonia, etc.
(b) Intramolecular Hydrogen Bonding It refers to hydrogen bonding that occurs
within a single
molecule.
Example Hydrogen bonding occurs between the two hydroxyl sets in ethylene
glycol, C2H4(OH)2.

Properties of Hydrogen Bonding :-

(a) They are less volatile.
(b) They are stronger than the weak Vander Waals bonds.
(c) They are comparatively weaker than covalent and ionic bonds.

Applications of Hydrogen Bonding :-

(a) Hydrogen Bonds in Plants.
(b) Hydrogen Bonds in Proteins.
(c) Hydrogen Bonds in DNA. (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

Van der Waals' Forces : They are weak intermolecular interactions observed in condensed phases like solid and
liquid. They are responsible for the bulk properties of substances, like the boiling and melting points. Van der Waals
bonds are secondary bonds in molecules where ionic and covalent bonds form the primary bonds.

Types of Van der Waals Forces :-

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(a) London Dispersion Forces : They are intermolecular forces that occur between two atoms or two nonpolar
molecules due to the motion of electrons. The strength of dispersion forces increases as the number of electrons in the
atoms or nonpolar molecules increases. These forces are named after Fritz London, who first proposed their existence
in 1930.
Examples: Helium (He), chlorine (Cl2) and carbon tetrachloride (CCI4).
(b) Dipole-dipole Interactions: Dipole-dipole interactions are attractions between two dipoles that are oriented such
that their positive and negative poles are close to each other. They are similar to London Dispersion forces, but they
occur in molecules that have a permanent dipole. Hydrogen bonding is a particular type of dipole-dipole interaction.
Examples - Water (H2O) and hydrogen chloride (HCI).
Properties of Van der Waals Forces :-
(a) They are additive, i.e., several intermolecular interactive forces add together to form a quantifiable force
(b) They are non-directional, i.e., they can attract atoms or molecules from all direction
(c) They are weaker than ionic and covalent chemical bonds
(d) They can act only over a short range
(e) They are independent of temperature, except dipole-dipole interactions

Chemical Equations
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A chemical equation is a symbolic representation of chemical reaction in the form of symbols and formulae where the
reactant entities are given on the left hand side and the product entities on the right hand side.
(i) The substances or compounds which take part in a reaction are called reactants.
These are written on the left hand side (LHS) with a plus sign (+) in between them.
(ii) The substances or compounds formed in the course of reaction are called products.
These are written on the right hand side (RHS) with a plus sign (+) in between them.
(iii) The arrow head (→) points towards the products which shows the direction of reaction.
For example, (i)
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide
(Reactants) (Product)
2Mg (s) + O2(g) → 2MgO (s)
(ii) Zinc reacts with sulphuric acid to form zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas.

Rules for Writing a Balanced Chemical Equation

(i) The number of atoms of reactants should be equal to the number of atoms of products. (According to the law of
conservation of mass)
e.g. Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 + H2
As per rule, the above equation is incorrect and can be correctly written as
3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
(ii) The physical states of reactants and products should be mentioned along with their chemical formula in parenthesis.
The above equation can be written in accordance to rule (ii) as

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3Fe(s) + H2O(g) → Fe3O4(s) + H2(g)

Thermochemical Equation
The equation in which enthalpy change (heat energy) is written along with the reaction, is called thermochemical
equation.
e.g. N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3 + 22.5 kcal
Ionic Equation
The equation in which atoms or ions (cations/anions) are used to represent the reactants and products, is called ionic
equation.
e.g. Zn + Cu+2 → Zn2+ + Cu
Ca2+ + 2e- → Ca(s)

Chemical Reactions
A chemical reaction is a process in which reactants are converted into products. The substances that undergo chemical
changes are called the 'reactants', and the substances produced at the end of the reaction are known as the 'products'. An
arrow (→) is drawn between the reactants and products to indicate the direction of the chemical reaction.
Characteristics of Chemical Reactions :-
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Chemical reactions have a number of significant properties like:

(a) Evolution of a Gas: The chemical reaction between zinc and sulfuric acid is characterized by the evolution of
hydrogen gas.
Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2(g) ( )
(b) Formation of a Precipitate: The chemical reaction between silver nitrate and sodium chloride is characterized by
the formation of a white precipitate of silver chloride.
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq)→ AgCl(s) + NaNO3 (aq) ( ).
(c) Change in Colour: The chemical reaction between citric acid and potassium permanganate solution is characterized
by a change in colour from purple to colourless.
C6H8O7(aq)+3KMnO4(aq)→3HMnO4(aq)+C6H5K3O7(aq)
(d) Change in Temperature: The chemical reaction between quicklime and water to form slaked lime is characterized
by a change in rising temperature.
Cao (s) + H2O (1) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + heat.
(e) Change in State: The combustion reaction of candle wax is characterized by a change in state from solid to liquid
and gas.
CxHy (g) + O2(g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (g) + Heat and Light.

Types of Chemical Reactions

(a) Combination Reaction: When two or more substances (elements or compounds) combine to form a single product,
the reactions are called combination reactions.
Example : Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) releasing a large
amount of heat.
Cao (s) + H2O (1) → Ca(OH)2(aq).
Other examples of combination reactions are:
(i) Burning of coal C(s) +O2(g) → CO2(g)

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(ii) Formation of water from H2(g) and O2(g)

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O (l)
Note :-
* A solution of slaked lime is used for white washing the walls.
* Calcium hydroxide reacts slowly with carbon dioxide in air to form a thin layer of calcium carbonate on the walls. It
gives a shiny finish to the walls.
* A bright light was observed when a magnesium wire was ignited inside a block of dry ice.
(b) Decomposition Reaction: In a decomposition reaction, molecules or compounds break down into two or more than
two simpler chemically new substances.
A chemical reaction in which a single reactant (compound) breaks down to give simpler products, is called a
decomposition reaction. The decomposition reactions require energy in the form of heat, light or electricity. Therefore,
decomposition reactions are of three types:
(i) Thermal Decomposition: When a decomposition is carried out by heating, it is called thermal decomposition.
Example: Decomposition of calcium carbonate to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide on heating.
CaCO3(s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g).
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Lime Stone Quick Lime

Another example of thermal decomposition is the decomposition of lead nitrate to lead oxide, nitrogen dioxide (brown
fumes) and oxygen.

2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO(S) + 4NO2(g) + O2

Lead nitrate Lead oxide Nitrogen dioxide Oxygen

(ii) Photolysis : When a decomposition reaction is brought about by sunlight, it is called photolysis.

For example, 2AgCl(S) → 2Ag(s) +Cl2(g)

■ The above reaction is used in black & white photography since silver chloride or silver bromide turns grey in sunlight.
■ When metal salts are heated, their ions emit various colours of light.
■ Decomposition reaction is the reverse of the combination reaction.
■ Decomposition reaction of calcium carbonate is used in various industries, e.g. in the manufacturing of cement.
(iii) Electrolysis: When a decomposition reaction is brought about by electricity, it is called electrolysis.

For example, 2H2O(l) → 2H2 + O2

Water Cathode Anode

(c) Displacement Reaction: In these reactions, more reactive metal displaces less reactive metal from its compound.
Example: Iron displaces another element, copper, from copper sulfate solution.
Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s).
Zinc and lead are more reactive elements than copper, so they displace Cu from the aqueous solutions of its compounds.
(d) Double Displacement Reaction: In these reactions, two aqueous ionic compounds exchange their ions (mostly
cations) and produce two new compounds.
Example: Potassium nitrate reacts with aluminium chloride and forms aluminium nitrate and potassium chloride.
KNO3 (aq) + AICI3 (aq) →AI(NO3)3 (aq) + KCl (aq).

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(e) Redox Reaction: Those chemical reactions in which oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously are called
redox reactions or oxidation - reduction reactions.
Example: When the copper oxide is heated with hydrogen, copper metal and water are formed.
CuO (s) + H2(g) → Cu (s) + H2O (1).
In the above reaction, the copper (II) oxide is losing oxygen and is being reduced. The hydrogen is gaining oxygen and
is being oxidized.
Oxidation is the addition of oxygen, while reduction is the addition of hydrogen (or removal of oxygen).
The 'oxidizing agent' is a substance that causes oxidation of others and themselves gets reduced by accepting electrons;
therefore, its oxidation state decreases.
The 'reducing agent' is a substance that causes reduction of others and themselves gets oxidized by losing electrons;
therefore its oxidation state increases.
Oxidation State or Oxidation Number: The oxidation number is basically the count of electrons that atoms in a molecule
can share, lose or gain while forming chemical bonds with other atoms of a different element.
For example, the oxidation numbers of K+, Se2-, and Au3+ are +1, -2, and +3 respectively.
(f) Precipitation Reaction: In these reactions, an insoluble precipitate is formed. In precipitation reactions, two soluble
salts in aqueous solutions are combined and form an insoluble precipitate.
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Example: AgNO3 (aq) + KCI (aq) → AgCI + KNO3 (aq).

(g) Neutralization Reaction: In these reactions, acid and base react with each other and form salt and water.
Example: Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide (base) and forms sodium chloride (salt) and water.
HCI (aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (1).
(h) Combustion Reaction: It is an exothermic reaction that releases energy, generally in the form of heat. It is a reaction
between fuel and an oxidant (generally atmospheric oxygen) that produces smoke, water and heat generally.
Example - When we burn methane, it gives carbon dioxide and water.
CH4(g) +202 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g).
(i) Reversible and Irreversible Reaction: A reversible reaction is a chemical reaction where the reactants form
products that, in turn, react together to give the reactants back.
Example: NH4CI (s) = NH3 (g) + HCI (g).
If a reaction cannot take place in the reverse direction, i.e., the products formed do not react to give back the reactants
under the same condition is called an irreversible reaction.
Example: C (s) + O2(g) → CO2 (g).
(i) Photochemical Reaction: It is a chemical reaction initiated by the absorption of energy in the form of light.
Examples: Solar cells, photosynthesis, etc.

6CO2 + 12H2O → C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2

(k) Isomerization Reaction: It is the process by which one molecule is transformed into another molecule which has
exactly the same number of atoms, but the atoms have a different arrangement. Example: The conversion of butane to
isobutane.
(1) Endothermic and Exothermic Reaction: Those reactions in which heat is absorbed are called endothermic
reactions.
Examples: Melting of ice cubes, thermal decomposition, etc.
Those reactions which are accompanied by the evolution of heat are known as exothermic reactions.

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Examples: Combustion (burning), Sodium metal in water, etc.

A + B → C + ∆E (exothermic)
A + B → C - ∆E (endothermic)
(m) Hydrolysis: The chemical reaction wherein water is used for the breaking down chemical bonds of a molecule,
compound or complex is known as hydrolysis.
Example: Digestion of food in our body.

Oxidation and Reduction

Oxidation: It is defined as a chemical reaction in which a substance gains oxygen or any other electronegative element
or loses hydrogen or electrons and shows increase in oxidation number.

For example, 2Cu + O2 →2CuO (Copper is oxidised to CuO)

CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O (Hydrogen is oxidised to H2O)

Reduction It is defined as a chemical reaction in which a substance gains hydrogen or electropositive element or
electrons or loses oxygen or electronegative element and shows decrease in oxidation number.
For example,
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Oxidising Agent and Reducing Agent Acceptor of electrons is oxidising agent (oxidant). Donor of electrons is reducing
agent (reductant). In short, a substance which is oxidised or oxidation number of which is increased acts as a reducing
agent while a substance which is reduced or oxidation number of which is decreased acts as an oxidising agent.
For example,

Oxidation number of Zn is increased from 0 to +2 therefore, zinc is oxidised, while oxidation number of H is reduced
from +1 to 0 therefore, H is reduced. Further, zinc helps hydrogen in HCl to decrease its oxidation number, so Zn is
reductant (reducing agent) and hydrogen in HCl is oxidant (oxidising agent).
Some examples of reducing agents are hydrogen, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide, carbon, etc and
some examples of oxidising agents are oxygen, ozone, hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate, potassium
dichromate, etc.

Oxidation State or Oxidation Number: The valence is the most characteristic property of the elements.
Now-a-days, the term oxidation state or oxidation number is frequently used for valence. The real or imaginary charge
which an atom appears to have in its combined state, is called oxidation state or oxidation number of that atom.
Rules for the calculation of oxidation number are:
(i) The oxidation number of an atom in its elemental state is zero, e.g. Oxidation number of H in H2, S in S8 and P in P4
is zero.
(ii) The oxidation number of F is always –1 in all of its compounds.
(iii) The oxidation number of O is always –2 except peroxides (–1), superoxides (− ½) and oxygen fluorides (+2 or +1).
(iv) The oxidation number of H in metallic hydrides is –1 while in rest of the compounds it has +1 oxidation number.
(v) The oxidation number of an ion is equal to the charge present on it.

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(vi) For complex ions, the sum of oxidation number of all the atoms is equal to the net charge on the ion.
(vii)The sum of the oxidation number of all the atoms present in a molecule is zero.
For example, oxidation state of O in OF2 is calculated as:
Similarly, in H2O x + (-1)2=0 ⇒ x = +2
2 x1+ x = 0 ⇒ x = −2

Effects of Chemical Reactions in our Daily Life

Fermentation of fruits, digestion of food inside the stomach of human body, respiration, burning of fuel, corrosion and
rancidity are some examples of reaction in our daily life.
Corrosion: It is a natural process that causes the transformation of pure metals into undesirable substances when they
react with substances such as water or air. This reaction causes damage or disintegration of metal as it interfaces with
the environment and gradually spreads to the entire bulk of the metal.
Corrosion causes damage to car bodies, bridges, iron railings, ships and to all objects made of metals, especially those
of iron.
Examples: Rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver, and the appearance of green colour in copper.
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Corrosion of iron is called rusting. It is accelerated by the presence of impurities, H+, electrolytes such as NaCl, gases
such as CO2, SO2, NO, NO2, etc.
Corrosion can be prevented by:-
(a) Painting: The painting of metal substrates is done with protective paint systems.
(b) Enameling: It is a process by which powdered glass is fused to a metal substrate at high heat.
(c) Tarring: Coal tar films provide very good corrosion protection.
(d) Galvanizing: Galvanizing means applying a protective zinc layer to iron or steel by dipping it into a molten zinc
bath to prevent corrosion and rust.
(e) Electroplating: Electroplating entails the electrodeposition of a metal onto the surface of a steel or iron product.
(f) Tin plating: Tin plating is often used as a useful measure against corrosion, oxidation, and erosion when exposed to
the environment.
Rancidity: When the food items are kept for a long period the fats and oils present in them get oxidized and their smell
and taste changes. They become rancid and so the process is called rancidity.
Example: When a chips packet is exposed to atmospheric air, it results in a change in taste and odor.
It is prevented by the following methods:
— Antioxidants like BHT (Butylated hydroxytoluene), N2 (dinitrogen) are added to foods containing fats and oils.
— The food is kept in airtight containers in the refrigerator or deep freezers.
Fermentation: It refers to the metabolic process by which organic molecules (mainly carbohydrates, such as starch or
sugar) are converted into acids, gases, or alcohol in the absence of oxygen. Louis Pasteur discovered fermentation in
1857.
The study of fermentation is called 'zymology'. Using microorganisms like bacteria, yeast, or fungi, food fermentation
involves converting carbohydrates into alcohol or organic acids.

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Common examples of fermented foods include kimchi, sauerkraut, kefir, tempeh, kombucha, wine, beer and yogurt.
There are two main types of fermentation, called 'lactic acid fermentation' and 'alcoholic fermentation'.
Lactic acid (C3H6O3) fermentation produces lactic acid (lactate) and Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) while
alcoholic fermentation produces ethanol (C2H5OH), carbon dioxide (CO2), and NAD+.
Photosynthesis: It is the process by which plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to create oxygen and energy
in the form of sugar (glucose). The equation for the reaction is:
6CO2+6 H2O+ light→ C6H12O6 (glucose) + 602.
Electrochemistry: Batteries use electrochemical or redox reactions to convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
Spontaneous redox reactions occur in galvanic cells, while non-spontaneous chemical reactions take place in electrolytic
cells.
Digestion: Hydrochloric acid (HCI) in your stomach reacts with food to further break it down, while enzymes cleave
proteins and fats so they can be absorbed into your bloodstream through the walls of the intestines.
Soap and Detergent Reactions: Soap emulsifies grime, which means oily stains bind to the soap so they can be lifted
away with water. Detergents act as surfactants, lowering the surface tension of water so it can interact with oils, isolate
them, and rinse them away.
Cooking: Cooking uses heat to cause chemical changes in food. For example, when you hard boil an egg, the hydrogen
sulfide produced by heating the egg white can react with iron from the egg yolk to form a grayish-green ring around the
yolk.
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Note :-
* A sliced apple turns brown if kept open for sometimes due to the oxidation of iron present in the apple.
* Corrosion causes damage to car bodies, bridges, iron railings, ships and to all objects made of metals, specially those
of iron.
* Corrosion of iron is a serious problem. Every year an enormous amount of money is spent to replace damaged iron.
* Chips manufacturers usually flush bags of chips with nitrogen gas to prevent the chips from getting oxidised.

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Acids, Bases and Salts

All the compounds on the basis of their chemical properties can be classified as acids, bases and salts. They have certain
definite properties which distinguish one compound from other. The sour and bitter tastes of food are due to acids and
bases respectively, present in them.

Acids
Acids are the substances that yield hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous solution. They are sour in taste. They turn blue litmus
red.
Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCL), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), acetic acid (CH3COOH), nitric acid (HNO3). etc.
If in an aqueous solution, concentration of acid is low, it is called dilute solution and if concentration of acid is high, it
is called a concentrated solution.
Some naturally occurring acids and their sources: (a) Vinegar - Acetic acid, (b) Orange - Citric acid, (c) Tamarind -
Tartaric acid, (d) Tomato - Oxalic acid, (e) Sour milk (Curd) Lactic acid, (f) Lemon - Citric acid, (g) Ant sting Methanoic
acid (formic acid), (h) Nettle sting-Methanoic acid (formic acid).

Types of Acids
Based on Source
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(a) Organic or Edible Acids: These are acids that can be found in both plants and animals and are found in the
environment. Citric acid, lactic acid, acetic acid, oxalic acid etc are the examples of organic acids.
(b) Inorganic or Mineral Acids: These are acids that are made from the minerals found in the earth's surface. They are
created by humans and are referred to as 'laboratory acids'. Sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and other acids
are examples of inorganic acids.
e.g. HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, etc
Based on Concentration
(a) Concentrated Acids: The acids in which the highest quantity of acid is dissolved in the least amount of water
possible. Acids that are sold. commercially are often concentrated acids. Hydrochloric acid (HCI) and sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) are examples of concentrated acids.
(b) Dilute Acids: These are acids in which a comparatively small amount of acid is dissolved in a large amount of
water. An acid that is dilute, as opposed to concentrated, will ionize to a larger extent in solution. Example: Carbonic
acid, acetic acid and lactic acid.

Based on their Strength

(a) Strong Acids: Those acids which dissociate into H+ ions completely in aqueous solution are called strong acids.
Examples: Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCI), nitric acid (HNO3), etc.
(b) Weak Acids: Those acids which do not dissociate into H+ ions completely in aqueous solution are called weak acids.
Examples Carbonic acid (H2CO3), acetic acid (CH3COOH), oxalic acid (COOH)2, etc.
(iii) Hydra Acids The acids which contain hydrogen but oxygen is absent, are called hydra acids, e.g. HCl (hydrogen
chloride), HBr (hydrogen bromide), HCN (hydrogen cyanide), etc.
(iv) Oxy Acids The acids which contain both hydrogen and oxygen, are called oxy acids,
e.g. H2SO4, H3PO4, HNO3, etc.

Other Acids
(a) Binary Acids: These are the acidic compounds that always have hydrogen bonds to another. chemical elements,
most of the times a non-metal. It is called 'binary' because it has two different elements combined with each other. Since

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hydrogen is present as an essential component, binary acids are also called 'hydracids'. Hydrofluoric acid (HF),
hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydroiodic acid (HI) etc are examples of binary acids.
(b) Ternary Acids: They are acidic compounds that contain hydrogen and oxygen combined with another element. The
other chemical element is most of the times, a non-metal. They are often known as 'oxyacids'. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4),
nitric acid (HNO3) etc are examples of ternary acids.
Properties of Acids
(i) Acid reacts with metal to liberate hydrogen gas.
Acid + Metal → Salt +Hydrogen gas
(ii) Acid reacts with all metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates to form corresponding salt, water and evolve
carbon dioxide (CO2).
Metal carbonate/Metal hydrogen carbonate + Acid→ Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
(iii) Acid reacts with base to give salt and water.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) →NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)
The reaction between an acid and a base to give a salt and water is known as a neutralisation reaction.
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(iv) Acid reacts with metallic oxides to give salt and water.
Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
Since this reaction is similar to the reaction between a base and an acid, we can conclude that metallic oxides are basic
in nature.
(v) Acid releases brown fumes of NO2 from nitrite, H2S from sulphide and SO2 from sulphite.
(vi) Acids give hydrogen ions (H+) or hydronium ions (H3O+) in water. The separation of H+ ions from acid molecules
is not possible in the absence of water, i.e. hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, but they exist after combining with water
molecules.
For example, HCl + H2O →H3O+ +Cl −
H+ +H2O → H3O+
(vii)Acids like HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, etc., are good conductors of electricity in their aqueous solutions.
■ Carboxylic acid reacts with alcohol to form a sweet smelling compound known as ester. This reaction is called
esterification.
∆
Carboxylic acid + Alcohol → Ester + Water

Some Naturally Occurring Acids

Natural Source Acid
Vinegar Acetic acid
Amla, citrus fruits (orange, lemon) Citric acid, vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
Tamarind, grapes, unripe mangoes Tartaric acid
Tomato, sarel tree, spinach Oxalic acid
Sour milk (curd) Lactic acid
Ant sting, nettle sting Methanoic acid (formic acid)
Grass, leaves, urine Benzoic acid

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Wheat Glutamic acid

Tea Moleic acid

Uses of Acids
(a) Nitric acid (HNO3) is used for making fertilizers, dyes, plastics, medicines, explosives (TNT), aqua-regia etc. It is
also used in photography and as a laboratory reagent.
(b) Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is used in the manufacture of fertilizers, plastics, paints, explosives, dyes, detergents,
batteries, etc. It is also used in petroleum exploration.
(c) Hydrochloric acid (HCI) is used for making plastics (PVC), medicines, cosmetics, dyes, textile, aqua-regia, etc. It
is also used in the leather industry and as a laboratory reagent.
(d) Benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) and formic acid (HCOOH) are used as preservatives for food stuff. Formic acid is also
used in making insecticides, in the processing of rubber and in leather industries.
(e) Citric acid (C6H8O7) is used in the processing and preserving of food stuff, for washing metals and in textile
industries.
(f) Oxalic acid (C2H2O4) is used in photography, in colouration and printing of clothes. It is used for bleaching leather
and for removing ink or rust spots from the cloth.
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(g) Acetic acid (CH3COOH) is used as vinegar, in the preparation of acetone and in the processing of food stuff.
(h) Salicylic acid (C7H6O3) is present in aspirin, which is a medicine used to reduce fever and pain.
(i) Tartaric acid (C4H6O6) obtained from fruits like grapes is used as a flavouring agent in foods and in the
manufacturing of wine.
(i) Carbonic acid (H2CO3) is present in the soft drinks.

