SHREYA

11021210078
B.TECH CSE (DS & AI) – E

QUANTUM COMPUTING
ASSIGNMENT-2

1.Explain Grover’s algorithm in detail.

Grover's Algorithm is used to find an unknown element (or solution) in an unsorted list, where we only
know a way to verify if an item is the solution. It consists of three main steps:

Step 1: Initialization (Creating a Superposition):

 Set up Quantum Registers:

 Prepare a quantum register with enough qubits to represent all possible items in the database.
For N items, you need � = log2 � qubits.
 Apply Hadamard Gates to Each Qubit:
 Apply a Hadamard gate to each qubit, transforming the initial state ∣0 ⊗� into an equal
superposition of all possible states ∣� .
 This superposition state represents a uniform probability distribution across all N elements.
1 �−1
 After applying Hadamard gates, the state of the qubits is: �
∣
�=0 �

Interpretation:

Each basis state ├ ∣x⟩ in this superposition corresponds to one item in the search space.
The algorithm’s goal is to increase the amplitude of the target item (the “solution”) so that it has the
highest probability of being observed.

Step 2: Oracle Application

The oracle is a key part of Grover’s Algorithm and acts as a "black box" function that marks the correct
solution by flipping its phase.

Oracle Function:

 The oracle is a quantum operation O that applies a phase flip (changes the sign) to the target item ∣�0
(the correct solution), differentiating it from other states.

Result of the Oracle:

 After the oracle is applied, the amplitude of the solution state ∣�0 becomes negative while the other
states remain positive.
Step 3: Amplitude Amplification (Grover Diffusion Operator)
The amplitude amplification step amplifies the probability of the marked state through constructive
interference.
Grover Diffusion Operator:
The diffusion operator (sometimes called the “inversion about the mean” operation) works by
inverting each state’s amplitude around the average amplitude.
This increases the amplitude of the marked state while slightly decreasing the amplitude of the non-
marked states.

Mathematically, the diffusion operator D is represented by:

� = 2∣� �∣ − � (I =Identity Matrix & ∣� = superposition)

Applying the Diffusion Operator:

Apply the diffusion operator after the oracle. The diffusion operator reinforces the amplitude of the
marked state (where the oracle flipped the phase) and suppresses the other states’ amplitudes.
Number of Iterations:
To maximize the probability of finding the target state, Grover’s Algorithm requires O(√N) iterations.
Each iteration amplifies the marked state's amplitude until it becomes the dominant probability in the
final state.

Step 4: Measurement
After the necessary number of iterations, the state of the quantum register has a high probability of
collapsing to the target state upon measurement.
Measure the Quantum State:
Measure the quantum register. Due to the amplitude amplification from previous
steps, there is a high probability that the measurement result will be the index of the correct solution.
Interpreting the Measurement:
The measurement result is the index of the item in the list, corresponding to the solution marked by
the oracle.
2. Explain Shor’s algorithm in detail.
Step 1: Making a Random Guess

 Select a random integer a such that 1<a<N.

 Check that a is coprime to N, which means gcd(a, N) = 1.
 If gcd(a, N) ≠ 1, then you’ve already found a factor of N (either gcd(a, N) or N/gcd(a, N)),
and you’re done.

Example: Let’s say we want to factor N=15. We pick a=7, which is coprime to 15 because

gcd(7, 15) = 1.

 Define the Function f(x)= ax mod N:

 This function, f(x)= ax mod N, will have a repeating pattern, or period, as x increases.

The algorithm’s main task is to determine the period p of this function, which satisfies:
ap ≡1 mod N. Knowing p will help in finding factors of N. The goal of the next steps is to determine this
period p using quantum properties.

Step 2: Making it a "Good Guess" by Finding the Period:

To find the period of the function, Shor’s Algorithm leverages the power of quantum superposition and
parallelism.
Set Up Quantum Registers:
 Use two quantum registers. The first register will store values of x and the second register will store
the values of f(x).
 Create a superposition of all possible values of in the first register: where is some large integer,
typically a power of 2, chosen to make computations easier.
Compute in Superposition:
 Apply a quantum operation that computes and stores the result in the second register. The state now
becomes:
 Due to the periodic nature of f(x), multiple values of x will map to the same function f(x) value,
effectively encoding the periodicity in the quantum state.

Step 3: Quantum Fourier Transform (QFT) to Detect the Period:

The Quantum Fourier Transform (QFT) is essential for extracting the period from the superposition state
efficiently.
Applying the Quantum Fourier Transform on the First Register:
 The QFT converts the information in the superposition state to one where the period becomes easier
to observe.
 When applied to the first register, the QFT takes advantage of the periodic structure of and
transforms the amplitudes in such a way that we get strong “peaks” at frequencies related to the
period.
After applying the QFT, the state in the first register transforms into one that reflects multiples of for
� = 0,1,2, …, � − 1..
Measurement to Estimate p:
 Measure the first register, which collapses the superposition and gives a result close to k/p for some
integer k.
  Using this measurement, the classical part of the algorithm processes this value through continued
fraction approximation to estimate p.
Classical Verification and Factorization:
 After estimating p, verify if p satisfies �� ≡ 1 ��� �
 If it does, then compute:
gcd ��/2 − 1, � and gcd ��/2 + 1, � .

These calculations yield factors of N.

Example (continued):
For N=15 and a=7, if p=4, then calculate:
74/2 − 1 = 48, 74/2 + 1 = 50.
Taking gcd(48, 15) = 3 and gcd(50, 15) = 5, we