Bases
Bases are the substances that yield hydroxide ions (OH-) in aqueous solution. They are bitter in taste. They turn red
litmus blue.
Examples: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), potassium hydroxide (KOH). etc.

Types of Bases
Bases can be classified into two groups on the basis of dissociation in water:
(i) Strong Bases: Bases which completely dissociate in water are called strong bases,
e.g. calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), etc.
In general, the oxides and hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals are strong bases.
Those bases which dissociate into OH- ions completely in aqueous solution are called strong bases.
(ii) Weak Bases: Bases which partially dissociate in water are called weak bases,
Those bases which do not dissociate into OH- ions completely in aqueous solution are called weak bases.
e.g. iron hydroxide [Fe(OH)2], ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2], copper (II)
hydroxide (Cu(OH)2) ,

Properties of Bases
(i) Base reacts with metal to form salt and liberates hydrogen gas. However, such reactions are not possible with all
metals. e.g.
Sodium hydroxide + Zinc → Sodium zincate + Hydrogen gas

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(ii) Base reacts with acid to form salt and water (neutralisation reaction).
(iii) Base reacts with non-metallic oxide to form salt and water. Since this reaction is similar to the reaction between a
base and an acid, we can conclude that non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature.
Base + Non-metal oxide → Salt + Water
(iv) When a base is dissolved in water, it generates hydroxide ion (OH− ion) in water.

KOH(S) → K+(aq) + OH−(aq)

Mg(OH)2 (s) → Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq)

Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalies, e.g. NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, NH4OH, etc.
Thus, all alkalies are bases but all bases are not alkalies.
(v) The oil and sulphur dissolve in bases. Bases like oxides and hydroxides of Zn, Al, Sn,etc dissolve in acids as well as
in hot concentrated NaOH and KOH solutions, are termed as amphoteric substances.
(vi) Strong bases like NaOH, KOH, etc., are good conductors of electricity in their aqueous solutions and in molten state
as they readily provide ions in these states.
Uses of Bases
(a) Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] is used in manufacturing bleaching powder, concrete and plaster, in white washing,
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in softening water and in the treatment of acidic soil.

(b) Magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] is used as an antacid.
(c) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used in manufacturing drugs and hard soaps.
(d) Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is used as a laboratory reagent, in the manufacture of soft soaps, shampoos and
shaving creams.
(e) Calcium oxide (CaO) is used as a drying agent, in bleaching powder (Calcium oxychloride) production and as a
constituent of mortar.
(f) Magnesium oxide (MgO) is used as refractory material in furnaces and in the manufacture of drugs. It is also used
as a supplement of rubber.
(g) Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) is used to remove grease stains from clothes.

Chemical Properties of Acids and Bases

(a) Reaction of Metals with :-
Acids Bases
Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas Base + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas

Example: 2HCI (g) + Zn (s) → ZnCl2(s) +H2 (g) Example: 2NaOH (aq) + Zn (s)- Na2ZnO2 (aq) + H2(g) 1

Hydrogen gas released can be tested by bringing a burning candle near gas bubbles. It bursts with a pop sound.
(b) Reaction of Metal Carbonates/Metal Hydrogen Carbonates with :-
Acids Bases
Acid + Metal Base + Metal
Carbonate/Metal hydrogen Carbonate → Salt + CO2 + H2O Carbonate/Metal Hydrogen Carbonate → No Reaction

All the metal carbonates and metal hydrogen. carbonates react with acid forming their respective salt along with carbon
dioxide and water. CO2 can be tested by passing it through lime water. It turns lime water milky.

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(c) Reaction of Acids and Bases with each other: The reaction between an acid and a base to give salt and water is
known as a neutralization reaction. In general, a neutralization reaction can be written as: Base + Acid → Salt + Water.
Example: NaOH(aq) + HCI (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (1).
(d) Reaction of Acids with Metal Oxides: Metal oxides react with acids to give salt and water, i.e.,
Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water.
Example: Magnesium oxide (MgO), and its reaction with the hydrochloric acid (HCI) produces magnesium chloride
(MgCl2) and water (H2O). MgO (s) + 2HCI (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (1).
(e) Reaction of Bases with Non-metallic Oxide : When non-metallic oxides react with base, it leads to the formation
of salt and water and hence this proves that non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature. Example: CO2 (g) + 2NaOH (s) →
Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O (1).

Common Properties Between all Acids and all Bases

(a) Both acids and bases are electrolytes which means that they're good conductors of electricity.
(b) Acids and bases both produce ions in water solution. Acids release hydrogen ions (H+) whereas bases release
hydroxide ions (OH-).
(c) The process of mixing acid or a base in water is an exothermic process.

Modern Concepts of Acids and Bases

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(a) Arrhenius' Theory of Acids and Bases : According to this theory, acids are the substances that dissociate in water
to give hydrogen ions H (aq) and bases are the substances that produce hydroxyl ions OH-(aq).
For example,
Acid: HCI (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq).
Base: KOH (aq) → K+ (aq) + OH- (aq).
(b) Bronsted Lowry Theory: According to this theory, acids are the substances that are capable of donating a hydrogen
ion H+ (proton) and bases are the substances that are capable of accepting a hydrogen ion H+. In short, acids are proton
donors and bases are proton acceptors. For example,
NH3 (aq) + H2O (I) = NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
(Base) (Acid) (conjugate acid) (conjugate base)
The acid-base pair that differs only by one proton is called a conjugate acid-base pair. Therefore, OH- is called the
conjugate base of an acid H2O and NH4+ is called conjugate acid of the base NH3.
(c) Lewis Theory: Gilbert N.Lewis defined an acid as a species which accepts an electron pair and a base which donates
an electron pair (lone pair).
For example, BF3 + : NH3→ BF: NH3.
All electron deficient species and cations are Lewis acids, while all electron rich species and anions are Lewis bases.

pH
pH value is the measure of acidity or basicity of a substance. A scale which is used for measuring hydrogen ion
concentration in a solution, is called pH scale. pH is a scale for measuring H+ ion concentration in a solution. It is defined
as the negative logarithm of [H+] concentration or [H3O+] concentration. The p in pH stands for 'potenz' in German
meaning power.
pH = -log [H+] = -log [H3O+].
pH generally ranges from 0 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly alkaline). On diluting an acid, pH increases. On diluting a base,
pH decreases.

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Generally, paper impregnated with the universal indicator (a substance having different colour under different
conditions) is used for measuring pH.
The strength of acids and bases depends on the number of H+ ions and OH− ions produced, respectively. Acids that give
rise to more H+ ions are said to be strong acids and acids that give less H+ ions are said to be weak acids.
PH Scale:
(a) pH = 7: Neutral solution,
(b) pH < 7: Acidic solution,
(c) pH > 7 : Basic solution.
pH of Some Common Substances Shown on a pH Paper
pH 0-1 Battery acid
pH 1.2-2 Stomach acid
pH 2.2-3.4 Lemon juice, vinegar
Acidic pH 3.2-3.9 Orange juice, soda, some dental rinses, wine
pH 4.0-4.4 Tomato juice, bear
pH 4.5-5.5 Black coffee
pH 6.4-6.6 Saliva, cow’s milk
Neutral pH 7 Pure water
pH 7.3-7.5 Human urine, human blood
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pH 8 Sea water, pH neutralizing dental rinses

pH 9.2 Baking soda, drinking soda
Basic or Alkaline pH 10 Antacids
pH 11 Antacids, dental treatment rinses
pH 12.5 Soapy water
pH 14 Sodium hydroxide
■ pH of fresh ground water slightly reduces when it comes in contact of air. This is because of the presence of carbon
dioxide (CO2) in air which dissolves in water to give a weak acid H2CO3 (carbonic acid). This acid provides H+ ions
and thus, increases the acidity of water, due to which pH reduces.
■ pH of acidic solution increases when a base is added to it and pH of basic solution decreases when an acid is added to
it.
■ If a strong acid like HCl, H2SO4 etc., is added with the same equivalent of a strong base like NaOH (sodium
hydroxide), KOH (potassium hydroxide), etc., complete neutralisation takes place and a neutral solution with pH 7 is
obtained.
■ When an acid solution is diluted by adding water, its pH decreases, e.g. if a solution of pH 6 is diluted, its pH reduces
and it remains acidic. This is because in water generally ionisation increases.
Example - What is the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution that has a pH of 4.30?
Solution - According to question,
4.30= -log [H+]
- 4.30 = log [H+]
[H+]=10-4.30 M = 5.01 x 10-5 M.

Importance of pH in Everyday Life

(a) Plants and animals are pH sensitive.
(b) Our body works within the pH range of 7-7.8. Acid Rain
(c) When pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. Acid rain describes any form of precipitation that contains
high levels of nitric and sulfuric acids. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail, etc.

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(d) pH of the stomach is 1.5-3 due to secretion of hydrochloric acid (HCI). In case of indigestion, acidity increases,
which can be neutralized by antacids like milk of magnesia.
(e) Tooth decay starts when pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5. To protect tooth decay, toothpastes which are basic in
nature are used to neutralize the excess acid.
(f) Bee sting or ant bite leaves an acid (formic acid) into the skin, which causes pain and irritation. If a mild base like
baking soda (sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)) is applied on the stung area, it gives relief.
(g) The nature of banana leaves is basic, so it avoids yeast formation. That's why milkman generally keep a banana leaf
in the milk jar.

pH of Some Common Solutions

Blood (7.35 - 7.5), Milk (6.5 - 7.45), Saliva (6.2 - 7.6), Urine (6.0 - 6.9), Gastric juice (1.5 - 3.5). Vinegar (2.0 - 3.0),
Lemon juice (2.0-3.0), Tomato juice (4.0 - 4.5), Coffee (4.5 - 5.5), Soft drinks (2.5 - 3.5), Sea water (7.5 - 8.5), Pure
water (7.0), Acid Rain (<5.6), Battery acid (0.8 - 1.0), Wine (2.8- 4.2), Butter (6.1- 6.5), Rain water (5.0- 5.5), Salt (7.0),
Tears (6.5-7.6), Egg white (7.6-8.0), Milk of- magnesia (10.5), Lime water (12.4).

Indicators
Indicators show colour change in solution as the pH of the solution changes.
Types of Indicators: (a) Natural Indicators (b) Synthetic Indicators and (c) Olfactory Indicators.
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(a) Natural Indicators : Litmus (turns red in acidic solution & blue in basic solution), Red cabbage leaf extract (turns
red in acidic solution & green in basic solution), Flowers of hydrangea plant (turns blue in acidic solution & pink in
basic solution), Turmeric (No change in acidic solution & turns red in basic solution) etc.
(b) Synthetic Indicators - Phenolphthalein (turns colourless in acidic solution & pink in basic solution), Methyl orange
(turns red in acidic solution & yellow in basic solution) etc.
(c) Olfactory Indicators - Onion (characteristic smell in acidic solution & no smell in basic solution), Vanilla essence
(retains smell in acidic solution & no smell in basic solution), Clove oil (retains smell in acidic solution & loses smell
in basic solution) etc.
Colour of Indicators in Different Media
Indicators pH Range Colour In Basic Medium Colour In Acidic Medium
Methyl orange 3.1-4.5 Yellow Red
Methyl red 4.2-6.3 Yellow Red

Phenolphthalein 8.0-9.8 Pink Colourless

Litmus 5.5-7.5 Blue Red
Thymol Blue 1.2-2.8 Yellow Red
Bromothymol blue 6.0-7.8 Blue yellow
Alizarin yellow 10.1-12.4 Red Yellow

Buffer Solution
The solutions which resist the change in pH (acidity or alkalinity) on dilution or with the addition of small amount of
acid or alkali, are called buffer solutions.
Types of Buffer Solutions
(a) Acidic Buffer Solution: It is obtained by mixing a weak acid and its salt with a strong base in equal amount.
For example, a mixture of boric acid and borax is an example of acidic buffer.
(b) Basic Buffer Solution: It is obtained by mixing a weak base and its salt with strong acid in equal amount.
For example, a mixture of ammonium chloride (NH,CI) and ammonium hydroxide (NH,OH) acts as a basic buffer
solution.

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Salts
A salt is an ionic compound obtained from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. Salts are composed of
cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negatively charged ions) so that the product is electrically neutral (without
a net charge).
Example of salts: Sodium chloride (NaCl), Potassium chloride (KCI), Calcium chloride (CaCl2), Sodium bisulfate
(NaHSO4), Potassium iodide (KI) etc.

Types of Salts
(a) Neutral Salts: Salts produced by reaction of strong acid and strong base are neutral in nature with pH value 7 and
are neither acidic nor alkaline. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) formed by reaction between sodium hydroxide
(strong base) and hydrochloric acid (strong acid).
NaOH(aq) + HCI (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (I).
(b) Acidic Salts: The reaction between a strong acid and weak base results in acidic salts with pH value less than 7. For
example, Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is a salt of hydrochloric acid (strong acid) and ammonium hydroxide (weak
base).
NH4OH (aq) + HCl (aq) — NH4CI (s) + H2O (I).
(c) Basic Salts: Salts formed by reaction of strong base and weak acid are basic in nature with pH value more than 7.
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For example, Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is a salt of carbonic acid (weak acid) and sodium hydroxide (strong base).
H2CO3 (aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2CO3 (aq) + 2H2O (1).
(d) Double Salts: It is the mixture of two salts and exists only in solid state. Such salts are most stable in their solid
form.
Example: Potash alum (K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O).
(e) Mixed Salts : Mixed salt is one of the salt that contains two salts in a fixed proportion. This mixed salt shares either
a common cation or common anion.
Examples: Bleaching powder, sodium potassium carbonate and calcium disodium EDTA.
(f) Complex Salts: These salts contain complex ions and also exist in solutions. A complete ion contains a central metal
ion surrounded by a number of neutral or negative ions, called the ligands.
Example: Fischer salt, K3[Co(NO2)6].

Uses of Some Common Salts :-

Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is used in various food stuffs as a preservative. NaCl) is known as common or ordinary salt
or rock salt. Its crystals appear brown because of the presence of impurities. It is an important raw material for various
materials of daily use, such as sodium hydroxide, baking soda, washing soda, bleaching powder and many more. It was
an important symbol in our struggle for freedom (Mahatma Gandhi’s Dandi March).
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is used in baking powder and antacid. It is also used in fire extinguisher devices (soda
acid fire extinguishers).
Epsom salts (MgSO4.7H2O) and Calomel (Hg2Cl2) have medicinal uses.
Gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) loses water molecules of crystallisation to form Plaster of Paris [ CaSO4 ½ H2O](POP) which
is used as a plaster for supporting the fractured bones. POP is also used in making toys, materials for decoration and for
making surfaces smooth.
Washing soda (Na2CO310H2O) is a basic salt and used for removing the permanent hardness of water. It is also used in
glass, soap and paper industry, in dry cleaning of clothes and in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.
Potassium nitrate (KNO3) is used in the production of gunpowder, firecrackers, in the glass industry, in production of
fertilizers, etc.

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Hydrated copper sulfate (CuSO4.5H2O) is used as an insecticide, in electroplating, in colouration and printing and in
the purification of copper.
Potash alum [K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O] is used in the purification of water, in manufacturing drugs and as a colour
bonding in colouration.

Family of Salts
(a) Sulfate Family: All salts having sulfate ions as negative radicals belong to the sulfate family.
Examples: Potassium sulfate (K2SO4), copper sulfate (CUSO4), magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), sodium sulfate (Na2SO4),
etc.
(b) Nitrate Family: All salts having nitrate ions as negative radicals belong to the nitrate family.
Examples: Potassium nitrate (KNO3), sodium nitrate (NaNO3), etc.
(c) Chloride Family: All salts having chloride ions as negative radicals belong to the chloride family. Examples: Sodium
chloride (NaCl), beryllium chloride (BeCl2), potassium chloride (KCI), copper(II) chloride (CuCl2).
(d) Sodium Family: All salts having sodium ions as positive radicals belong to the sodium family. Examples: Sodium
nitrate (NaNO3), sodium sulfate (Na2SO4), etc.
(e) Copper Family: All salts having copper ions as positive radicals belong to the copper family. Examples - Copper
(II) nitrate: Cu(NO3)2, copper (II) sulfate (CuSO4), copper (II) chloride (CuCl2), etc.
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(f) Carbonate Family: All salts having carbonate ions belong to the carbonate family.
Examples: Potassium carbonate (K2CO3), copper(II) carbonate (CuCO3), sodium carbonate ( Na2CO3), etc.

Common Salt (NaCl)

It is also known as 'table salt'. Evaporation is the method for extracting common salt from seawater.
Preparation: It is prepared from the neutralization reaction of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide, i.e.,
NaOH + HCI → NaCl + H2O.
Uses of common salt: It is used in cooking food and as a preservative in food stuff. It is used as a raw material for
making a large number of useful chemicals in the industry such as sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, baking soda
etc.
It is used in the manufacture of soaps, in the manufacture of metal (Na) and gas (Cl2) in molten state by electrolysis. It
is also used to melt ice.
Salt that is obtained from a certain type of rock is called 'rock salt'. For example, the mineral halite and himalayan rock
salts are some examples of rock salt.

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

It is also known as 'caustic soda'. At room temperature, sodium hydroxide is a white, odorless solid. Liquid sodium
hydroxide is colorless and has no odor.
Preparation : When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride (called brine), it decomposes
to form sodium hydroxide.
2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (1) → 2NaOH (aq) + Cl2 (g) + H2 (g).
The process is called the chlor-alkali process because of the products formed - 'chlor' for chlorine and 'alkali' for sodium
hydroxide.
Uses of sodium hydroxide: It is used to produce soaps, detergents, rayon, paper, products that explode, dyes, and
petroleum products.

Bleaching Powder (CaOCl2)

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The chemical name of the compound is 'calcium oxychloride' or 'calcium hypochlorite'. It is a pale yellowish powder
with a strong smell of chlorine. It loses chlorine by the action of carbon dioxide. It is soluble in water.
Preparation : It is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime [Ca(OH) 2].
Ca(OH) 2 (s) + Cl2 (g) → CaOCl2 (s) + H2O (1).
Uses of bleaching powder : It is used for bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry, for bleaching wood pulp in
paper factories and for bleaching washed clothes in laundry. It is used as an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries.
It is used to make drinking water free from germs.

Baking Soda (NaHCO3)

The chemical name of the compound is 'sodium hydrogen carbonate' or 'sodium bicarbonate'. It is a white crystalline
powder that is naturally alkaline, or basic in nature. It is a mild non-corrosive basic salt. The following reaction takes
place when it is heated during cooking:
2NaHCO3(aq) → Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O (1) + CO2 (g).
Preparation: It is produced using sodium chloride as one of the raw materials.
NaCl (aq) + H2O (I) + CO2 (g)+ NH3 (g) — NH4CI (aq) + NaHCO3 (aq).
Uses of baking soda : For making baking powder (mixture of baking soda and tartaric acid). When baking powder is
heated or mixed with water, CO2 is produced which causes bread and cake to rise making them soft and spongy. It is
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used as an ingredient in antacid. It is also used in soda-acid fire extinguishers.

Washing Soda (Na2CO3.10H2O)

It is also known as 'sodium carbonate decahydrate'. It is a transparent crystalline solid that has the 10 molecules of water
of crystallization. It is a basic salt. It dissolves in water and the aqueous solution is alkaline. It liberates carbon dioxide
when treated with hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid.
Preparation: Re-crystallization of sodium carbonate gives washing soda.
Na2CO3 (s) + 10H2O (1) → Na2CO3.10H2O (s).
Uses of washing soda : It is used in glass, soap and paper industries. It is used in the manufacture of sodium compounds
such as borax. It can be used as a cleaning agent. It is also used for removing permanent hardness of water.
Plaster of Paris (CaSO4 ½ H2O)
The chemical name of the compound is 'calcium sulfate hemihydrate'. It is a fine white powder of calcium sulfate
hemihydrate, that is usually obtained from calcining 'gypsum'.
Preparation: On heating gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) at 373 K, it loses water molecules and becomes Plaster of Paris (POP).
CaSO.2H2O → CaSO4. ½ H2O + 1 ½ H2O. It is white powder and on mixing with water, it again changes to gypsum.
Uses of Plaster of Paris: It is used by doctors to support fractured bones. It is also used for making toys and material
for decoration. It is used to make blackboard chalks.
Hydrolysis of Salts
It is defined as the process in which a salt reacts with water to give back the acid and base. It is considered as the reverse
of the 'neutralization reaction'. In this process, ions of the salt and ions or molecules of water mutually combine to each
other and form acidic or alkaline solution.
If the acid produced is strong and the base produced is weak then cation reacts with water to give an acidic solution.
This is known as cationic hydrolysis. If the acid produced is weak and the base produced is strong then anion reacts
with. water to give a basic solution. This is known as anionic hydrolysis.
For example, Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is a salt of NaOH (Strong base) and H2CO3 (Weak acid). So, when it is treated
with water, it gives the same acid and base. Because of the presence of a strong base, its solution is basic.

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Na2CO3 (aq) + 2H2O (1)→ 2NaOH (aq) + H2CO3 (aq).

Strong Base Weak Acid
Types of Salts on the Basis of Hydrolysis
(a) Salts of Weak Acids and Strong Bases: Sodium acetate is a salt of acetic acid (weak acid) and sodium hydroxide
(strong base). Its aqueous solution is basic in nature.
CH3COONa + H2O ⇌ CH3COOH + NaOH
Sodium acetate Weak acid Strong base
(b) Salts of Strong Acids and Weak Bases : Ammonium chloride is a salt of ammonium hydroxide (weak base) and
hydrochloric acid (strong acid). Hence, upon hydrolysis it gives an acidic solution.
(c) Salts of Weak Acids and Weak Bases : Ammonium acetate is a salt of ammonium hydroxide (weak base) and acetic
acid (weak acid). Aqueous solution of this type of salt may be neutral or acidic or basic.
(d) Salts of Strong Acids and Strong Bases : Halides, sulfates and nitrates of sodium or potassium are the examples
of this type of salts. Acid as well as base both are strong, therefore no hydrolysis takes place and the solution remains
neutral.

Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is the study of the relationship between the quantity of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
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German chemist Jeremias Benjamin Richter was the first to define stoichiometry in 1792.

Stoichiometry is based on the principle of the law of conservation of mass. According to this law, the total mass of the
reactants is equal to that of the product. Since chemical reactions neither create nor destroy matter, the amount of each
element is the same throughout the reaction. The number of atoms of a particular element on the reactant side is equal
to the number of atoms of that element on the product side [1,2].
The relationship among the quantities of the reactants and products is a positive integral ratio. If the amounts of each
reactant are known, each product’s quantity can be easily determined. In this context, we refer to a stoichiometric amount
of a reactant, which is an optimum amount where the following happens:
* The reaction proceeds to a completion
* All the reactants are consumed
* There is no deficiency of reagents
* There is no excess of reagents
Balancing Chemical Equations
A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction with reactants on the left side and products on the right side.
Numbers are placed before each reactant and product to balance the reaction [1-5].
To illustrate this concept, let us take the following example of a chemical reaction. Ethanol (C2H5OH) reacts with oxygen
(O2) to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
C2H5OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O

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The equation is not balanced. Let us proceed to balance the equation.

First, we must ensure that the number of carbon atoms is equal on both sides. We multiply CO2 by 2.
C2H5OH + O2 → 2 CO2 + H2O
Next, we ensure that the number of hydrogen atoms is equal. We multiply H2O by 3.
C2H5OH + O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
Finally, we balance the oxygen by multiplying O2 by 3.
C2H5OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
Therefore, 1 mole of C2H5OH reacts with 3 moles of O2 to produce 2 moles of CO2 and 3 moles of H2O.
Stoichiometric Coefficients
Stoichiometric coefficients are the numbers before an atom, ion, or molecule in a chemical reaction. They are essential
because they establish the mole ratios between the reactants and products. In the above example, the mole ratio between
C2H5OH and CO2 is 1:2, and that between C2H5OH and H2O is 1:3. Therefore, if we know the number of moles of
C2H5OH present in the reaction, we can quickly determine the quantities of CO2 and H2O produced in the reaction.
So far, we have discussed quantifying a chemical equation in moles. We can easily convert from moles to mass in grams
by multiplying it with the molecular weight of the substance.
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Converting Moles to Grams

Suppose 0.5 moles of C2H5OH is present in the above reaction. The molar mass of C2H5OH is = 2 x 12 g + 6 x 1 g + 16
g = 46 g. The quantity of C2H5OH in grams is = 0.5 M x 46 g M-1 = 23 g.
Converting Grams to Moles
Suppose 50 g of CO2 is produced in the reaction. The molar mass of CO2 is = 12 g + 2 x 16 g = 44 g. The number of
moles of CO2 produced is = 50 g / 44 g M-1 = 1.14 M.
The mole ratio can convert the amounts of any two substances in a chemical reaction from moles to grams and vice
versa.

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Carbon (C)
Carbon is the seventeenth most abundant element by mass in earth’s crust. Its atomic number is 6 and mass number is
12.
It belongs to group-14 or IV A, 2nd period and p- block of the periodic table. Its electronic configuration is 1s2, 2s2, 2p2
Occurrence
It is widely distributed in nature in free as well as in combined state. In elemental state, it is available as coal, graphite
and diamond. However in combined state, it is present as metal carbonates, proteins, carbohydrates, hydrocarbons, CO2
(0.03%) in air and other complex compounds.
Carbon exists in following isotopic forms 612C, 613C, 614C. Third isotope, i.e. 614C is a radioactive isotope (half-life 5770
years) and emits β -rays and 612C is taken as an international standard of atomic weight which is expressed in atomic
mass units (amu).
Properties of Carbon
(i) Carbon is a tetravalent non-metal. It is not affected by water.
(ii) It forms multiple bonds with itself and with other atoms of small size.
e.g. C= C, C≡ C, C= O, C =S and C≡N.
(iii) Carbon atoms link with one another through covalent bonds to form chains and rings. This property of self linking
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is called catenation.
(iv) Due to the property of catenation, carbon is able to exist in allotropic forms.
Allotropes of Carbon
Carbon exhibits many allotropic forms; both crystalline as well as amorphous. Diamond, graphite and fullerene are
crystalline forms of carbon. While carbon black coke, wood charcoal, coal, etc., are its amorphous forms.
Allotropy is the phenomenon of existence of the same element or compound in two or more forms that possess similar
chemical properties but differ in their physical properties. These different forms are called allotropes or allotropic
modifications.

Diamond
It is a precious gem stone that occurs in nature in the form of kimberlite stone. Its purity is measured in terms of carat
(1 carat = 200 mg). Different varities of diamond are known by the name cullinan (3032 carat), hope (445 carat),
kohinoor (186 carat), pit (136.2 carat), etc.
In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms in tetrahedral fashion forming a rigid three-
dimensional structure. In this structure, directional covalent bonds are present throughout the lattice. It is very difficult
to break extended covalent bonding and, therefore, diamond is the hardest substance on earth.
Properties of Diamond

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(i) Pure diamond is a colourless transparent solid.

(ii) Its density and refractive index are 3.67 and 2.44 respectively.
(iii) It is inert and highly poisonous.
(iv) It is a bad conductor of electricity because of the absence of free electrons but can conduct heat.
(v) In pure form, it is transparent to X-rays but in impure form, it is not. So, X-rays can be used to distinguish between
pure and artificial diamonds.
(vi) On heating with potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7and conc. H2SO4 at 200°C, it gives carbon dioxide gas. This gas is
also evolved when diamond is heated in air at about 700-900°C.
Uses
Coloured diamond is used
(i) as an abrasive for sharpening hard tools (i.e. in making rock drilling machines, glass cutting devices, gem cutters,
etc).
(ii) in making dyes.
(iii) in the manufacture of tungsten filaments for electric bulb.
Graphite
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In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same plane giving a hexagonal array. The
fourth electron of each carbon is free and moves in entire crystal lattice making graphite a good conductor of electricity.
The structure of graphite is two-dimensional sheet like formed by the hexagonal arrays being placed in layers one above
the other.
Properties of Graphite
(i) Graphite is soft, smooth and slippery due to its layer like structure. It is so soft that it is used for marking on the paper
in the form of lead pencil. Thus, it is also known by the name black lead.
(ii) It is inert towards most of the chemicals like acids, alkalies, dil. HNO3, etc., but gives carbon dioxide, when heated
alone or with a mixture of K2Cr2O7 and conc. H2SO4.
(iii) On heating a very high pressure and in the presence of suitable catalyst, it gets converted into diamond. However,
conversion of diamond into graphite is not possible in any circumstances.
Uses
(i) in making electrodes because it is a good conductor of electricity due to the presence of free electrons.
(ii) as dry lubricant to prevent rusting and viscous friction in machines running at high temperature.
(iii) in making refractory crucibles used for melting metals.
(iv) in making lead pencils as it marks on paper.
(v) as a moderator in nuclear reactor.
Graphene
Graphene is a newly discovered allotrope of carbon. Its structure is one-atom-thick with planar sheets of carbon atoms
that are densely packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice. The term graphene was coined as a combination of graphite and
the suffix-ene by Hanns-Peter Boehm, who described single-layer carbon foils in 1962. It is a two-dimensional substance
with good conductivity. It is a strong substance and used as a conducting material for touch screen, LCD and LED.
Fullerene
It is the only pure form of carbon. It is made by heating graphite in an electric arc in the presence of inert gases such as
helium or argon. These are cage like molecules. C60 molecule has a shape like soccer ball and called Buckminster

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fullerene. It is so called because it resembles in structure with the dome shaped structures made by the architect
Buckminster Fuller.
Uses (i) As a microscopic ball bearing and light weight batteries.
(ii) In synthesis of new lubricants, new plastics and new drugs.

Lamp Black
It is the purest form of carbon and contains 95% carbon. It is obtained by burning hydrocarbons in a limited supply of
air. It is used as a black pigment in black ink, shoe polish and as filler in automobile tyres. It is also used as an eye soot.

Charcoal
It is the impure form of carbon because of its porous structure and large surface area. It has high capacity of absorbing
gases.
It can be of the following types:
(i) Wood Charcoal : It is obtained by heating wood in the absence of air at high temperature. Being highly porous,
activated charcoal is used in absorbing poisonous gases and in making gas masks which are used in mines and factories.
It is also used in water fillers and in air conditioning system to control odour. It is a good reductant and exhibits
germicidal properties. It is used in making explosives.
(ii) Bone Charcoal: It is obtained by the destructive distillation of bone. Organic substances are bleached by using this
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charcoal.
(iii) Sugar Charcoal and Blood Charcoal: These are obtained by the destructive distillation of sugar and blood
respectively.

Coal
About 90% coal is found in northern hemisphere. It is obtained by the process of carbonation from vegetable substances
and is considered as a unlimited source of energy. It is used as fuel, in the production of coal gas and synthetic petrol.
Generally, there are four varities of coal depending upon the percentage of carbon.
These are as follows:
(a) Peat (50-60% C)—It is low quality coal.
(b) Lignite or brown coal (60-70% C).
(c) Bituminous (78-86% C) — It is a general variety of coal. It is soft and used for domestic purposes.
(d) Anthracite (94-98% C) — It is a good and high quality coal.
■ Fullerenes are discovered by HW Kroto, E Smalley and RF Curl.
■ Graphite is thermodynamically most stable allotrope of carbon.
■ Graphite fibres embedded in plastic material (composites) are used in tennis rackets, fishing rods and aircrafts, etc.
■ Coconut charcoal is used in the separation of inert gases.
■ Artificial graphite is obtained by Acheson process.
■ Carbon forms a number of hydrides which are known as hydrocarbons. We study them in organic compounds.

Oxides of Carbon
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
It is obtained by the direct oxidation of carbon in the limited supply of oxygen.

2C(s) + O2 (g) → 2CO(g)

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It is produced as smoke of motor vehicles, so it is the main pollutant of the city. Δ

Properties
(i) It is present in water gas or synthesis gas (CO + H2) and in producer gas (CO + N2). Both are used as an important
industrial fuel.
(ii) It is colourless, odourless, tasteless and almost water insoluble gas.
(iii) It burns with a blue flame and forms a poisonous gas phosgene (carbonyl chloride) by reacting with chlorine in the
presence of sunlight.
(iv) Its weight is equal in air and in volatile gas.
(v) It itself is highly poisonous gas. It forms a stable complex with haemoglobin (about 200 times more readily as
compared to oxygen) and thus, decreases the oxygen carrier capacity of blood which disturbs the respiratory activities
and ultimately results in death.
Uses
It is used as a reducing agent in various metallurgical processes, in the preparation of metal carbonyls, in Mond process
(purification of Ni), in the preparation of compounds like phosgene, methyl alcohol, sodium formate, etc.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

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It is obtained by the complete combustion of carbon and carbon containing fuels in excess of air. Limestone on heating
also gives CO2. It is produced in the process of respiration in plants and animals. It is also produced in the process of
fermentation.
Properties
(i) In atmosphere, it is present 0.03% by volume, from where it is removed by the process of photosynthesis.
(ii) It is a colourless, odourless acidic gas.
(iii) CO2 is non-poisonous. It is a greenhouse gas but its increased concentration in atmosphere is responsible for global
warming.
(iv) Aqueous solution of carbon dioxide is called carbonic acid (H2CO3).
(v) If this gas is passed over lime water, lime water turns milky due to the formation of white coloured calcium carbonate.
However, in excess of CO2, the milkiness disappears as soluble calcium bicarbonate is obtained.
Uses
(i) Solid CO2 (dry ice or drikold) is used as a refrigerant for ice-cream, etc.
(ii) Gas CO2 is used in carbonated soft drinks like soda water, cold drinks, etc., under high pressures.
(iii) It is used as a fire extinguisher. To extinguish a fire, it is generated at that time by the reaction of sodium bicarbonate
with dilute acid.
(iv) It is also used in the manufacturing of urea, hard steel, etc.

Carbonic Acid (H2CO3)

When CO2 is dissolved in water, carbonic acid is formed. It is a dibasic acid.
H2CO3 / HCO3- buffer system helps to maintain pH of blood between 7.42 to 7.26.

Silicon (Si)
Its atomic number is 14 and mass number is 28. It belongs to group-14 or IV A, 3rd period and p-block of the periodic
table. Its electronic configuration is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p2.

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Properties
(i) It occurs in nature in the form of silica (sand) and silicates.
(ii) It is the second most abundant (by mass) element on earth’s crust after oxygen (i.e. 26%).
(iii) It is a non-metallic element that exhibits allotropy.
Uses
(i) It is an important component of ceramics, glass, cement.
(ii) Ultra pure Si is used as a semiconductor and in transistors.
(iii) It is used in making polymer silicones, silica gel as a drying agent and in making silica garden and acid resistant
steel.
(iv) It is also used for making computer chips.
Compounds of Silicon
(i) Silicon Carbide It is an artificial diamond, known as carborundum.
(ii) Silica (SiO2) It is used in manufacturing of glass and cement. Crystalline quartz is SiO2.
(iii) Silicones These are polymers used as sealant, greases, electrical insulators and for waterproofing of fabrics. These
are used in surgical and cosmetic plants.
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(iv) Silanes These are the hydrides of silicon.

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Carbon and its Compound

Carbon
Carbon is a solid element that is non-metal in nature with the symbol C and atomic number 6. It occurs naturally as
diamond and graphite. Carbon is also a major constituent of fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. Carbon
is an essential constituent of all living things. It is non-metallic and tetravalent-its atom making four electrons available
to form covalent chemical bonds. It belongs to group 14 of the periodic table.
Electronic configuration of carbon-1s2 2s2 2p2.
Carbon is abundant in the universe i.e. in the sun, planets, and atmosphere of the Earth. It is present in carbonate rocks
i.e. limestone, dolomite, marble etc.
In a carbon atom, there are 4 electrons in the second shell. The electronic configuration of carbon is 2,4. There are three
naturally occurring isotopes of carbon: 12C, 13C,14C. 14C is radioactive and its half life is 5730 years. It is used in
radiocarbon-dating to determine the age of formerly living things.
Properties of Carbon
(a) It can form four covalent bonds, i.e. it is tetravalent in nature.
(b) It has a valency of four.
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(c) Carbon can form bonds with atoms of other elements such as hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (0), sulfur (S) and
halogens etc.
(d) It also has the property of self combination i.e. bond formation with the other carbon atoms. Thus, carbon can form
long chains of carbon atoms. This unique property of forming long chains is known as catenation.
(e) In addition to the single covalent bonds, carbon can also form multiple bonds, i.e. double or triple bonds with other
carbon, oxygen or nitrogen atoms to give a large variety of compounds.
Element Symbol Atomic number Atomic Mass Classification Electron Configuration
Carbon C 6 12.011 Non-metal [He]2s22p2
Silicon Si 14 28.085 Metalloid [Ne]3s23p2
Germanium Ge 32 72.61 Metalloid [Ar]3d104s2
Tin Sn 50 118.71 Metal [Kr]4d105s2
Lead Pb 82 207.2 Metal [Xe]4f145d10
Flerovium Fl 114 287 Metal [Rn]5f146d10

Oxides of Carbon
The two important oxides of carbon are carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
(a) Carbon monoxide: It is formed when carbon or hydrocarbons are burned in a limited supply of oxygen.
2C(s) + O2(g) → 2CO(g)
It is a colourless and odourless gas. It has a melting point of -205°C and boiling point of -191.5°C. It is a major air
pollutant and is released in large quantities from automobile engines. It is toxic because it reduces the oxygen carrying
capacity of blood by binding with heamoglobin, the red pigment of blood.
Uses of Carbon Monoxide:-
(i) It is used as a reducing agent in metallurgical processes to reduce metal oxides. For example, in the blast furnace, it
used to reduce iron oxide to iron. Fe203 (s) + 3CO (g) → 2Fe (s) + 3 CO2 (g)
(ii) In the presence of a catalyst, it can combine with hydrogen to give methanol (CH2OH).
(iii) It forms carbonyl compounds. The nickel carbonyl, Ni(CO)4 is used in the refinement of nickel.
(iv) It is used as a fuel.

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(v) It is used in the synthesis of several organic compounds.

(b) Carbon dioxide: It is formed when carbon containing substances are burnt in excess of oxygen.
C (s) + O2(g) → CO2 (g)
CH4 (g) +202 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (1)
It is also produced by heating of carbonates. CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
It is also released as a by-product in the fermentation of sugar (glucose) to produce alcohol (ethanol).
C6H12O6 (aq) → 2C2H5OH (aq) + 2 CO2 (g)
(glucose) (ethanol)
Carbon dioxide is a colourless and odourless gas. It is present in a very small amount (0.03%) in the atmosphere. It is a
major contributor to the greenhouse effect.

Uses of Carbon dioxide:-

(i) Solid carbon dioxide also called dry ice is used as a refrigerant because when it is cooled at atmospheric pressure, it
condenses into a solid rather than as a liquid.
(ii) It is used in the production of carbonated drinks.
(iii) It is used in the production of washing soda (Na2CO3.10H2O) and baking soda (NaHCO3).
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Allotropes of Carbon
Allotropes are different forms of the same element in the same physical state. Carbon occurs in free state (i.e., not
combined with any other element) in different allotropic forms such as Graphite, diamond, etc.

Diamond
(a) Diamonds are formed inside the earth under the conditions of high temperature and high pressure. It is the hardest
natural substance found on Earth.
(b) In a diamond crystal, each carbon atom is linked to four other carbon atoms by covalent bonds in a tetrahedral
fashion. This results in a three dimensional arrangement of carbon atoms.
(c) In India, diamonds are found in Panna in Madhya Pradesh and in Wajrakarur in Andhra Pradesh.
(d) The only other substance harder than diamond is silicon carbide which is also known as carborundum but note that
diamond is a natural substance whereas carborundum is a synthetic one.
(e) Diamonds are basically colourless. However, some impurities impart colour to them.
(f) The density of diamond is high. It has a value of 3.51 g cm. The melting point of diamond (in vacuum) is also very
high.
(g) Diamond does not conduct electricity but it is a good conductor of heat. Its thermal conductivity is five times that of
copper.
(h) Diamond is used in cutting and grinding of other hard materials. It is used in jewellery. The high refractive index of
diamond (n = 2.42) makes it very brilliant when it is properly cut and polished.
Graphite
(a) It is soft, black and slippery solid. It has a metallic luster. It is also a good conductor of
electricity and heat. It is thermodynamically the most stable allotrope of carbon.
(b) It contains layers of carbon atoms. In each layer, a particular carbon atom is linked to three other carbon atoms in a
trigonal planar arrangement with a bond angle of 120°.
(c) It is a good solid lubricant.

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(d) The density of graphite is less than that of diamond. It has a value of 2.2 g cm3.
(e) The melting point of graphite (in vacuum) is about 3700°C.
(f) It can be converted to diamond by applying very high atmospheric pressure and temperature.
(g) It is used for making electrodes in dry cells and in electric arcs, in making pencil leads, and for making containers
which are used for melting metals.
(h) Carbon also exists in three microcrystalline or amorphous forms of graphite.
They are:
(i) Charcoal: It is formed when wood is heated strongly in the absence of air. It is widely used for adsorbing coloured
impurities and bad odours from water and other substances.
(ii) Coke: It is an impure form of carbon. It is formed when coal is strongly heated in the absence of air. It is used as a
reducing agent in metallurgy.
(iii) Carbon black It is formed by heating hydrocarbons in limited supply of oxygen. It is used as a pigment in black
inks. It is also used in making rubber tyres for automobiles. The fossil fuel used to manufacture carbon black is natural
gas.
Fullerenes
Fullerenes have closed structures like a football. A typical fullerene, named as buckminsterfullerene has 60 carbon atoms
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(C60). Fullerenes are formed when vaporized carbon condenses in an atmosphere of an inert gas.
Graphene
(a) Graphene is a newly discovered allotrope of carbon.
(b) It is a two-dimensional substance with good conductivity.
(c) Its structure is one-atom-thick with planar sheets of carbon atoms that are densely packed in a honeycomb crystal
lattice.
(d) It is a strong substance and used as a conducting material for touch screens, Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) and
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).

Charcoal
It is an impure form of carbon. It has a high capacity of absorbing gases. It can be of the following types:
(a) Wood Charcoal: It is obtained by heating wood in the absence of air at high temperature. It is used in water fillers
and in air conditioning systems to control odour. It is a good reductant and exhibits germicidal properties. It is used in
making explosives.
(b) Bone Charcoal : It is obtained by the destructive distillation of bone. Organic substances are bleached by using this
charcoal.
(c) Sugar Charcoal and Blood Charcoal : These are obtained by the destructive distillation of sugar and blood
respectively.

Coal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock with a high amount of carbon and hydrocarbons.
Coal is classified as a non-renewable energy source because it takes millions of years to form. It contains the energy
stored by plants that lived hundreds of millions of years ago in swampy forests.
Types of coal are:-
(a) Anthracite (hard coal): It contains 86% -97% carbon and generally has the highest heating value of all ranks of
coal.

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(b) Bituminous (soft coal): It contains 45%-86% carbon. It is used to generate electricity and is an important fuel and
raw material for making coking coal. Coking coal or metallurgical coal is a naturally occurring sedimentary rock found
within the Earth's crust.
(c) Sub-bituminous: It typically contains 35% -45% carbon, and it has a lower heating value than bituminous coal.
(d) Lignite (brown coal): It contains 25%-35% carbon and has the lowest energy content of all coal ranks.
Decaying plants in swamps produce peat, which has a low carbon (partially carbonized) and high moisture contents and
low heating capacity.

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen. Hydrocarbons can be divided into various
classes as shown below:
Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic or open chain compounds Cyclic or Closed chain compounds

Saturated alkanes Unsaturated Alicyclic Aromatic

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(paraffins)
CnHn+2
Alkenes (Olefins) CnH2n Alkynes CnH2n-2
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: The word aliphatic is derived from the Greek word 'aleiphar' meaning fat. Aliphatic
hydrocarbons were named so because they were derived from fats and oils. Hydrocarbons can be acyclic compounds,
which are straight chain compounds, or cyclic compounds, which have rings of carbon atoms.
Aromatic hydrocarbons: The word aromatic is derived from the word 'aroma' meaning fragrance. The aromatic
compounds have a characteristic smell. Structurally, they include benzene and its derivatives.
The aliphatic hydrocarbons can be divided into two categories saturated hydrocarbons and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes): In saturated hydrocarbons, carbon atoms are linked to each other by single bonds.
Methane (CH4) is the simplest alkane in which four hydrogen atoms are linked to the carbon atom in a tetrahedral
fashion.
The general formula of alkanes is CH2n+2 where 'n' is the number of carbon atoms in the alkane molecule. First ten
alkanes corresponding to n = 1 to n = 10 are
CH4 (Methane), C2H6 (Ethane), C3H8 (Propane), C4H1o (Butane), C5H12 (Pentane), C6H14 (Hexane), C7H16 (Heptane),
C8H18 (Octane), C9H20 (Nonane) and C10H22 (Decane).
In alkanes, each compound differs from the previous one by a -CH2 unit. Such a series of compounds is known as
'homologous series'. A homologous series is a family of compounds that have the same functional group and thus similar
chemical properties and the same general formula, with each compound in the series differing from the next by a simple
structural unit. For example, CnH2n+2 is the general formula for the homologous series of alkanes.
Properties of Alkanes: Alkanes are colourless and odorless compounds. They have very low reactivity. Many of these
compounds are gases or liquids.
Isomerism in Alkanes : Isomers are compounds which have the same molecular formula but have different structures.
The number of isomers of alkanes increases with the increase in the number of carbon atoms. The first three
hydrocarbons (methane, ethane and propane) have only one isomer because there is only one way in which one, two or
three carbon atoms can link to each other i.e.

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Methane Ethane Propane

But when there are four carbon atoms, they can join in two different ways as follows:
-c–c–c–c-
(straight chain arrangement)

(branched chain arrangement)

Corresponding to the above two carbon skeletons, there are two hydrocarbons, butane and isobutane as shown below:
H3C - CH2-CH2-CH3 (Butane)
or
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H3C - CH - CH3
CH3 (isobutane)
Hence, they are the isomers of butane as they have the same molecular formula (C4H10) but have different structures.
IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes :-
The word root for different carbon skeletons are as follows:
Number of Carbon atoms - Word root: 1-meth, 2 -eth, 3 prop, 4-but, 5-pent, 6-hex, 7-hept, 8 oct, etc. For example, the
alkane with only one carbon
atom CH4 will be named as, word root + ane → Meth + ane → Methane.
In 1892, 'International Union of Chemists' met in Geneva (Switzerland) and framed the rules for nomenclature. Later,
this organization was named as International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the names approved
by it are called IUPAC names of compounds.
Naming of Alkyl Groups: The alkyl groups are named by replacing -ane suffix of the alkane with -yl suffix. Some
examples of the names of alkyl groups so obtained are given as:
Alkyl Group - Derived from Alkane - Name of Alkyl Group
- CH3 – methane - methyl
-C2H5 - ethane-ethyl
- C3H7 - propane - propyl
and so on.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons (Alkenes and Alkynes): Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain carbon-carbon double or
triple bonds. Unsaturated hydrocarbons having carbon-carbon double bonds (-C=C-) are called alkenes whereas those
having carbon carbon triple bonds (-C ≡ C-) are known as alkynes.
Alkenes : The simplest alkene, ethene has two carbon atoms joined by a double bond. Its molecular formula is C2H4.
Its structure is as shown below:
H2C = CH2

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Similar to alkanes, alkenes also form a homologous series of compounds in which each member differs from the next
one by a -CH2 unit. The homologous series of alkenes can be represented by the general formula CH2 where n represents
the number of carbon atoms in the alkene molecule.
IUPAC name of Alkenes: The names of alkenes are given by replacing the -ane suffix of alkanes by -ene. For example,
For C2H4, Word root + ene = eth + ene = Ethene.
Alkynes: The simplest alkyne is ethyne and it has molecular formula C2H2. Its common name is acetylene. It is used
to ripen the fruits such as banana, mango etc. It is also used along with oxygen in the oxy-acetylene torch which is used
for welding purposes. Its structure is as shown below: H-C ≡ C-H
The general formula for the homologous series of alkynes is C2H2n-2 where n is the number of carbon atoms in the alkyne
molecule.
IUPAC Name of Alkynes: Alkynes are named by replacing -ane suffix of alkanes by -yne suffix. Word root + yne. For
example, C2H2 = eth + yne = Ethyne.
Functional Derivatives of Hydrocarbons
Functional derivatives of hydrocarbons are those compounds which are derived from hydrocarbons by replacing one or
more hydrogen atoms with the functional groups. A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms which is responsible
for characteristic properties of a compound.
The double and triple bonds which respectively give the alkenes and alkynes their characteristic properties are functional
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groups. The other examples of functional groups are halogens (- F, - Cl, Br, I, etc), OH (hydroxyl group and > C = 0
(carbonyl group)

Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds

(a) Combustion: Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide along with the release of
heat and light. C+O2 → CO2+ heat and light
Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean flame while unsaturated carbon compounds will give a yellow flame
with lots of black smoke.
(b) Oxidation : Carbon compounds can be easily oxidized on combustion. In addition to this complete oxidation, we
have reactions in which alcohols are converted to carboxylic acids.

(c) Addition Reaction: Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in the presence of catalysts such as palladium or nickel
to give saturated hydrocarbons. This reaction is commonly used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils using a nickel
catalyst. Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated carbon chains while animal fats have saturated carbon chains.

Animal fats generally contain saturated fatty acids which are said to be harmful for health. Oils containing unsaturated
fatty acids should be chosen for cooking.
(d) Substitution Reaction: Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are inert in the presence of most reagents.
However, in the presence of sunlight, chlorine is added to hydrocarbons in a very fast reaction. Chlorine can replace the
hydrogen atoms one by one.
CH4+ Cl2 → CH3CI + HCI (in the presence of sunlight).

Some Important Carbon Compounds

Ethanol
(a) It is a clear, colourless liquid with a characteristic odour and burning taste. It is also known as ethyl alcohol.

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(b) It is highly flammable.

(c) Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature.
(d) Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and is the active ingredient of all alcoholic drinks.
(e) It is a good solvent. It is also soluble in water in all proportions.
(f) It is used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups, and many tonics.
(g) It is a renewable fuel made from various plant materials collectively known as biomass.

Reactions of Ethanol
(a) Reaction with Sodium: Alcohols react with sodium leading to the evolution of hydrogen. With ethanol, the other
product is sodium ethoxide. 2Na (s) + 2CH3CH2OH (1) → 2CH3CH2O-Na+ (1)(Sodium ethoxide) + H2(g)
(b) Reaction to give Unsaturated Hydrocarbon : Heating ethanol at 443 K with excess concentrated sulphuric acid results
in the dehydration of ethanol to give ethene.

The concentrated sulphuric acid can be regarded as a dehydrating agent which removes water from ethanol.
Ethanoic Acid
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(a) Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and belongs to a group of acids called carboxylic acids.
(b) 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a preservative in pickles.
(c) The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often freezes during winter in cold climates. This gave
rise to its name glacial acetic acid.
Reactions of Ethanoic Acid
(a) Esterification Reaction: Esters are most commonly formed by reaction of an acid and an alcohol. Ethanoic acid
reacts with absolute ethanol in the presence of an acid catalyst to give an ester.
CH3COOH (ethanoic acid) + CH3CH2OH (ethanol) = CH3COOCH2CH2 (ester) + H2O
Esters are sweet-smelling substances. These are used in making perfumes and as flavouring agents.
(b) Reaction with a Base: Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid reacts with a base such as sodium hydroxide to give a salt
(sodium ethanoate or commonly called sodium acetate) and water.
NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O
(c) Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogencarbonates: Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and
hydrogencarbonates to give rise to a salt, carbon dioxide and water. The salt produced is commonly called sodium
acetate.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

Compounds of Daily Use

We daily use many organic compounds such as alcohol, vinegar, vanillin, acetone etc. The important ones are discussed
below:
(a) Alcohols: Methanol (CH3OH) is also called wood alcohol because it was earlier obtained by heating wood in the
absence of air. It is prepared by heating carbon monoxide and hydrogen under pressure and by using a catalyst. It has
many industrial uses. It is used in the synthesis of acetic acid and many adhesives, fibers and plastics. It is also used as
an additive to petrol and also as a fuel.

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Ethanol (C2H5OH) is present in beer, wine and medicines. It is produced by the fermentation of carbohydrates such as
glucose and starch present in grapes, barley etc. It is used as solvent for organic compounds. It is also used as a rectified
spirit (95% ethanol).
(b) Aldehydes and Ketones: An aqueous solution of formaldehyde, called formalin, is used to preserve biological
specimens in the laboratories. Vanillin which is used as a flavour, also has the aldehyde functional group. It is the primary
component of the extract of the vanilla bean. Acetone is used as a solvent and also in nail polish removers.
(c) Carboxylic Acids: It is soluble in water as it forms hydrogen bonds with water molecules. It is used as a preservative.
Formic acid (from ants), butyric acid (present in rancid butter) and lactic acid (present in sour milk, also produced in
muscles. during heavy exercise) are some of the common. carboxylic acids. Citric acid present in citrus fruits and
ascorbic acid present in Vitamin C are carboxylic acids.
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Organic Compounds
The word organic is derived from the word 'organism' because the body of living things is composed mainly of organic
compounds. They are present in a vast range of substances like fuels, foods, polymers and plastics, textiles, dyes, drugs,
medicines, explosives, cosmetics, paints and pesticides.
Hydrocarbons and their derivatives, i.e. carbon compounds with the exception of CO, CO2, carbonates and bicarbonates
are called organic compounds. Around the year 1780, it was thought that organic compounds can not be synthesised in
laboratory but can be synthesised by living organisms only. That’s why the term organic was used to represent these
compounds. Organic is an Anglo word which means bio (or living).
Berzilius, a Swedish chemist, proposed that a vital force was responsible for the formation of organic compounds (vital
force theory).
Wöhler synthesised the first organic compound ‘urea’ accidentally from the inorganic compounds ammonium sulphate
and potassium cyanate, when he was trying to prepare ammonium cyanate from these compounds.
Later, the synthesis of acetic acid by Kolbe (in 1844) from its constituent elements, methane by Berthelot (in 1856)
showed that organic compounds could be synthesised from inorganic sources in a laboratory.

Petroleum as a Source of Organic Compounds

Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons mainly aliphatic with lesser amounts of aromatic hydrocarbons. It also contains
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a small amount of organic compounds of sulphur and nitrogen.

Various Constituents of Petroleum and their Uses
Constituents of Petroleum Uses
Petroleum gas in liquid form (LPG) Fuel for home and industry
Petrol Motor fuel, aviation fuel, solvent for dry cleaning
Kerosene Fuel for stoves, lamps and for jet aircrafts
Diesel Fuel for heavy motor vehicles, electric generators
Lubricating oil Lubrication
Greases, vaseline, petroleum jelly Pharmaceutical preparations
Paraffin wax Ointments, candles, waxed papers
Asphalt or tar (bitumen) Paints, road surfacing
Classification of Organic Compounds
Organic compounds are broadly classified as follows:
Organic Compounds

Acyclic or open chain compounds Cyclic or closed chain or ring compounds

Homocyclic or carbocyclic compounds Heterocyclic compounds

Alicyclic compounds Aromatic compounds

Benzenoid compounds Non-benzenoid compounds

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Acyclic or Open Chain Compounds

These compounds are also called as aliphatic compounds and consist of straight or branched chain compounds, for
example:

CH3CH3
(Ethane)

Alicyclic or Closed Chain or Ring Compounds

Alicyclic (aliphatic cyclic) compounds contain carbon atoms joined in the form of a ring (homocyclic). Sometimes
atoms other than carbon are also present in the ring (heterocyclic). Some examples of this type of compounds are:
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They resemble more with acyclic compounds as compared to aromatic compounds.

Aromatic Compounds
Aromatic compounds are special types of compounds. These include benzene and other related cyclical compounds
(benzenoid). Like alicyclic compounds, aromatic compounds may also have hetero atoms in the ring. Such compounds
are called heterocyclic aromatic compounds. Some of the examples of various types of aromatic compounds are:
Benzenoid aromatic compounds

Functional Group
The functional group may be defined as an atom or group of atoms joined in a specific manner which is responsible for
the characteristic chemical properties of the organic compounds. The examples are hydroxyl group (-OH), aldehyde
group (-CHO) and carboxylic acid group (-COOH) etc.

Homologous Series
A group or a series of organic compounds each containing a characteristic functional group forms a homologous series
and the members of the series are called homologues.
The members of a homologous series can be represented by a general molecular formula and the successive members
differ from each other in molecular formula by a -CH2 unit.
There are a number of homologous series of organic compounds. Some of these are alkanes, alkenes, alkynes,
haloalkanes, alkanols, alkanals, alkanones, alkanoic acids, amines etc.
Common or Trivial Names of Some Organic Compounds
Methane → CH4

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n-Butane → H3CCH2CH2CH2CH3
Isobutane → (H3C)2CH2CH3
Neopentane → (H3C)4C
n-Propyl alcohol → H3CCH2CH2OH
Formaldehyde → HCHO
Acetone → (H3C)2CO
Chloroform → CHCL3
Acetic acid → CH3COOH
Benzene → C6H6
Anisole → C6H5OCH3
Aniline → C6H5NH2
Acetophenone → C6H5COCH3
Ethyl methyl ether → CH3OCH2CH3

Sigma (σ) and pi (π) Bonds

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Sigma and pi bonds are chemical covalent bonds. Sigma and pi bonds are formed by the overlap of atomic orbitals.
Sigma bonds (a) are the strongest type of covalent bond, formed by head-on overlapping of atomic orbitals. pi bonds
are formed when the lobe of one atomic orbital overlaps another. Generally sigma bonds are stronger than pi bonds.
Both are used extensively to predict the behavior of molecules in molecular orbital theory.
A single bond such as (C-H) has one sigma bond whereas, a double (C=C) and triple (C=C) bond has one sigma bond
with remaining being pi bonds. For example
the molecule H-C ≡ C-CH2-CH=CH2 has 3π and 10σ bonds.
Some Functional Groups and Classes of Organic Compounds
Class Functional group Class Functional Group
Alkanes Ethers R-O-R
Alkenes >C=C< Carboxylic Acids -COOH
Alkynes -C≡ C- Carboxylate ions -COO-
Arenes Esters -COOR
Halides -X (F, Cl, Br, I) Acyl Halides -COX X (F, Cl, Br, I)
Alcohols -OH Amines -NH2 , > NH > N-
Aldehydes -CHO Amides -CONH2,
-CONHR,
-CONR2
Ketones -CO- Ntro compounds -NO2
Nitriles -C≡N Sulphonic Acids -SO3H
Homologous Series
Homologous series is a series of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes for hydrogen in a carbon
chain.
Members of a homologous series are called homologues. e.g. Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), butane
(C4H10) belong to straight chain alkanes.
Similarly, methyl alcohol (CH3OH), ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH), propyl alcohol (C3H7OH), butyl alcohol (C4H9OH) and
amyl alcohol (C5H11OH)are the homologues of alcohol series. This phenomenon is called homology.
Characteristics of Homologous Series
(i) Homologues can be represented by the same general molecular formula.

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e.g. CnH2n+1OH or CnH2n+2O is the general formula for alcohols.

(ii) Successive members differ from each other in molecular formula by a -CH2 unit.
(iii) Molecular weights of any two adjacent members differ by 14 u.
(iv) All the members of a homologous series are prepared by same general methods.
(v) As the molecular mass increases in any homologous series, a gradation in physical properties (like melting point,
boiling point, density, etc.) is seen.
(vi) The chemical properties which are determined solely by the functional group, remain similar in a homologous series.

Isomerism
The phenomenon of existence of two or more compounds possessing the same molecular formula but different properties
is known as isomerism. Such compounds are called isomers. The following flow chart shows different types of
isomerism:
Isomerism

Structural isomerism Stereoisomerism

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Chain isomerism Position isomerism Functional group isomerism Metamerism

Geometrical isomerism Optical isomerism

Structural Isomerism
Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures. Examples are given below:
(a) Chain Isomerism: When two or more compounds have similar molecular formula but different carbon skeletons,
these are referred to as chain isomers and the phenomenon is termed as chain isomerism. For example, pentane (C5H12)
represents three compounds :
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
Pentane

Isopentane

Neopentane
(b) Position Isomerism: When two or more compounds differ in the position of substituent atom or functional group
on the carbon skeleton, they are called position isomers and this phenomenon is termed as position isomerism. For
example, the molecular formula C2H2O represents two alcohols :
CH3CH2CH2OH
Propan-1-ol

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Propan-2-ol
CH3CH2CH2OH
Propan-1-ol

Propan-2-ol
(c) Functional Group Isomerism: Two or more compounds having the same molecular formula but different functional
groups are called functional isomers and this phenomenon is termed as functional group isomerism. For example, the
molecular formula C3H6O represents an aldehyde and a ketone:
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Propanone

Propanal – 2-ol
(d) Metamerism: It arises due to different alkyl chains on either side of the functional group in the molecule. For
example, C4H10O represents methoxypropane (CH3OC3H7) and ethoxyethane (C2H2OC2H5).

Stereoisomerism
The compounds that have the same constitution and sequence of covalent bonds but differ in relative positions of their
atoms or groups in space are called stereoisomers. This special type of isomerism is called stereoisomerism and can be
classified as geometrical and optical isomerism.

Fundamental Concepts in Organic Reaction Mechanism

In an organic reaction, the organic molecule (also referred as a substrate) reacts with an appropriate attacking reagent
and leads to the formation of one or more intermediate and final products.
Substrate is that reactant which supplies carbon to the new bond and the other reactant is called reagent. If both the
reactants supply carbon to the new bond then choice is arbitrary and in that case the molecule on which attention is
focused is called substrate.
A sequential account of each step, describing details of electron movement, energetics during bond cleavage and bond
formation, and the rates of transformation of reactants into products (kinetics) is referred to as reaction mechanism.
The knowledge of reaction mechanisms helps in understanding the reactivity of organic compounds and in planning
strategy for their synthesis.

Fission of a Covalent Bond

A covalent bond can get cleaved either by:
(i) heterolytic cleavage

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(ii) homolytic cleavage.

In heterolytic cleavage, the bond breaks in such a
fashion that the shared pair of electrons remains with one of the fragments. For example, heterolytic cleavage of
bromomethane will give *CH, and Bras shown below:

A species having a carbon atom possessing a sextet of electrons and a positive charge is called a carbocation (earlier
called carbonium ion). Carbocations are classified as primary, secondary or tertiary depending on whether one, two or
three carbons are directly attached to the positively charged carbon. Some other examples of carbocations are: CH3C+H2
(ethyl cation, a primary carbocation), (CH3)2C+H (isopropyl cation, a secondary carbocation), and (CH3)3C+ (tert-butyl
cation, a tertiary carbocation).
Carbocations are highly unstable and reactive species.
The observed order of carbocation stability is:
C+H3 < CH3C+ H2 < (CH3)2C+H <(CH3)3C+.
These carbocations have trigonal planar shape with positively charged carbon being sp2 hybridized.
A carbon species carrying a negative charge on a carbon atom is called carbanion. Carbanions are also unstable and
reactive species. The organic reactions which proceed through heterolytic bond cleavage are called ionic or heteropolar
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or just polar reactions.

In homolytic cleavage, one of the electrons of the shared pair in a covalent bond goes with each of the bonded atoms.
Thus, in homolytic cleavage, the movement of a single electron takes place instead of an electron pair.

Nucleophiles and Electrophiles

A reagent that brings an electron pair is called a nucleophile (Nu:) i.e., nucleus seeking and the reaction is then called
nucleophilic. Some examples of nucleophiles are the negatively charged ions with lone pairs of electrons such as
hydroxide (OH-). cyanide (NC-) ions and carbanions (R3C-).
A reagent that takes away an electron pair is called electrophile (E+) i.e., electron seeking and the reaction is called
electrophilic. Examples of electrophiles include carbocations (CH3+) and neutral molecules having functional groups
like carbonyl group (>C=O) or alkyl halides (R3C-X, where X is a halogen atom).

Electron Movement in Organic Reactions

Movement of a single electron is indicated by a single barbed 'fish hooks' (i.e. half headed curved arrow). For example,
in the dissociation of chloromethane, the movement of electron using curved arrows can be depicted as follows:

Electron Displacement Effects in Covalent Bonds

(a) The electron displacement in an organic molecule may take place either in the ground state under the influence of an
atom or a substituent group or in the presence of an appropriate attacking reagent.
(b) The electron displacements due to the influence of an atom or a substituent group present in the molecule cause
permanent polarization of the bond.
(c) Inductive effect and resonance effects are examples of this type of electron displacement.
(d) Temporary electron displacement effects are seen in a molecule when a reagent approaches to attack it. This type of
electron displacement is called electromeric effect or polarisability effect.

Inductive Effect
The transmission of induced charges along a chain of σ-bonded carbon atoms is known as the inductive effect.

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(a) This effect is passed on to the subsequent bonds also but the effect decreases rapidly as the number of intervening
bonds increases and becomes vanishingly small after three bonds.
(b) The inductive effect is related to the ability of substituent(s) to either withdraw or donate electron density to the
attached carbon atom. Based on this ability, the substituents can be classified as electron-withdrawing or electron
donating groups. relative to hydrogen.
(c) Halogens and many other groups such as nitro (-NO2), cyano (-CN), carboxy (-COOH), ester (- COOR), aryloxy (-
OAr, e.g. -OC6H5), etc. are electron-withdrawing groups. On the other hand, the alkyl groups like methyl (-CH3) and
ethyl (- CH2-CH3) are usually considered as electron donating groups.
Resonance Structure
This phenomenon is exhibited by a number of organic molecules, which can be represented by two or more structures
which are called resonating or canonical structures. The resonance structures (canonical structures or contributing
structures) are hypothetical and individually do not represent any real molecule. They contribute to the actual structure
in proportion to their stability.
The true structure of the compound is an intermediate of all the possible resonating structures or canonical structures
and thus called a resonance hybrid. For example, the benzene molecule (CH) may be represented by the following two
structures, I and II.
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The energy of the actual structure of the molecule (the resonance hybrid) is lower than that of any of the canonical
structures. The difference in energy between the actual structure and the lowest energy resonance structure is called the
resonance stabilization energy or simply the resonance energy.
Resonance Effect
It is defined as 'the polarity produced in the molecule by the interaction of two π-bonds or between at T-bond and lone
pair of electrons present on an adjacent atom'. The effect is transmitted through the chain. There are two types of
resonance or mesomeric effect designated as R or M effect.
(a) Positive Resonance Effect (+R effect): In this effect, the transfer of electrons is away from an atom or substituent
group attached to the conjugated system. This electron displacement makes certain positions in the molecule of high
electron densities. This effect in aniline is shown as:

(b) Negative Resonance Effect (-R effect): This effect is observed when the transfer of electrons is towards the atom
or substituent group attached to the conjugated system. For example in nitrobenzene this electron displacement can be
depicted as:

The atoms or substituent groups, which represent +R or R electron displacement effects are as follows:
+R effect: halogen, -OH, -OR, -OCOR, -NH2, -NHR, -NR2, -NHCOR

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- R effect: -COOH, -CHO, >C=O, - CN, -NO2.

The presence of alternate single and double bonds in an open chain or cyclic system is termed as a 'conjugated system'.

Electromeric Effect (E effect)

It is defined as the complete transfer of a shared pair of п-electrons to one of the atoms joined by a multiple bond on the
demand of an attacking reagent. It is a temporary effect. The organic compounds having a multiple bond (a double or
triple bond) show this effect in the presence of an attacking reagent only.

Types of Electromeric Effect

There are two distinct types of electromeric effect.
(a) Positive Electromeric Effect (+E effect): In this effect, the п-electrons of the multiple bond are transferred to that
atom to which the reagent gets attached. For example:

(b) Negative Electromeric Effect (-E effect): In this effect, the electrons of the multiple bond are transferred to that
atom to which the attacking reagent does not get attached. For example:
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When inductive and electromeric effects operate in opposite directions, the electromeric effect predominates.

Hyperconjugation
(a) Hyperconjugation is also known as no-bond resonance. It involves the conjugation of σ (sigma) bond with п (pi)
bond.
(b) It is a general stabilizing interaction. It involves delocalisation of a electrons of C-H bond of an alkyl group directly
attached to an atom of an unsaturated system or to an atom with an unshared p orbital.
(c) It is a permanent effect.
(d) Hyperconjugation is also possible in alkenes and alkylarenes.
(e) Hyperconjugation in propene can be represented as follows:

Types of Organic Reactions and Mechanisms

Organic reactions can be classified into the following categories:
(a) Substitution Reactions
(b) Addition Reactions
(c) Elimination Reactions

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(d) Rearrangement Reactions

(a) Substitution Reactions: A substitution reaction involves the displacement of one atom or group in a molecule by
another atom or group. Aliphatic compounds undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions. For example, a haloalkane can
be converted to a wide variety of compounds by replacing halogen atoms (X) with different nucleophiles as shown
below:
δ+ δ-
R - X + Nu: → R-Nu + X –
(haloalkane)
There is yet another type of substitution reaction which takes place in aromatic hydrocarbons. In this case, an
electrophilic reagent attacks the aromatic ring because the latter is electron rich. The leaving group, in this case, is
always one of the hydrogen atoms of the ring.

For example, in case of nitration the -NO2 group replaces one hydrogen atom of benzene.
(b) Addition Reactions: When an atom is added to an unsaturated compound (double or triple bond), an addition
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reaction occurs. The colour of bromine solution disappears when added to the unsaturated hydrocarbons. This is due to
the following addition reaction:

(c) Elimination Reactions: An elimination reaction is characterized by the removal of a small molecule from adjacent
carbon atoms and the formation of a double bond. For example, when alcohols are heated with a strong acid as the
catalyst, a molecule of water is removed and a double bond is formed.

(d) Rearrangements Reactions: A molecular rearrangement proceeds with a fundamental change in the hydrocarbon
skeleton of the molecule. During this reaction, an atom or group migrates from one position to another. For instance, 1-
chlorobutane in the presence of a Lewis acid (AICI3) rearranges to 2-chlorobutane.

Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds

The common techniques used for purification are as follows:
(a) Sublimation
(b) Crystallization
(c) Distillation
(d) Differential extraction

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(e) Chromatography
(a) Sublimation: The purification technique based on sublimation is used to separate sublimable compounds from non-
sublimable impurities.
(b) Crystallization: This is one of the most commonly used techniques for the purification of solid organic compounds.
It is based on the difference in the solubilities of the compound and the impurities in a suitable solvent.
(c) Distillation: This important method is used to separate (1) volatile liquids from nonvolatile impurities and (ii) the
liquids having sufficient difference in their boiling points. Glycerol can be separated from spent-lye in the soap industry
by using distillation under reduced pressure.
If the difference in boiling points of two liquids is not much, simple distillation cannot be used to separate them. The
technique of fractional distillation is used in such cases. In this technique, vapours of a liquid mixture are passed through
a fractionating column before condensation. One of the technological applications of fractional distillation is to separate
different fractions of crude oil in the petroleum industry.
Steam distillation is a technique applied to separate substances which are steam volatile and are immiscible with water.
Aniline is separated by this technique from aniline-water mixture.
(d) Differential Extraction: It is a method employed to separate any organic component from an aqueous solution. The
principle behind the separation is the difference in solubilities of compounds present in an aqueous solution. The
separation of oil-water mixture is done by differential extraction.
(e) Chromatography: The name chromatography is based on the Greek word 'chroma' for colour since the method was
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first used for the separation of coloured substances found in plants. It is an important technique extensively used to
separate mixtures into their components, purify compounds and also to test the purity of compounds.
Based on the principle involved, chromatography is classified into different categories which are listed below:
(i) Adsorption Chromatography: It is based on the fact that different compounds are adsorbed on an adsorbent to
different degrees. Commonly used adsorbents are silica gel and alumina. The two main types of chromatographic
techniques based on the principle of differential adsorption are - Column chromatography (involves separation of a
mixture over a column of adsorbent (stationary phase) packed in a glass tube) and Thin layer chromatography (involves
separation of substances of a mixture over a thin layer of an adsorbent coated on glass plate).
(ii) Partition Chromatography: It is based on continuous differential partitioning of components of a mixture between
stationary and mobile phases. Paper chromatography is a type of partition chromatography. In paper chromatography, a
special quality paper known as chromatography paper is used. Chromatography paper contains water trapped in it,
which acts as the stationary phase.
Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds
(a) Detection of Carbon and Hydrogen: Carbon and hydrogen are detected by heating the compound with copper (II)
oxide.
(b) Detection of Other Elements: Nitrogen, sulfur, halogens and phosphorus present in an organic compound are
detected by "Lassaigne's test".
Quantitative Analysis of Organic Compounds
The percentage composition of elements present in an organic compound is determined by various methods. This
analysis is called quantitative analysis.
(a) Carbon and Hydrogen : Both carbon and hydrogen are estimated in one experiment. A known mass of an organic
compound is burnt in the presence of excess of oxygen and copper (II) oxide. Carbon and hydrogen in the compound
are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water respectively.
CxHy+ (x + y/4) O2 → x CO2 + (y/2) H2O
(b) Nitrogen: There are two methods for estimation of nitrogen:
(i) Dumas method and

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(ii) Kjeldahl's method.

(i) Dumas method: The nitrogen-containing organic compound, when heated with copper oxide in an atmosphere of
carbon dioxide, yields free nitrogen in addition to carbon dioxide and water.
CxHyNz + (2x+y/2) CuO → x CO2 + y/2 H2O + z/2 N2 + (2x+y/2) Cu
(ii) Kjeldahl's method: The compound containing nitrogen is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid. Nitrogen in the
compound gets converted to ammonium sulfate. The resulting acid mixture is then heated with excess of sodium
hydroxide. The liberated ammonia gas is absorbed in an excess of standard solution of sulphuric acid.
Organic compound + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4 → Na2SO4 +2NH3 + 2H2O
2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
(c) Halogens: Carius method - A known mass of an organic compound is heated with fuming nitric acid in the presence
of silver nitrate contained in a hard glass tube known as Carius tube in a furnace.
(d) Sulphur : A known mass of an organic compound is heated in a Carius tube with sodium peroxide or fuming nitric
acid. Sulphur present in the compound is oxidized to sulphuric acid. It is precipitated as barium sulfate by adding excess
of barium chloride solution in water. The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried and weighed.
(e) Phosphorus: A known mass of an organic compound is heated with fuming nitric acid whereupon phosphorus
present in the compound is oxidized to phosphoric acid. It is precipitated as ammonium phosphomolybdate, (NH4),
PO4.12M00, by adding ammonia and ammonium molybdate. Alternatively, phosphoric acid may be precipitated as
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MgNH,PO, by adding magnesia mixture which on ignition yields Mg2P207.

(f) Oxygen: The percentage of oxygen in an organic compound is usually found by the difference between the total
percentage composition (100) and the sum of the percentages of all other elements.

Hydrocarbon
The term ‘hydrocarbon’ means compounds of hydrogen and carbon only. Their natural source is petroleum or crude oil.
Hydrocarbons are of different types.
Depending upon the types of carbon-carbon bonds present, they can be classified into three main categories:
1. Saturated Hydrocarbons
They contain carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen single bonds.
These are of two types:
(i) Alkanes or Paraffin: Paraffin is a Latin word meaning less affinity, thus, these are chemically inert (or unreactive)
towards most of the chemicals. In these compounds, different carbon atoms are joined together to form open chain of
carbon atoms with single bonds, General formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2 (where, n = … 1 2 3, , ). Methane is the first
member of this family.
Other members of this family with increasing order of molecular mass is
ethane (C2H6) < propane (C3H8) < butane (C4H10) < pentane (C5H12) < hexane (C6H14 ) < heptane (C7H16).
Methane or Marsh Gas (CH4) It is generally released through the septic tank. Wet and marshy land is also a major
source of methane. Decomposition of vegetable generates methane.
In laboratory, it is prepared by heating the mixture of sodium acetate and sodalime. Commercially, it is prepared by the
reaction of aluminium carbide on water.
Its mixture with air is explosive and sometimes, it is responsible for explosion in coal mines. Its shape is tetrahedral
with 109°28′ angle and it is black in colour.
It is mainly used as a fuel to produce light and energy, in the preparation of important organic compounds like methyl
alcohol, chloroform, etc, carbon black (printing ink), hydrogen (at industrial level) and in making motor tyre.

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(ii) Cycloalkanes: In cycloalkanes, carbon atoms form a closed chain or a ring. General formula for cycloalkanes is
CnH2n. Cyclopropane (C3H6)is the first member of this family. Distance between two carbon atoms bonded through a
single bond is always larger than that present between two carbon atoms joined together through multiple bonds (double
or triple bond). Thus, C - C bond length in ethane is greater than that of ethyne, ethene and benzyne.
2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
They contain carbon-carbon multiple bonds, i.e. double bonds, triple bonds or both. These are of two types:
(i) Alkenes They contain atleast one carbon-carbon double bond. These are also known as olefins (oil forming), since
the first member ethylene or ethene (C2H4) was found to form an oily liquid on reaction with chlorine. General formula
for alkenes is C2H2n.
Ethylene (C2H4) It is prepared by heating ethyl alcohol with conc. H2SO4 at 170°C. It is used in making mustard gas,
in ripening fruits artificially, in oxyethylene flame, in fruit preservation and as an anaesthesia. Trichloroethylene is also
used for dry cleaning purposes.
Butene (CH3CH2CH=CH2) It is a constituent of liquified petroleum gas and used as a fuel.
(ii) Alkynes or Acetylenic Hydrocarbon: They contain atleast one carbon-carbon triple bond. Their general formula is
CnH2n-2. Ethyne, C2H2 (acetylene) is the first member of this family. Reaction of acetylene with silver nitrate shows its
acidic property.
Acetylene (C2H2) It was prepared for the first time by American scientist Wilson. It is prepared by the reaction of
calcium carbide on water. It is used in the synthesis of benzene, in oxy-acetylene welding and cutting (flame temperature
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− 3200°C) as a raw material for plastics, in making camphor, in making neoprine (artificial rubber) and in the form of
anaesthesia.
3. Aromatic Hydrocarbons
These are also known as arenes. Most of them possess pleasant odour (Greek aroma means pleasant smelling). Most of
these compounds contain benzene ring, e.g. benzene, toluene, naphthalene, anthracene, etc. General formula for arenes
is CnH2n-2.
Benzene (C6H6) : It was first isolated by Faraday in 1825 from the cylinders of compressed It was first synthesised by
Berthelot by passing acetylene through red hot tube. It is used in the production of various organic compounds,
manufacturing of explosives, dry cleaning of clothes (woolen), as a solvent and fuel in motor vehicle when mixed with
petrol.
Toluene (C6H5CH3) It was first extracted from tolu balsam, a resin. It is used in the manufacturing of TNT explosives,
as antifreezer, as solvent, in making chloramine-T drug in artificial sweetener saccharin and in day leaving.

Organic Compounds Containing Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

These are alcohols, phenols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, acid anhydrides and esters.

1. Alcohols
These are formed when a hydrogen atom of aliphatic hydrocarbon is replaced by -OH group (alcoholic group). General
formula for alcohol is CnH2n+1OH. Alcohols may be classified as mono-, di-, tri- or polyhydric compounds depending
on whether they contain one, two, three or more hydroxyl groups respectively. e.g.
Monohydric alcohol—methanol, ethanol.
Dihydric alcohol — glycol.
Trihydric alcohol — glycerol.
Presence of this group is identified by esterification test. Formation of pleasant smelling compound with carboxylic acid
shows the presence of alcohol.
(i) Methyl Alcohol or Methanol (CH3OH)

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It is produced by the destructive distillation of wood, so also called wood spirit. It is also obtained by heating
formaldehyde with potassium or sodium hydroxide. Sodium or potassium formate is also formed during the reaction. It
is a colourless poisonous liquid with wine like odour.
Its ingestion in small amount causes blindness (because it affects optic nerve) and in large amount causes death. In liver,
methanol is oxidised to methanal which reacts rapidly with the cells causes coagulation of protoplasm.
It is used as a solvent in paints and varnishes and in the production of artificial colours, formaldehyde and denatured
alcohol as a fuel by mixing petrol in it.
(ii) Ethyl Alcohol or Ethanol (C2H5OH)
Industrially, it is prepared by the fermentation of molasses (by-product of sugar industry) or starched food grains. It is
also prepared by treating ethene with water (steam) in the presence of phosphoric acid.

It is a colourless volatile liquid. It is used as a solvent in varnishes, paints, etc. It is used in making transparent soaps,
perfumes, iodine tincture, polish, in the production of wine and a number of carbon compounds. It is also used as fuel
in spirit lamp, stones and for cleaning wound.
When ethanol is ingested in large quantities, it slows down the metabolic processes and depresses the central nervous
system. The individual may feel relaxed but does not realise that his sense of judgement, sense of timing and muscular
coordination have been seriously impaired.
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(iii) Ethylene Glycol (CH2OH - CH2OH)

It is a dihydric alcohol with swell taste and used as antifreezer (to depress the freezing point of water and petrol) in
radiator of cars in cold regions.
(iv) Glycerol or Glycerine (CH2OHCHOHCH2OH)
It is an extremely hygroscopic substance which is used in making explosives such as trinitroglycerine by the treatment
with conc. HNO3 in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid and dynamite, etc.
It is also used in making stamp ink, boot polish, medicines, cosmetics, lubricants, antifreezer wine, transparent soaps,
etc. Parts of watches are cleaned by it. It also acts as fruits preservator, etc.
Glycerol is found in fats and vegetable oils in the form of esters. In the free state, it is found in fermented sugar solution
and in the human blood.
Alcoholic Beverages
Alcoholic beverages are beverages like tea or coffee which are produced by the fermentation of grapes, maize,
sugarcane, etc., and the amount of alcohol is different for different beverages. These beverages contain ethanol as their
prime constituent. Yeast contains rymase enzyme which converts glucose into ethyl alcohol.
Types of Alcoholic Beverages
Alcoholic beverages can be of the following types:
(i) Distilled Beverages: These beverages are prepared by distillation. Amount of alcohol in them may vary from 40-
55%.
Distilled Beverages, Percentage of Alcohol and their Sources
Distilled Beverage Percentage of Alcohol Sources

Brandy (40-50)% Grapes (fermented juice)

Gin (35-40)% Maize

Rum (45-55)% Sugarcane

Vodka (30-40)% Corn, wheat

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Whisky (40-50)% Molasses

Spirit: Spirit is an alcoholic beverage containing ethanol. It is produced by the distillation of ethanol which is obtained
by the means of fermentation of grain, vegetables and fruits.
Wine: Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes, apples, berries, etc. It contains 9-16% ethanol by
volume.
■ Oenology It is the branch of chemistry which deals with the study of all aspects of wine and wine making.
(ii) Undistilled Beverages: These are prepared by the addition of substances for flavour, perfume and colour. In them,
amount of alcohol vary from 3-15%.
Undistilled Beverages, Percentage of Alcohol and their Sources
Undistilled Beverage Percentage of Alcohol Sources
Beer (4-6)% Barley

Cider (2-6)% Apples

Champagne (10-15)% Grapes

Port and sherry (15-25)% Grapes

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Some Terms Related to Alcohol

■ Denatured Alcohol Some substances like pyridine, acetone, methyl alcohol are added to ethyl alcohol (ethanol) to
make it poisonous and unfit for drinking. This alcohol is termed as denatured alcohol.
■ Grain Alcohol Ethyl alcohol is called grain alcohol because it is obtained by the fermentation of starched food grains.
■ Absolute Alcohol It is also called grain alcohol. It is a pure ethyl alcohol which is volatile and colourless liquid.
■ Power Alcohol Mixture of purified spirit, benzene and petrol is used in propelling engine, thus termed as power
alcohol.
■ Rectified Spirit It contains 95.6% (≈95%) of ethanol and 4.4% ( 5%) ≈ of H2O . It is purified by the means of repeated
distillation called rectification, thus termed as rectified spirit.
■ Wood Spirit It is produced by the destructive distillation of wood and contains methyl alcohol (methanol).
2. Phenols (C6H5OH)
These are formed when a hydrogen atom in an aromatic hydrocarbon is replaced by -OH group (alcoholic group). Phenol
is the simplest hydroxy derivative of benzene.
Ferric chloride test is used to indicate presence of phenols. It is commonly known as carbolic acid and was prepared by
Runge in 1834. It is used to prepare many compounds like salol, bakelite, phenolphthalein, aspirin, salicylic acid, phenyl
(a household germicide) and in explosives like picric acid.
3. Ethers
These are formed when a hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon is replaced by alkoxy or aryloxy ( R-O/Ar-O ) group, e.g.
dimethyl ether, diethyl ether, ethyl methyl ether, etc.
General formula for ethers is CnH2n+2O.
Diethyl Ether (C2H5OC2H5) It is commonly called ether also. It is obtained by heating ethanol with conc. H2SO4 at
140°C. Other method for its synthesis is Williamson synthesis. It is used as an anaesthesia as it is better than chloroform.
4. Aldehydes

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These organic compounds contain -CHO functional group (aldehyde group). General formula for aldehydes is CnH2nO,
e.g. formaldehyde (HCHO), acetaldehyde (CH3CHO), etc. These are identified by Tollen’s reagent, Fehling solution and
Schiff’s reagent.
Formaldehyde (HCHO) It is used as a tissue fixative and embalming agent. It is used as a disinfectant and its 40%
aqueous solution (in solution water,) called formalin, is used as preservative of biological specimens i.e., in embalmin
biological materials.
5. Ketones
These organic compounds contain > C = O functional group (ketonic group). General formula for ketones is CnH2nO
or (CnH2n+1) 2CO,
e.g. acetone or dimethyl ketone, ethyl methyl ketone, etc.
Acetone (CH3COCH3) It is a common industrial solvent. It is used in cosmetics. It is also used in making artificial silk,
synthetic rubber, nail polish remover and medicines.

6. Carboxylic Acids
Carbon compounds containing a -COOH functional group (carboxyl group), are called carboxylic acids. General
formula for carboxylic acid is CnH2nO2, e.g. formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH), propionic acid (C2H5
COOH), etc.
Formic Acid (HCOOH) It was prepared firstly by the distillation of water with red ants so named as formic acid (Latin
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formicus means red ants).

It is used in rubber, leather textile, dyeing and electroplating industry, in the production of medicines of artherites and
various compounds. It is also used as insecticide and fruit juice preservative.
Acetic Acid (CH3COOH) On commercial scale, it is obtained from pyroligneous acid. It is a common laboratory reagent
and is used to form various organic compounds like alcohol, acid as a solvent and as vinegar in food.
Its 4-6% aqueous solution is called vinegar. It is also used in making photographic film, rayon (as cellulose acetate) and
sources and jelly.
Oxalic Acid (C2H2O4)It is a dicarboxylic acid which, in the form of potassium-hydrogen salt, is present in the family of
plants as oxalis and rumex. It is used in metallurgy, in colouration and printing of clothes. It is used in cleaning the spot
of ink (10% solution) and bleaching of leather. It is also used in photography in the form of ferrous oxalate.
It is also used for making ink and coaltar, for colouring and printing clothes.
Lactic Acid [CH3CH(OH) COOH] It is a monohydroxy carboxylic acid. It is present in milk and provides it sour taste.
It is also produced in muscles during exercise. So, human beings feel tired due to its accumulation. Its more solubility
in water as compared to organic solvents is because of the formation of hydrogen bonding. It is used in food products
to produce yogurts. It is also used in detergents, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries.
Salicylic Acid [C6H65(OH)COOH] It is a white crystalline aromatic acid used in the medicines (pain killers and skin
ointment).
Citric Acid: It is a monohydroxy tricarboxylic acid. It occurs in all citrus fruits such as lemon, orange, etc.

7. Esters
These organic compounds contain - COOR functional group and fruity smell. General formula of this class is CnH2nO2
or CnH2n+1COOR, e.g. methyl format (HCOOCH3), methyl acetate (CH3COOCH3), ethyl acetate (C2H5COOCH3), etc.
Ethyl acetate is used for making artificial perfumes, scented colour, dyes, etc.

Some Other Important Organic Compounds

Chloroform (CHCl3)
It was discovered by Liebig in 1831. It is stored in closed dark coloured bottles completely filled because it is oxidised
in air slowly to produce a poisonous gas, phosgene (carbonyl chloride).

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It was used as anaesthesia for the first time by Simpson who later used it in surgical operations. It is used as solvent for
fats, alkaloids, iodine, rubber, etc. It is also used as insecticide. The major use of chloroform today is in the production
of the freon refrigerant R-22. Inhalation of chloroform vapours ceases the sense organs and thus, it is used as an
anaesthesia.
Iodoform (CHI3 )
It is a yellow crystalline sublimative substance with specific odour. It is prepared in the haloform reaction by the reaction
of iodine, NaOH and ethanol.
It is insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol and ether. It was used earlier as an antiseptic but the antiseptic properties
are due to the liberation of free iodine and not due to iodoform itself. It is a bactericidal substance.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (Freons)
These are extremely stable, unreactive, non-toxic, non-corrosive and easily liquefiable gases. Freon-12 is one of the
most common freons in industrial use. These are used in refrigeration and air conditioning purposes and in aerosol
propellants. They play a significant role in ozone layer depletion.
Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl4)
It is used in the manufacture of refrigerants and propellants for aerosol cans. It is widely used as a cleaning fluid (for
dry cleaning), both in industry as a decreasing agent and in home as a spot remover and as a fire extinguisher (electric
fire) under the name pyrin.
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Aniline (C6H5NH2) (Aminobenzene)

It is an amine derivative and took its name from a Portuguese word ‘anil' means indigo. Unverdorben synthesised it for
the first time by the distillation of lime water and indigo in 1826. Runge obtained it from coaltar and Fritsche by heating
indigo with conc. alkali. It is used in the preparation of various compounds like sulphonilic acid, nitroaniline and in
explosives. It is used in the preparation of drugs, coloured dye and Zwitter ion. It is also used in rubber industry.
Methyl Isocyanate (CH3NC)
It is used in the production of rubbers, adhesives and in pesticides. Leakage of this gas from Union Carbide Company
of USA in 1984 led the Bhopal gas tragedy in which thousands of people were killed.
Gammexane or Benzene Hexachloride (BHC) or Lindane
It is used as an insecticide and in pharmaceutical industries.
Formamint
It is used in making medicines of throat (chewing tablets).
Nitrobenzene (C6H5NO2) (Oil of Mirbane)
It contains -NO2 functional group and was extracted from the first time from Mitscherilich in 1834.
It is used in making TNB (trinitro benzene) an explosive soaps, polishes and cheap perfumes.
Naphthalene (C10H8)
It is a polynuclear hydrocarbon. Its major source is coaltar. It is used as an germicide and moth repellent.
Lewisite
It was used during Second World War. It is a poisonous gas produced by the reaction of acetylene with AsCl3 in the
presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride.
Paraldehyde
It is obtained by heating anhydrated acetaldehyde with conc. H2SO4 and used as a sleeping drug.
Urotropine (Hexamethylene tetramine)
It is formed by the reaction of HCHO and NH3. It is used in making medicine of urine (urological diseases).

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Chloretone
It is formed by the reaction of acetone with chloroform in the presence of KOH. It is used in making drugs (for vomiting
and headache) during the mountain or sea expedition.
Acetamide [(CH3CONH2)]
It is used in moistening pulp and paper, in softening leather.
Chlorobenzene (C6H5Cl)
It is prepared by treating benzene with chlorine in the presence of iron as catalyst.
It is used in manufacturing of phenol, aniline, etc.
Dichloromethane (CH2Cl2)
It is used as solvent for paint remover, propellant in aerosols, in metal cleaning etc.
Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane (DDT)
It is used as insecticide for mosquito and lice, and have many industrial applications.
Benzene Sulphonic Acid (C6H5SO3H)
It is used in the preparation of sulpha drugs, saccharin (an artificial sweetener).
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Urea (NH2CONH2)
It was the first organic compound synthesised in laboratory. It was extracted for the first time from urine in 1773. It is a
colourless, odourless substance that is soluble in water. In it, the nitrogen content is 46%. That’s why it is used as
fertilizer and for the production of baronial medicines, formaldehyde-urea, plastics, etc.
Chloral (CCl3CHO) (Trichloro Acetaldehyde)
It is a oily colourless liquid and is obtained by the reaction of chlorine with acetaldehyde. It is used in manufacturing of
DDT.

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Biomolecules
Biomolecules are the organic molecules that include carbohydrates, protein, lipids, and nucleic acids. They are important
for the survival of living beings for their maintenance and metabolism.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are primarily produced by plants and form a very large group of naturally occurring organic compounds.
They are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce such units on hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are also called saccharides.
Most carbohydrates have a General Formula of Cx(H2O)y. For example Glucose (C6H1206) or C6(H2O) Fructose
(C6H12O6), Sucrose (C12H22O11). But all the compounds which fit into this formula need not to be classified as
carbohydrates. For example - Acetic acid (CH3COOH) fits into this formula but it is not a carbohydrate. Rhamnose
(C6H12O5) is a carbohydrate but doesn't fit into the formula.
Source of Carbohydrates - Fruits like apples, bananas, berries, mangoes, melons, and oranges. Grains such as bread,
noodles, pasta, crackers, cereals, and rice. Dairy products, such as milk and yogurt.

Classification of Carbohydrates
On the Basis of Hydrolysis
(a) Monosaccharides - Saccharides which do not further hydrolyse or break to give a simpler unit of polyhydroxy
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aldehyde or ketone. They are the simplest carbohydrates.

Examples- Glucose, Fructose, Ribose, etc.
Monosaccharides are classified as Aldose (if the functional group is Aldehyde) and Ketose (if the functional group is
Ketone).
Examples- Triose Aldotriose and Ketotriose, Pentose - Aldopentose and Ketopentose.
(b) Oligosaccharides - Carbohydrates that give two to ten monosaccharide units on hydrolysis. They are further
classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, etc., depending upon the number of monosaccharides, they
provide on hydrolysis. Disaccharides (Double sugar) consist of two monosaccharide units, linked together with
glycosidic bonds. These monosaccharide units may be the same or different. These are the most. common carbohydrates.
Examples - Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose etc.
(c) Polysaccharide: Carbohydrates which give a large number of monosaccharide units on hydrolysis.
Examples: Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen etc. Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, hence they are also called non-sugars.
On the Basis of Physical Properties
(a) Sugars: Carbohydrates which are soluble in water and are sweet in taste.
Examples - Sucrose, Lactose.
(b) Non-sugars - Carbohydrates which are insoluble in water and are not sweet in taste.
Examples - Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen.
On the Basis of their Reducing Properties
(a) Reducing - Carbohydrates which reduce Fehling's solution (into red precipitates) and Tollens' reagent (into silver
mirror). All monosaccharides whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugars.
(b) Non-Reducing - Carbohydrates which do not reduce Fehling's solution and Tollens' reagent. Examples - Starch,
Stachyose.
Some Common Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides

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Glucose (C6H12O6)
Glucose is aldohexose (contains six Carbon atoms and an Aldehyde group) and is also known as Dextrose. It is the
monomer of many of the larger carbohydrates, such as Starch, Cellulose. Source - Agave, Dried fruit, Fruit juices, Sweet
corn, etc. Glucose is used in the silvering of mirrors.
Preparation - Glucose can be prepared by following methods -
(a) From Sucrose (cane sugar) - If Sucrose is boiled with dilute Hydrochloric acid (HCI) in alcoholic solution, Glucose
and Fructose are formed.
Sucrose (C12H22O11) + Water (H2O) → Glucose (C6H12O6) + Fructose (C6H12O6).
(b) From Starch (C6H10O5)n- By hydrolysis of starch, glucose is obtained.
Starch (C6H10O5)n + water nH2O → Glucose n C6H12O6
Glucose concentration in the blood stream ranges between 70-115 mg/100 mL. It provides instantaneous energy.

Fructose (C6H12O6)
Fructose is an important ketohexose (contains six Carbon atoms and a ketonic group). It is a natural monosaccharide. In
its pure form it is used as a sweetener. Source Honey, fruits and vegetables and also known as fruit sugar.
Preparation - It is obtained along with glucose by the hydrolysis of disaccharide sucrose.
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Sucrose (C12H22O11) + Water (H2O) → Glucose (C6H12O6) + Fructose (C6H12O6).

Disaccharides
Sucrose (C12H22O11)
Sucrose is obtained from cane sugar. It is the most common disaccharide. Sucrose on hydrolysis gives two
monosaccharide units that are Glucose and Fructose. These monosaccharide units are connected with each other with a
linkage called glycosidic linkage. Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives dextrorotatory glucose and
laevorotatory fructose.
Invert sugar - Sucrose is dextrorotatory but it gives dextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose on hydrolysis. The
laevorotation of fructose (-92.4°) is more than dextrorotation of glucose (+52.5°), the mixture is laevorotatory. Thus,
hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation, from dextro (+) to laevo (-). This process is called
inversion of sugar.
Maltose (C12H22O11)
It is a disaccharide. It is a reducing sugar. Maltose is known as Malt sugar.
Lactose (C12H22O11)
It is more commonly known as milk sugar since this disaccharide is found in milk. It is composed of D-galactose and
D-glucose. It is a reducing sugar.

Polysaccharides
Starch (C6H10O5)n
It is a main storage polysaccharide of plants. It is a polymer of glucose and consists of
two components, Amylose and Amylopectin.
Amylose: is water soluble and contains 15-20% of starch. It is the long unbranched chain with 200-1000 Glucose units.
Amylopectin: is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80-85% of starch.
Sources of starch - Cereals, Roots, Tubers and some vegetables.
Cellulose (C6H10O5)n
It is a predominant constituent of the cell wall of plant cells. Cellulose is a polysaccharide with a straight chain.

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Cellulose is not digestible by humans because our digestive system does not contain cellulase enzymes.
Glycogen (C24H42O21)
It is an animal starch that is stored in the animal body. The structure of Glycogen is similar to Amylopectin. When the
body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to glucose. It is present in the liver, muscles and brain. Glycogen
is also found in yeast and fungi.
Importance of Carbohydrates
(a) Carbohydrates are the major source of food and energy.
(b) These are used as storage molecules as starch (plants) and glycogen (animals).
(c) Cellulose in the form of wood is used in (build) furniture and clothes in the form of cotton fibres.
(d) They provide raw materials for many industries like textiles, paper, lacquers and breweries.
(e) Honey is used as an instant source of energy.

Proteins
Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system. Main sources of proteins are milk, cheese, pulses,
peanuts, fish, meat, etc. All proteins are polymers of amino acids. Proteins make up to 15% by
mass of our body.
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Examples - Keratin, Collagen, Myosin.

Polypeptide chain: A polypeptide chain is a sequence of amino acids covalently linked by peptide bonds (-CO - NH-
Linkage). A protein contains one or more polypeptides. Therefore, proteins are long chains of amino acids held together
by peptide bonds.
Amino Acids
Amino acids contain amino (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups. Amino acids are molecules that combine
to form proteins. Amino acids are water soluble, high melting solids and behave like salts rather than simple amines or
carboxylic acids. This behavior is due to the presence of both acidic (-COOH) and basic (-NH2) groups. They show
amphoteric behaviour.
Classification of Amino Acids
(a) Essential amino acids - Amino Acids which cannot be synthesised in the body and must be obtained through diet.
Examples: Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, and Valine
(b) Nonessential amino acids - The amino acids, which can be synthesised in the body.
Examples: Alanine, Asparagine, Aspartic acid, Cysteine, Glutamic acid, Glutamine.

Classification of Protein
On the Basis of their Molecular Shape
(a) Fibrous Proteins - Polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by hydrogen and disulphide bonds to form
a fibre like structure. These proteins are generally insoluble in water.
Examples: Keratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present in muscles).
(b) Globular Proteins - Polypeptide chains coiled around to give a spherical shape. These are soluble in water.
Examples - Insulin, Albumins.
On the Basis of their Molecular Structure
(a) Primary structure: Proteins may have one or more polypeptide chains. Each polypeptide in a protein has amino
acids linked with each other in a specific sequence known as the primary structure of protein. Any change in the
sequence, amino acids creates a different protein.

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(b) Secondary structure : secondary structure of protein refers to the shape in which a long polypeptide chain can exist.
These Amino acids are found to exist in two different types of structures, a helix and the ẞ pleated sheet.
(c) Tertiary structure : Tertiary structure is the three-dimensional shape of the protein. This structure represents the
overall folding of the polypeptide chains. The main forces which stabilise the 2 and 3 structure of protein are hydrogen
bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals and electrostatic forces of attraction.
(d) Quaternary structure : This structure is an association between two or more polypeptide chains (subunits). These
subunits are present in the spatial arrangement with respect to each other.
Denaturation of Proteins
Denaturation of proteins is one of the phenomenons that results in the disturbance of stability and structure of the protein.
Protein with unique 3- dimensional structure and biological activity is called native protein.
When a native protein is subjected to physical change like change in temperature or chemical change such as change in
pH, the bonds in protein are disturbed due to this globules unfold and the helix gets uncoiled and protein loses its
biological activity. During denaturation secondary and tertiary structures are destroyed but primary structure remains
intact.
Examples: Coagulation of egg white on boiling, curdling of milk.

Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that help speed up metabolism, or the chemical reactions in our bodies. These are called
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biocatalysts. Almost all the enzymes are globular proteins. Enzymes are specific for specific reactions and for particular
substrates. For example, the enzyme that catalyses hydrolysis of maltose into glucose is named as maltase.
They are generally named after the compound or class of compounds upon which they work and sometimes also named
after the reaction where they are used.
Types of Enzymes
Oxidoreductases: Oxidation-reduction reactions (transfer of electrons).
Examples - Oxygenases and Reductases.
Transferases : Transfer of functional groups, such as an amino group, acetyl group, or phosphate group.
Example - Acyltransferase.
Hydrolases : Hydrolytic reactions (transfer of functional groups to water)
Example - Lipase.
Lyases : Removal of groups of atoms without hydrolysis.
Example - aldolases.
Isomerases : Rearrangement of atoms within a molecule to yield isomeric forms.
Example - Phosphoglucomutase
Ligases: Joining of two molecules (using energy usually derived from the breakdown of ATP).
Example - synthetase.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic molecules that are essential to an organism in small quantities for proper metabolic function.
Examples - Vitamins A, B, C, D, E, and K.
Nucleic Acids
Heredity, or the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next, is primarily controlled by chromosomes in
the cell nucleus.

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Chromosomes are made up of nucleic acids and proteins. Nucleic acids are mainly of two types, the deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
DNA is a type of nucleic acid, and it carries genetic information in the form of genes, which are composed of sequences
of nucleotides. These nucleotides form long chains known as polynucleotides.

Chemical Composition of Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides which in turn consist of a base, a pentose sugar and phosphate moiety.
Nucleic acids are responsible for the transfer of characters from parents to offspring. There are two types of nucleic
acids - DNA and RNA. DNA contains a five carbon sugar molecule called 2-deoxyribose whereas RNA contains ribose.
Both DNA and RNA contain adenine, guanine and cytosine. The fourth base is thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA. The
structure of DNA is a double strand whereas RNA is a single strand molecule.
DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and has the coded message for proteins to be synthesised in the cell. There are
three types of RNA-mRNA, rRNA and tRNA which actually carry out the protein synthesis in the cell.
Fats and Oils
These are the esters of glycerol and long chain fatty acids and are known as triglycerides. Triglycerides which are
liquids at room temperature are oils and those that are solids are called fats. Usually Oils are of plant origin and fats are
of animal origin.
Triglycerides in which three acyl groups are same are called simple triglycerides and a triglyceride in which three acyl
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groups are different is called mixed triglyceride. Many naturally occurring fatty acids contain two or three double bonds.
The fats from which these come are called polyunsaturated fats or oils. While oils are glycerides of unsaturated fatty
acids. Fats and oils are insoluble in water.
On heating with potassium hydrogen sulphate, oils and fats give characteristic odour of acrolein. This is the test for
glycerol present either free or combined as an ester.

Types of Fats
Saturated fats contain fatty acids with only single bonds. A saturated fat has the maximum number of hydrogens bonded
to the carbons, & therefore is 'saturated' with hydrogen atoms. Animal fats are mostly saturated, while plant and fish fats
are typically unsaturated.
Unsaturated fats have at least one double bond in its fatty acid chain, which reduces its calorie content compared to
saturated fat. More double bonds make a fatty acid more prone to rancidity, but antioxidants can help protect unsaturated
fats from lipid oxidation.
Wax
Waxes are organic compounds that characteristically consist of long aliphatic alkyl chains. Waxes occur synthetically
and naturally. Natural waxes are the esters of fatty acids and long chain alcohols whereas Synthetic waxes are long-
chain hydrocarbons (alkanes or paraffins) that lack substituted functional groups.
Wax is formed as a result of esterification of fatty acids with a monohydric alcohol of high molecular weight. Function
of wax Act as a protective agent on the surface of animals and plants, helping in reducing water loss in tropical plants.
Paraffin wax is synthetic wax used in making ointments, candles, vaseline etc. Bee wax mainly contains myricyl
palmitate (the ester of myricyl alcohol and palmitic acid). Carnauba wax is obtained from carnauba palm leaf. It contains
myricyl cerotate. Spermaceti wax is obtained from sperm whales. It contains cetyl palmitate.

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Polymers
The word 'polymer' is coined from two Greek words: 'poly' means many and 'mer' means unit or part. A polymer is a
giant molecule formed by inter molecular linkage between same or different types of smaller molecules called
monomers.
For example, polyethene, -(CH2 - CH2) is a polymer of the monomer ethylene (CH2 = CH2).
Polymers are also referred to as macromolecules, which are formed by joining of
repeating structural units on a large scale. The process of formation of polymers
from respective monomers is called polymerisation. Polypropene, polystyrene,
PVC, nylon-6 etc are some examples of polymers.
Monomer: It is the molecule that forms the basic unit for polymer. e.g., propene,
styrene, vinyl chloride etc.
Macromolecules: Individual molecule of very high molecular weight. e.g., hemoglobin, chlorophyll etc.

Classification of Polymers
Based on Source
Under this type of classification, there are three sub categories.
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(a) Natural polymers: These polymers are found in plants and animals. Examples are proteins, cellulose, starch, some
resins and rubber.
(b) Semi-synthetic polymers: Polymers which are obtained naturally but made by chemical treatment. Cellulose
derivatives such as cellulose acetate (rayon) and cellulose nitrate, etc are the examples of this sub category.
(c) Synthetic polymers: Man-made polymers are known as synthetic polymers. Plastic (polythene). synthetic fibres
(Nylon 6,6) and synthetic rubbers (Buna S) are examples of man-made polymers extensively used in daily life as well
as in industry.
Based on Structure of Polymers
There are three different types based on the structure of the polymers.
(a) Linear Polymers: These polymers consist of long and straight chains. The examples are high density polythene,
polyvinyl chloride, etc.
(b) Branched Chain Polymers: These polymers contain linear chains having some branches, e.g., low density
polythene.
(c) Cross Linked or Network Polymers: These are usually formed from bi-functional and tri-functional monomers
and contain strong covalent bonds between various linear polymer chains, e.g. bakelite, melamine, etc.
Based on Mode of Polymerisation
Polymers can be classified on the basis of mode of polymerisation into two sub groups.
(a) Addition Polymers: The addition polymers are formed by the repeated addition of monomer molecules possessing
double or triple bonds, e.g., the formation of polythene from ethene and polypropene from propene.
(i) Homopolymers: The addition polymers formed by the polymerisation of a single monomeric species are known as
homopolymers, e.g., polythene.
(ii) Copolymers: The polymers made by addition polymerisation from two different monomers are termed as
copolymers, e.g., Buna-S, Buna-N, etc.
(b) Condensation Polymers: The condensation polymers are formed by repeated condensation reactions between two
different bi-functional or tri-functional monomeric units. In these polymerisation reactions, the elimination of small

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molecules such as water, alcohol, hydrogen chloride, etc. take place. The examples are terylene (dacron), nylon 6, 6,
nylon 6, etc. For example, nylon 6, 6 is formed by the condensation of hexamethylenediamine with adipic acid.

Based on Molecular Forces

The polymers are classified into the following four sub groups on the basis of magnitude of intermolecular forces present
in them.
(a) Elastomers: These are rubber - like solids with elastic properties. In these elastomeric polymers, the polymer chains
are held together by the weakest intermolecular forces. The examples are buna - S, buna - N, neoprene, etc.
(b) Fibres: Fibres are the thread forming solids which possess high tensile strength and high modulus. The examples
are polyamides (nylon 6, 6), polyesters (terylene), etc.
(c) Thermoplastic Polymers: These are the linear or slightly branched long chain molecules capable of repeatedly
softening on heating and hardening on cooling. These polymers possess intermolecular forces of attraction intermediate
between elastomers and fibres. Some common thermoplastics are polythene, polystyrene, polyvinyls, etc.
(d) Thermosetting Polymers: These polymers are cross linked or heavily branched molecules, which on heating
undergo extensive cross linking in moulds and again become infusible. These cannot be reused. Some common examples
are bakelite, urea-formaldelyde resins, etc.
Based on Growth Polymerisation
The addition and condensation polymers are also referred to as chain growth polymers and step growth polymers
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depending on the type of polymerisation mechanism they undergo during their formation.

Types of Polymerisation Reactions

Addition Polymerisation or Chain Growth Polymerisation
In this type of polymerisation, the molecules of the same monomer or different monomers add together on a large scale
to form a polymer. The monomers used are unsaturated compounds, e.g., alkenes, alkadienes and their derivatives.
Free radical mechanism: This mechanism involves three steps, that are chain initiation step, chain propagation step,
Chain termination step. A variety of alkenes or dienes and their derivatives are polymerised in the presence of a free
radical generating initiator (catalyst) like benzoyl peroxide, acetyl peroxide, tert-butyl peroxide, etc. For example, the
polymerisation of ethene to polythene consists of heating or exposing to light a mixture of ethene with a small amount
of benzoyl peroxide initiator.
These free radicals (R) then attack the unsaturated monomer and form a new free radical which goes on successively
adding monomers and thus grows the chain, is called chain propagation. The final termination of the two growing chains
leads to a polymer. This is called chain termination.
Preparation of Some Important Addition Polymers
(a) Polythene : There are two types of polythene as given below:
(i) Low density polythene (LDP): It is obtained by the polymerisation of ethene under high pressure of 1000 to 2000
atmospheres at a temperature of 350 K to 570 K in the presence of traces of dioxygen or a peroxide initiator (catalyst).
LDP is chemically inert and tough but flexible and a poor conductor of electricity. Hence, it is used in the insulation of
electricity carrying wires and manufacture of squeeze bottles, toys and flexible pipes.
(ii) High density polythene: It is formed when addition polymerisation of ethene takes place in a hydrocarbon solvent
in the presence of a catalyst such as triethyl aluminium and titanium tetrachloride (Ziegler-Natta catalyst) at a
temperature of 333 K to 343 K and under a pressure of 6-7 atmospheres. It is used for manufacturing buckets, dustbins,
bottles, pipes, etc.
(b) Polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon): Teflon is manufactured by heating tetrafluoroethene with a free radical or
persulfate catalyst at high pressures. It is chemically inert and resistant to attack by corrosive reagents. It is used in
making oil seals and gaskets and also used for non stick surface coated utensils.

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(c) Polyacrylonitrile: The addition polymerisation of acrylonitrile in presence of a peroxide catalyst leads to the
formation of polyacrylonitrile. It is used as a substitute for wool in making commercial fibres such as orlon or acrilan.

Condensation Polymerisation or Step Growth Polymerisation

This type of polymerisation generally involves a repetitive condensation reaction between two bi-functional or
trifunctional monomers. In these reactions, each step produces a distinct functionalized species and is independent of
each other, this process is also called step growth polymerisation. The formation of terylene or dacron by the interaction
of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid is an example of this type of polymerisation.
(a) Polyamides: These polymers possessing amide linkages are important examples of synthetic fibres and are termed
as nylons. The general method of preparation consists of the condensation polymerisation of diamines with dicarboxylic
acids and also of amino acids and their lactams.
(i) Nylon 6,6 : It is prepared by the condensation polymerisation of hexamethylenediamine with adipic acid under high
pressure and at high temperature. It is used in making sheets, bristles for brushes and in the textile industry.
(ii) Nylon 6: It is obtained by heating caprolactum with water at a high temperature. It is used for the manufacture of
tyre cords, fabrics and ropes.
(b) Polyesters: These are the polycondensation products of dicarboxylic acids and diols. Dacron or terylene is the best
known example of polyesters. It is manufactured by heating a mixture of ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid at 420 to
460 K in the presence of zinc acetate-antimony trioxide catalyst. Dacron fibre (terylene) is crease resistant and is used
in blending with cotton and wool fibres and also as glass reinforcing materials in safety helmets, etc.
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(c) Phenol formaldehyde Polymer (Bakelite and related Polymers): Phenol - formaldehyde polymers are the oldest
synthetic polymers. These are obtained by the condensation reaction of phenol with formaldehyde in the presence of
either an acid or a base catalyst. The initial product could be a linear product-Novolac used in paints.
Novolac on heating with formaldehyde
undergoes cross linking to form an infusible solid mass called bakelite. It is used for making combs,
phonograph records, electrical switches and handles of various utensils.
(d) Melamine formaldehyde Polymer: It is formed by the condensation polymerisation of melamine (CHN) and
formaldehyde (CH2O). It is used in the manufacture of unbreakable crockery.

Copolymerisation
It is a polymerisation reaction in which a mixture of more than one monomeric species is allowed to polymerise and
form a copolymer. It contains. multiple units of each monomer used in the same polymeric chain. For example, a mixture
of 1, 3- butadiene and styrene can form a copolymer.
Copolymers have properties quite different from homopolymers. For example, butadiene - styrene copolymer is quite
tough and is a good substitute for natural rubber. It is used for the manufacture of auto tyres, floor tiles, footwear
components, cable insulation, etc.

Natural Rubber
It is a natural polymer and possesses elastic properties. It is also termed as elastomer and has a variety of uses. It is
manufactured from rubber latex which is a colloidal dispersion of rubber in water. This latex is obtained from the bark
of rubber trees and is found in India, Indonesia, Malaysia and South America.
Natural rubber may be considered as a linear polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene) and is also called as cis-1,
4-polyisoprene.

Natural rubber becomes soft at high temperature (>335 K) and brittle at low temperatures (<283 K) and shows high
water absorption capacity. It is soluble in non-polar solvents and is non-resistant to attack by oxidizing agents.

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Vulcanization is a process of cross-linking or mixing of raw rubber molecules with sulphur and an appropriate additive
at a temperature range between 373 K to 415 K. In the manufacture of tyre rubber, 5% of sulfur is used as a crosslinking
agent.

Synthetic Rubbers
Synthetic rubber is any vulcanisable rubber-like polymer, which is capable of getting stretched to twice its length. They
are either homopolymers of 1, 3 butadiene derivatives or copolymers of 1, 3- butadiene or its derivatives with another
unsaturated monomer.
Preparation of Synthetic Rubbers
(a) Neoprene : Neoprene or polychloroprene is formed by the free radical polymerisation of chloroprene. It has superior
resistance to vegetable and mineral oils. It is used for manufacturing conveyor belts, gaskets and hoses.
(b) Buna-N: It is obtained by the copolymerisation of 1,3-butadiene and acrylonitrile in the presence of a peroxide
catalyst.
(c) Thiokol: It is formed by the reaction of dichloroethane and polysulphide. Its mixture with other chemicals is used
as rocket propellant as it releases oxygen. It is a solid propellant. It is also used to prepare solvent storage tank, pipes of
carrying crude oil, etc.

Biodegradable Polymers
Biodegradable polymers are defined as materials whose chemical and physical characteristics undergo deterioration and
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completely degrade when exposed to microorganisms, aerobic, and anaerobic processes. Aliphatic polyesters are one of
the important classes of biodegradable polymers. Some important examples are given below:
(a) Poly B-hydroxybutyrate co ẞ - hydroxy valerate (PHBV): It is obtained by the copolymerisation of 3-
hydroxybutanoic acid and 3- hydroxypentanoic acid. PHBV is used in speciality packaging, orthopaedic devices and in
controlled release of drugs. PHBV undergoes bacterial degradation in the environment.
(b) Nylon 2-nylon 6: It is an alternating polyamide copolymer of glycine (H2N-CH2 -COOH) and amino caproic acid
[H2N(CH2)5COOH] and is biodegradable.
Some Commercially Important Polymers
Name of Polymer Monomer Uses
Polypropene Propene Manufacture of ropes, toys, pipes, fibres, etc.
Polystyrene Styrene As insulator, wrapping material, manufacture of toys, radio and
television cabinets.
Polyvinyl chloride Vinyl chloride Manufacture of rain coats, hand bags, vinyl flooring, water pipes.
(PVC)
Urea- formaldehyde (a) Urea For making unbreakable cups and laminated sheets.
Resin (b) Formaldehyde
Glyptal (a) Ethylene Manufacture of paints and lacquers.
glycol
(b) Phthalic acid
Bakelite (a) Phenol For making Combs, electrical switches, handles of utensils and
(b) Formaldehyde computer discs.

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Environmental Chemistry
Environment
Environment means the surrounding and everything around us and it can also be defined as the composition of the
physical and biological conditions in which we live. It includes physical conditions like air (atmosphere), water
(hydrosphere) and land (lithosphere) and the biological conditions like plants, animals, human beings, microorganisms
(like bacteria, fungi, etc.,) and their inter-relationships.
Human beings are highly responsible in disturbing the environmental balance for fulfilling their need of food, clothing,
housing, industry, transport, etc.

Types of Environment
There are mainly three types of environment
(i) The Physical Environment (abiotic or natural environment): It includes land, water, atmospheric conditions that
leads to the soil formation.
The factors involved in physical environment are temperature, pressure, moisture precipitation, wind speed, rain water,
etc.
(ii) Biotic Environment (organic environment): It is the environment responsible for the existence and survival of
life.
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(iii) Social or Cultural Environment : It involves the environment created by man through his different social and
cultural activities. It also constitutes historical, cultural, political, moral and economic aspects of human life.

Pollution
Pollution is defined as the presence of abnormally high concentrations of harmful substances in the environment. Odum
defined pollution as any undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological properties of air, water and soil due to
the presence of pollutant in it, which can directly or indirectly affect human beings. The continuous rise in human
population is the major cause of pollution.
Pollutants
Pollutants include the substances (may be chemical or other factors) that cause pollution and thereby, change the natural
balance of environment. It can be natural or man made in origin.

Types of Pollutants
On the basis of their production, pollutants are of two types
(i) Primary Pollutants: These are directly available in the atmosphere such as ash from a volcanic eruption, carbon
monoxide emitted from motor vehicle exhaust, sulphur dioxide released from factories, chloroflourocarbons, carbon
dioxide emitted from combustion, suspended particulate matter (including smoke, dust and vapour), nitrogen oxides
which emerge from burning of fuels, etc.
(ii) Secondary Pollutants: These pollutants are not emitted directly into the air. They generally form when pollutants
come in contact with air and react to form complex compounds. e.g., Peroxyacyl Nitrate (PAN), ground level ozone
formed from NO and VOCs etc.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has arranged different types of pollutants according to the order
of priority as mentioned below
Order of Priority Medium
Sulphur dioxide and suspended particles Air
Strontium, caesium Food
Ozone Air
DDT and other organochlorine compounds Biota, man
Nitrates and nitrites Drinking water
Nitrogen oxides Air

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Mercury compounds Food, water

Lead and cobalt Food, air
Petroleum hydrocarbons Sea
Carbon monoxide Air
Fluorides Fresh water
Asbestos Air
Arsenic Drinking water
Mycotoxins and microbial contaminants Food

■ The order of different pollutants to cause pollution is CO > SO2 > hydrocarbon > particulates > nitrogen oxides.
On the basis of their decomposition, pollutants are again classified into two types.
(i) Biodegradable Pollutants: These are the pollutants that may be degraded by natural means like bacteria, fungi, etc.
e.g., municipal solid waste (green waste), food waste paper waste, biodegrable plastics, human waste, manure, sewage,
slaughter house waste, etc.
(ii) Non-biodegradable Pollutants: These are the pollutants that either do not degrade or degrade but very slowly in
nature. These pollutants are generally toxic and enter into the fochain of organisms. e.g., salts of heavy metals,
radioactive materials, DDT, long chains of phenolic chemicals, etc.
■ Synergism is the phenomenon of increased toxicity of reaction among the pollutants.
■ Most of the biodegradable wastes are composed into methane by anaerobic digestion (in the absence of oxygen).
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Types of pollutions
Pollution can be classified into the following four groups; air pollution, water pollution, soil or land pollution, and sound
or noise pollution.
Air Pollution
The occurrence or addition of foreign particles, high concentration of gases, etc which cause an imbalance in the definite
ratio of the air, is called air pollution.
Effects of Air Pollution on Plants and Human Health
■ Carbon Monoxide (CO) It competes with O2 for haemoglobin and form carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb ) which is
highly poisonous and results in headache, irritation, decreased vision, cardiovascular malfunction and asphyxia.
■ Particulate Matter It includes soot, flyash, dust of various types, fur, hair, spores, pollen grains, heavy metals, etc.
All of these cause respiratory problems.
■ Carbon Dioxide It is greenhouse gas, the concentration of which is constantly rising. In excess, it causes headache
and nausea.
■ Hydrogen Sulphide It is a byproduct of metallurgical treatment of sulphur containing ores in refineries, chemical
plants. It causes chlorosis and defoliation in plants, eye irritation, throat irritation and nausea in animals.
■ Sulphur Oxides It occurs mostly in the form of sulphur dioxide. It is produced during the smelting of metallic
substances (e.g, iron, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, etc.) and burning of petroleum and coal, thermal plants, motor vehicles
etc, and causes respiratory problems including permanent lung damage.

Water Pollution
It is the degradation of quality of water due to addition of substances (such as inorganic, organic, biological or
radiological), factors (such as heat) etc. that makes it a health hazard i.e., unfit for human use and growth of aquatic
biota.
According to definition of WHO, water pollution occurs when foreign materials (either from natural or other sources)
are added to water supplies and may be harmful to life, because of their toxicity, reduction of normal oxygen level of
water, aesthetically unsuitable effects and spread of epidemic diseases.

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Water Pollutants
Water pollutants are categorised as under
(i) Point Source It refers to pollutants which enter the water-body from a single source.
(ii) Non-point Source It refers to pollutants which enter the water-body from a wide source.
Effects of Water Pollution
Eutrophication It is the natural aging of lake or other water streams due to over biological enrichment of water by
nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus etc. This has emerged to be one of the major or leading causes of water quality
impairment. The two most acute symptoms of eutrophication are hypoxia (or oxygen depletion) and harmful algal
blooms, which along with harmful effects can destroy aquatic life in affected areas.
Fertilisers when run-off into the water, causes an increase in nutrient levels by the growth and reproduction of
phytoplankton more rapidly, resulting in algal blooms. The algae may consume all the oxygen present in the water,
leaving a poor quantity for other marine life.
The bloom of algae may block sunlight for photosynthetic marine plants under the water surface. Some algae even
produce toxins that are harmful to higher forms of life.
Biomagnification (Also known as bioamplification) It refers to an increase in the concentration of toxicants at
successive trophic levels. This occurs when substances such as DDT or mercury that can not be metabolised or excreted,
accumulate in an organism and pass on to higher trophic levels.
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Due to this, these substances can pass to the next tropic levels via food chain. The high concentration of DDT interferes
with calcium metabolism in birds and causes thinning of eggshells and their premature breaking, ultimately causing
decline in bird population.
Effects on Human Being
Water pollution have the following major effects on humans
(i) Deficiency of fluoride in drinking water may cause diseases such as tooth decay. However, ion concentration above
2 ppm causes brown mottling of teeth and above 10 ppm is harmful for bones and teeth.
(ii) Lead concentration above 50 ppm in drinking water can damage kidney, liver, reproductive system etc.
(iii) Excessive sulphate (>500 ppm) in drinking water causes laxative effect.
(iv) Skeletal fluorosis is caused by excess amount of fluoride in drinking water.
(v) Itai-Itai disease is caused due to cadmium poisoning as was seen in Japan. This disease is characterised by bone
softening.
(vi) Minamata disease is caused due to mercury poisoning. This disease was first observed from Minamata city, Japan
in 1953, when more than 100 persons died or suffered serious nervous damage by eating fish taken from Minamata Bay.

Soil and Land Pollution

It is the alteration in soil caused by soil pollutants, i.e., by the removal or addition of substances and factors which
decrease its productivity, quantity of plants and ground water. It usually due to the addition of solid and semi-solid
substances (like pesticides, fertilisers, etc) of agricultural practices and insanitary habits.
* Basel convention/Protour control of Transboundary movements of Hazardous wastes and it their Disposal, usually
known as Based convention.
* EPA–Environmental Protection Agency.
Effects of Soil Pollution
(i) In Soil Fertility Removal of useful components from the soil affects the fertility of soil and kills the diversity of
organisms that live in it.

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(ii) In Soil Erosion It is the removal and transportation of the top layer of soil from its original position due to strong
winds or fast running water.
(iii) Non-target organisms are also killed in the soil.
(iv) Pesticides may results in biomagnification.

Control of Soil Pollution

Soil/land pollution control can be done by the help of following
(i) Use of pesticides should be minimised.
(ii) Proper techniques should be selected for dumping waste.
Sound or Noise Pollution
It is defined as the presence of disturbing unpleasurable sound that may cause harm to
human or animal life.
Sources of Sound Pollution
Major sources that contribute in noise pollution are
(i) Indoor Noise caused by machines, building activities music, etc.
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(ii) Outdoor Noise caused by transportation system, motor vehicles, aircraft, etc.
Causes of Sound Pollution
(i) The sound produced by vehicles.
(ii) Construction works uses different machnies that produce an annoying sound.
(iii) Noise produced by machines used for industrial work.
(iv) Music concerts, etc.
Effects of Sound Pollution
(i) Elevated sound level causes hearing impairment, hypertension, ischemic heart diseases, annoyance and sleeping
disturbance.
(ii) It also changes immune system and induce birth defects.
(iii) It also induces tinnitus, vasoconstriction and other cardiovascular adverse effects.
(iv) It also causes ill-temperdness, anger, frustration, excitement, heartbeat increase, irritation and secretion of adrenal
hormone etc.
Control of Noise/Sound Pollution
(i) By supressing noise which can be done by planting more trees.
(ii) Creating horn free zones around hospitals and schools.
(iii) Framing of laws to enforce timing after which loudspeakers cannot be played.
(iv) Silencers should be filled to automobiles and industrial goods.
(v) By sticking to the permissible sound level of crackers and loudspeakers.
(vi) Use of sound absorbent material in buildings.
■ Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981, amended in 1987 to include noise as an air pollutant.
Radioactive Wastes

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It is the physical pollution of air, water and soil with radioactive materials, which release radioactive particles (i.e.,
emission of α β γ , and particles). e.g., radium, thorium, uranium, etc.
Causes It is chiefly caused by man-made radiations and due to various human activities.
Sources
(i) Medical wastes
(ii) Coal ash
(iii) Atomic weapons and atomic explosions
(iv) Atomic reactors and nuclear fuel
(v) Mining of radioactive materials
(vi) Leakage of radioactive materials power plants
(vii) Unsafe disposal of methods of radioactive waste
Effects Radioactive pollution caused by radioactive waste can be a very dangerous because radiation mutates DNA,
causing abnormal growth and possibly cancer, and this radiation remains in the atmosphere for years, slowly diminishing
over time.

Acid Rain
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Highly adverse effects of air pollution on climate is that it causes acid rain. pH of normal rain is 5.6-6.5 but pH of acid
rain is less than 5. It is caused due to the presence of atmospheric pollutants like nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide.
volatile organic carbons (VOCs), etc. The most acidic rain was observed in West Virginia, USA with a pH of 1.5.
Series of reactions resulting in acid rain are as follows
2SO2 + O2 → SO3
SO3 + H2O →H2SO4
2NO + [O] → N2O5
N2O5 + H2O → 2HNO3
■ Stone cancer occurs due to acid rain.
■ The air around the city of Agra where Taj Mahal is located contains fairly high level of sulphur and nitrogen oxides
due to a large number of industries especially Mathura refinery. The resulting acid rain reacts with marble, CaCO3 of
Taj causing damage to this wonderful monument.

Stratospheric Pollution (Ozone Depletion)

The upper layer of stratosphere consists of ozone which protects us from harmful UV radiations coming from sun. In
stratosphere layer, ozone is a product of UV radiation acting on oxygen molecule.

O2 O+O
O + O2 →O3 (ozone)
The amount of ozone in the stratosphere began to drop sharply in 1980’s. This is due to chemicals like
chlorofluorocarbons CFCs (freons) which are used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers. When these CFCs reaches
the stratosphere, they get broken down by powerful UV radiations, releasing chlorine free radical. This chlorine free
radical react with O3 and damage ozone layer.
The CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS). Since, the ozone
layer prevents most harmful UV-B rays with wavelengths 280-315 nm of ultraviolet light from passing through the
earth’s atmosphere. With less ozone in the atmosphere, more ultraviolet radiation strikes earth, causing more damage to
human, harm to flora and fauna.

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Ozone layer is also known as ozone hole depleted.

The United General Assembly voted to designate 16 September as World Ozone Day.

Impacts of Ozone Layer Depletion

On Humans Depletion of ozone layer has its deterimental effects on humans. These are given below
(i) More skin cancers, sunburns and premature aging of the skin.
(ii) Cataracts (a clouding of the lens) are the major cause of blindness in the world.
(iii) UV radiation can damage several parts of the eye, including the lens, cornea, retina and conjunctiva.
(iv) Weakening of the human immune system (immunosuppression). UV radiation can suppress the human immune
system, which may play a role in the development of skin cancer.
On Flora Adverse impacts on agriculture, forestry and natural ecosystems.
Several of the world’s major crop species are particularly vulnerable to increased UV, resulting in reduced growth,
photosynthesis and flowering. These species include wheat, rice, barley, oats, corn, soyabeans, peas, tomatoes,
cucumbers, cauliflower, broccoli and carrots.
Only a few commercially important trees have been tested for UV (UV-B) sensitivity, but early results suggest that plant
growth, especially in seedlings, is harmed by more intense UV radiation.
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On Animals In domestic animals, UV exposure may cause eye and skin cancers. Species of marine animlas in their
development stage (e.g., young fish, shrimp larvae and crab larvae) have been threatened in recent years by the increased
UV radiation under the Antarctic ozone hole.
On Aquatic/Marine Life In particular, plankton (tiny organisms in the surface layer of oceans) are threatened by
increased UV radiation. Decreasing in the number of plankton could disrupt the fresh and saltwater food chains, and
lead to a species shift in Canadian waters. Loss of biodiversity in our oceans, rivers and lakes could reduce fish yields
for commercial.
On Materials Wood, plastic, rubber, fabrics and many construction materials are degraded by UV radiation. The
economic impact of replacing and/or protecting materials could be significant.
Montreal Protocol
Painstaking research on ozone and the atmosphere over the past 40 years has led to a global ban of CFC production.
Since 1987, more than 150 countries have signed an international agreement, the Montreal Protocol, which called for a
phased reduction in the release of CFCs such that the yearly amount added to the atmosphere in 1999, would be half
that of 1986.
Modifications of that treaty called for a complete ban on CFCs which began in January 1996. Even with this ban in
effect chlorine from CFCs will continue to accumulate in the atmosphere for another decade. It may take until the middle
of the next century for ozone levels in the Antarctic to return to 1970s levels.

Climate
Climate is the characteristic condition of the atmosphere near the earth’s surface at a certain place on earth. It is the
long-term weather of that area (atleast 30 years). This includes the region’s general pattern of weather conditions,
seasons and weather extremes. The climate determines the type of flora and fauna of a region.
Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods (i.e.,
ranging from decades to millions of years).
The causes of climate change can be divided into two categories; human and natural causes. It is now a global concern
that the climate changes occurring today have been speeded up because of man’s activities.

Greenhouse Effect

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Greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a plantary surface is absorbed by atmospheric
greenhouse gases and is re-radiated in all directions. It mainly results in the elevation of the average surface temperature.
Greenhouse Gases
The four major greenhouse gases are as follows
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Present level in atmosphere is 380 ppm (parts per million). Atmospheric life time is 5-200 yr. It is increasing due to
fossil fuel's burning, Deforestation, High concentration may cause fertility effect, , increase in rate of photosynthesis
and growth of plants, decrease in stomatal conductance and transpiration rate.
Methane (CH4)
Present level in atmosphere is 1750 ppb (parts per billion). Methanogen bacteria increase greenhouse effect by producing
methane. The major sources are fresh water wetlands. Enteric fermentation in cattle. Flooded rice fields along with
biomass burning.
Nitrous Oxide(N2O)
Present atmospheric concentration is 316 ppb (parts per billion). Major sources are agriculture, biomass burning,nylon
industries, nitrogen rich fertilisers and fuels.
Chlorofulorocarbons (CFCs)
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Present atmospheric concentration is 282 ppt (part per trillion). Atmospheric life time is 45-260 yr. Major sources include
leaking from air conditioners, refrigeration units, evaporation of industrial solvents, production of plastic foams and
propellants in aerosol, spraycans.

Global Warming
It is the increase in the average temperature of earth’s atmosphere and oceans, i,e., air and sea on earth’s surface. Since
the late 19th century, this temperature increase has to occured due to the increase in CO2 concentration in the
atmosphere.
The main causes of global warming are burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas for energy, increasing
greenhouse gases, burning forests to create pastures, plantation, and carbon accumulation.

Effects of Global Warming

Earth temperature has increased by 0.6°C in last three decades. This causes changes in precipitation patterns. Scientists
have proposed that rise in temperature causes deleterious changes in the environment resulting in odd climatic changes
(e.g., El Nino effect.).

El Nino
El Nino is an abnormal warming of surface ocean waters in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. During El Nino, there is
movement of warm water to East, which causes bleaching and death of coral reefs. It changes the route of migration of
birds, fishes and whales thereby increasing the risk for them. It is also known to be responsible for sudden changes in
rainfall pattern and drought. All this makes El Nino a factor for biodiversity loss. It also leads to melting of the polar ice
caps resulting in the rise of the water level and submergence of the coastal areas.
■ Gangotri glacier in the Himalayas has started melting because of global warming.
■ Many countries have reached an agreement to reduce the emission of green house gases. The Kyoto protocol is one
such agreement.
* Kyotoprotocol is an international agreegrent that aimed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and presence of green
house gases (GHG) in the atmosphere.

Environment and the Health

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WHO has defined term Environmental health as those aspects of the human health and disease that are determined by
factors in the environment. It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing and controlling factors in the environment
that can potentially affect health. Three basic disciplines generally contribute to the field of environmental health i.e.,
environment epidemiology, toxicology and exposure science. Each of these disciplines contributes different information
to describe problems in environment health but there is some overlap among them.

Green Chemistry
Green chemistry is a way of thinking and it is about utilising the existing knowledge and principles of chemistry and
other sciences to reduce the adverse impact on environment.
Green Chemistry in Day-to-Day Life
(i) Drycleaning of Clothes Tetra-chloroethene was used earlier as a solvent for dry cleaning which is a suspected
carcinogen. These days it is replaced by liquefied CO2 with a suitable detergent (less harmful to ground water).
(ii) Bleaching of Paper These days hydrogen peroxide with suitable catalyst is used in place of chlorine.
(iii) Synthesis of Chemicals Ethanol is now commercially prepared by one step oxidation of ethene in presence of ionic
catalyst with an yield of 90%.
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Metallurgy
Attainment of pure metal from its compound, is called extraction of metals. Some metals are found in earth’s crust in
free state while some are found in the form of their compounds. The extraction and isolation of an element from its
combined form involve various principles of chemistry. Still, some general principles are common to all the extraction
processes of metals.
Metallurgy
The process of extracting the metals from their ores and refining them is called metallurgy. A naturally occurring material
in which a metal or its compound occurs is called a mineral. A mineral from which a metal can be extracted economically
is called an ore.
Every mineral is not suitable for the extraction of the metal. Thus, all ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.
Impurities associated with ores are called gangue or matrix.
Most of the important ores of the metals occur as oxides, sulphides, carbonates, halides and silicates. Ores are invariably
found in nature in contact with rocky materials.
Occurrence of Metals
(a) Aluminium is the most abundant metal of earth's crust and the third most abundant element in earth's crust.
(b) Iron is the second most abundant metal in the earth's crust.
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Principal Ores of Some Important Metals

Metals Ores Composition

Aluminium Bauxite Kaolinite (a form of clay) AIOx(OH)3-2x
[where 0<x<1]
[Al2(OH)4Si2O5]

Iron Haematite Fe2O3

Magnetite Fe204
Siderite FeCO3
Iron pyrites FeS2

Copper Copper pyrites CuFeS2

Malachite CUCO3.Cu(OH)2
Cuprite Cu2O
Copper glance Cu2S
Zinc Zinc blende or Sphalerite ZnS
Calamine ZnCO3
Zincite ZnO
Metals occur in two forms in nature: in native state and in the combined state, depending upon their chemical reactivities.
(a) Native State: Elements which have low chemical reactivity or noble metals having least electropositive character
are not attacked by oxygen, moisture and carbon dioxide of the air. These elements, therefore, occur in the free state or
in the native state, e.g., Gold (Au), silver (Ag), platinum (Pt), sulfur (S), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), noble gases, etc.
(b) Combined State: Highly reactive elements such as fluorine (F), chlorine (CI), sodium (Na), potassium (K), etc
occur in natural combined form in the form of their compounds such as oxides, carbonates, sulfides, halides, etc.
Types of Metallurgical Processes
(a) Pyrometallurgy Extraction Process: It takes place at very high temperatures. Copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), tin
(Sn), etc are extracted by this method.
(b) Hydrometallurgical Process: In this method, metals are extracted by the use of their aqueous solution. Silver (Ag)
and Gold (Au) are extracted by this method.

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(c) Electrometallurgical Process: Sodium (Na), potassium (K), lithium (Li), calcium (Ca), etc are extracted from their
molten salt solution through electrolytic method.
Terms Used in Metallurgy
Some terms used in metallurgy are:
Minerals
The naturally occurring chemical substances in the earth’s crust obtainable by mining, are called minerals, e.g. bauxite
and kaolinite.
Ore
Minerals from which metals can be extracted through various steps conveniently and profitably, are termed as ores. All
ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.
e.g. Iron pyrite is a mineral of iron but it can not be considered as its ore because extraction of iron from it is very costly.
Gangue
The earthern impurities like soil, sand, etc., present in the ores, are called gangue or matrix.
Steps Involved in Metallurgy
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General Principles of Extraction of Metals

Some common steps involved in the extraction of metals from their ores are:
(a) Crushing and pulverization
(b) Concentration or dressing of the ore
(c) Calcination or roasting of the ore
(d) Reduction of metal oxides to free metal
(e) Purification and refining of metal
Crushing and Pulverization
The big lumps of ore are crushed into smaller pieces with the help of jaw-crushers and grinders. The process of grinding
the crushed ore into fine powder with the help of the stamp mills is called pulverization.
Concentration or Dressing of the Ore
Removal of unwanted materials (e.g. sand, clays, etc) from the ore is known as ore
concentration, ore dressing or ore benefaction.
There are several methods for concentrating the ores. The choice of method depends on
the nature of the ore. Some important methods are:

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(a) Gravity Separation (Hydraulic Washing or Levigation): In this method, the lighter earthy impurities are removed
from the heavier ore particles by washing with water. Thus this method is based on the difference of the densities
(specific gravities) of ore and gangue. This method is used for the concentration of heavier oxide ores, like haematite
(Fe2O), tinstone (SnO2) and gold (Au).
(b) Electromagnetic Separation: This method of concentration is employed
when either the ore or the impurities associated with it are magnetic in nature.
For example, chromite (FeCr2O1) containing magnetic siliceous gangue, and
wolframite (FeWO.), containing cassiterite, SnO, (non-magnetic impurities)
can be separated by this method.
(c) Froth Floatation Method: This method is especially applied to sulfide ores, such
as galena (PbS), zinc blende (ZnS), or copper pyrites (CuFeS2). It is based on the
different wetting properties of the surface of the ore and gangue particles.
(d) Chemical Method: In this method the ore is treated with a suitable chemical reagent which dissolves the ore leaving
behind insoluble impurities. This is applied for extraction of aluminium from bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O).
Calcination and Roasting of the Ore
The concentrated ore is converted into metal oxide by calcination or roasting.
(a) Calcination: Calcination involves heating of the concentrated ore in a limited supply of air so that it loses moisture,
water of hydration and gaseous volatile substances. The ore is heated to a temperature so that it does not melt. Two
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examples of calcination are given below:

(i) Removal of water of hydration Al2O3.2H2O→ Al2O3 + 2H2O
(ii) Expulsion of CO2 from carbonate ZnCO3→ ZnO + 2 CO2
(b) Roasting: It is a process in which the concentrated ore is heated in a free supply of air at a temperature insufficient
to melt it. Calcination and roasting are generally carried out in a reverberatory furnace or in a multiple hearth furnace.
The following changes take place during roasting:
(i) Drying of the ore.
(ii) Removal of the volatile impurities like arsenic, sulfur, phosphorus and organic matter.
4As + 3O2 → 2As2O3 (g)
S+ O2 → SO2 (g)
4P +5O2 → P4O10 (g)
(iii) Conversion of the sulfide ores into oxides
2PbS+3O2 → 2PbO + 2SO2
2ZnS+302 → 2ZnO + 2502
Reduction of Metal Oxides to Free Metal
This process is carried out after calcination or roasting of ores. This involves:
(a) Smelting: It is a process in which the oxide ore in molten state is reduced by carbon or other reducing agents to free
metal.
(i) By using carbon as a reducing agent : This method is used for the isolation of iron, tin and zinc metals from their
respective oxides. Reduction occurs by the action of carbon (C) or carbon monoxide (CO) which is produced by the
partial combustion of coke or charcoal.
FeO + CO → Fe + CO2
Sno2+2C → Sn + 2CO

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Zno + C → Zn + CO
Although the ore has been concentrated in an earlier step, it is still contaminated with some gangue material which is
finally removed in the reduction process by the addition of flux during smelting.
Flux is a chemical substance which combines with gangue at higher temperatures to form easily fusible material called
slag which is not soluble in the molten metal.
Flux are of two types:
(a) Basic Flux: On heating, limestone is converted into calcium oxide used as basic flux which combines with acidic
impurities like silica in metallurgy of iron and forms fusible calcium silicate (CaSiO3).
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 (g) (limestone)
CaO (basic flux) + SiO2 (acidic gangue) → CaSiO3 (slag)
(b) Acidic Flux: SiO2 is used as acidic flux to remove basic impurities in metallurgy.
SiO2 (acidic flux) + FeO (basic gangue) (slag) → FeSiO3
(ii) Other reducing agents: Oxide like chromium oxide (Cr2O3) or manganese oxide (Mn3O4) are reduced by aluminium
powder is a highly exothermic reaction. This process is known as Goldschmidt's Alumino-thermite reduction method.
Cr2O3 + 2AI → 2Cr+ Al2O3 + Heat
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3Mn3O4 +8AI → 9Mn + 4Al2O3 + Heat

Titanium is obtained by the reduction of titanium tetrachloride, TiCl4 (produced by the action of carbon and chlorine on
TiO2) by magnesium (Mg) in an inert atmosphere of argon (Kroll process).
TiCl4 + 2Mg→ Ti + 2MgCl2
(iii) Self-reduction: This is applied to the sulfide ores of copper, mercury and lead. The ores are heated in air, a part of
these sulfide ores is changed into the oxide or sulfate which then reacts with the remaining part of the sulfide ore to give
the metal and sulfur dioxide. The reactions showing their extraction are given below:
2Cu2S (copper glance) + 302 → Cu2O +2SO2
2Cu2O + Cu2S → 6Cu + SO2
Copper produced at this stage is called Blister copper. The evolution of sulfur dioxide produces blisters on the surface
of solidified copper metal.
2HgS (cinnabar) + 302 → 2HgO + 2SO2
2HgO + HgS → 3Hg + SO2
2PbS (galena) + 3O2 → 2PbO+2SO2
PbS+ 202 → PbSO4
PbS + 2PbO →3Pb+ SO2
PbS+ PbSO4→ 2Pb+2SO2
(b) Reduction of Concentrated Ores by Other Methods:
(i) Reduction by Precipitation: Noble metals like silver and gold are extracted from their concentrated ores by
dissolving metal ions in the form of their soluble complexes. The metal ions are then regenerated by adding a suitable
reagent. For example, concentrated argentite ore (Ag2S) is treated with a dilute solution of sodium cyanide (NaCN) to
form a soluble complex:
Ag2S + 4NaCN → 2Na[Ag(CN)2]+ Na2S
This solution is decanted off and treated with zinc to precipitate silver,
2Na[Ag(CN)2]+Zn → Na2[Zn(CN)4]+2Ag↓

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(ii) Electrolytic Reduction : Active metals like sodium, potassium, aluminium, etc are extracted by the electrolysis of
their fused (molten) salts. For example, sodium is obtained by the electrolysis of fused sodium chloride (Down's
process). Magnesium (Mg) is prepared by the electrolysis of fused salt of MgCl2 (Dow's process). Aluminium (Al) is
extracted from molten alumina (Al2O3) by electrolysis.

Refining of Metals
Crude metal may be refined by using one or more of the following methods:
(a) Liquation: Easily fusible metals like tin, lead etc. are refined by this process. In this method, the impure metal is
placed on the sloping hearth and is gently heated. The metal melts and flows down leaving behind the infusible
impurities.
(b) Poling: This method involves stirring the impure molten metal with green logs or bamboo. The hydrocarbons
contained in the pole reduce any metal oxide present as impurity. Copper and tin are refined by this method.
(c) Distillation: Volatile metals like zinc and mercury are purified by distillation. The pure metal distills over, leaving
behind non-volatile impurities.
(d) Electrolytic Refining: A large number of metals like copper, silver, zinc, tin, etc are refined by electrolysis. In this
method, impure metal forms the anode while the cathode is a rod or sheet of pure metal. The electrolytic solution consists
of a soluble salt of the metal. On passing electricity, the pure metal gets deposited on the cathode while the insoluble
impurities settle down below the anode as anode mud or anode sludge.
(e)Zone Refining This method is useful for producing semiconductor and other metals of very high purity, e.g.
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germanium, silicon, boron, gallium and indium. It is based on the principle that impurities are soluble in the molten than
in the solid state of metal.
(v) Vapour Phase Refining: In this method, the metal is converted into its volatile compound and then it is decomposed
to give pure metal. e.g.
Mond’s Process It is used for nickel (Ni).

van Arkel Process It is used for zirconium (Zr) and titanium (Ti).

(vi) Chromatographic Method It is based on the principle that different components of mixture are differently absorbed.

Extraction of Al, Fe, Cu and Zn

(a) Extraction of Aluminium (Al): Aluminium is obtained by the Electrolysis of alumina or aluminium oxide (Al2O3).
The concentration of the Bauxite ore into alumina is done by Bayer's process. The electrolytic reduction of alumina is
done by Hall Heroult's process. The primary aluminium ores are bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O), corundum (Al2O3), cryolite
(Na2AIF6).
(b) Extraction of Iron (Fe): Iron is the second most abundant metal occurring in the earth's crust. It is extracted from
its oxides, haematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4), and also from the carbonate siderite (FeCO3) and Iron pyrite (FeS2).
The extraction of iron is carried out in a blast furnace. The three varieties of iron are pig iron (the most impure form of
iron), cast iron (an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon with around 2.5% to 3.5% carbon and is extremely hard and brittle),
and wrought iron (the purest form of iron).
(c) Extraction of Copper (Cu) : It is principally extracted from copper pyrites (CuFeS2), copper glance (Cu2S), and
cuprite (Cu2O).
(d) Extraction of Zinc (Zn): It is usually extracted from its ore zinc blend (ZnS) and calamine (ZnCO2). The extraction
of zinc from zinc blende is carried out by first roasting and then reduction with carbon.
2ZnS+3O2 → 2ZnO +2SO2

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ZnO + C→ Zn + CO
Calamine ore decomposes into zinc oxide and carbon dioxide when heated rapidly in the absence of air. The zinc oxide
is then heated with carbon to generate zinc metal. ZnCO3→ ZnO + CO2
ZnO+C → Zn + CO
ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2
ZnO + C→ Zn + CO

Alloys :
An alloy is the homogenous mixture of two or more metals or of a metal and a non-metal. These alloys are made to
prevent corrosion and improve upon the properties of metals as desired for the optimum use.
List of different common alloys in use
Alloy Components Typical uses

Alnico Iron (50%+), aluminium (8–12%), nickel (15– Magnets in loudspeakers and pickups in
25%), cobalt (5–40%), plus other metals such electric guitars.
as copper and titanium.

Amalgam Mercury (45–55%), plus silver, tin, copper, or Dental fillings.

zinc.
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Babbitt metal Tin (90%), antimony (7–15%), copper (4– Friction-reducing coating in machine bearings.
(“white metal”) 10%).

Brass Copper (65–90%), zinc (10–35%). Door locks and bolts, brass musical
instruments, central heating pipes.
Bronze Copper (78–95%), tin (5–22%), plus Decorative statues, musical instruments.
manganese, phosphorus, aluminium or silicon.
Cast iron Iron (96–98%), carbon (2–4%), plus silicon. Metal structures such as bridges and heavyduty
cookware.

Cupro-nickel Copper (75%), nickel (25%), plus small Coins.

(copper– nickel) amounts of manganese.
Duralumin Aluminium (94%), copper (4.5–5%), Automobiles and aircraft body parts, military
magnesium (0.5–1.5%), manganese (0.5– equipment.
1.5%).
Gun metal Copper (80–90%), tin (3–10%), zinc (2–3%), Guns, decorative items.
and phosphorus.

Magnox Magnesium, aluminium. Nuclear reactors.

Monel Nickel: 60%, Copper: 33% & Iron: 7%. Corrosion-resistant containers.

Nichrome Nickel (80%), chromium (20%). Firework ignition devices, heating elements in
electrical appliances.

Nitinol Nickel (50–55%), titanium (45–50%). Shape-memory alloy used in medical items,
spectacle frames that spring back to shape, and
temperature switches.
Pewter Tin (80–99%) with copper, lead and antimony. Ornaments, used for making tableware before
glass became more common.

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Solder Varies. Old-fashioned solders contain a Connecting electrical components into circuits.
mixture of tin (50-70%), lead (30-50%),
copper, antimony and other metals. Newer
solders dispense with lead for health reasons.
A typical modern solder has 99.25 per cent tin
and 0.75 per cent copper.

Steel (general) Iron (80–98%), carbon (0.2–2%), plus other Metal structures, car and aeroplane parts, and
metals such as chromium, manganese and many other uses.
vanadium.

Steel (stainless) Iron (50%+), chromium (10–30%), plus Jewellery, medical tools, tableware.
smaller amounts of carbon, nickel, manganese,
molybdenum and other metals.

Phosphor bronze Bronze with a small amount of phosphorus Springs (normal & electrical) & boat
propellers.

Stellite Cobalt (67%), chromium (28%), tungsten Coating for cutting tools such as saw teeth,
(4%), nickel (1%). lathes and chain saws.
Sterling silver Silver (92.5%), copper (7.5%). Cutlery, jewellery, medical equipments,
musical instruments.
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White gold (18 Gold (75%), palladium (17%), silver (4%), Jewellery.
carat) copper (4%)

Wood’s metal Bismuth (50%), lead (26.7%), tin (13.3%), Soldering, melting element in fire sprinkler
cadmium (10%). systems
Type metal Lead (75 – 95%), antimony: 2–18% & tin in Used for making type characters for printing;
trace quantities. also used for making decorative objects like
statuettes andcandle sticks

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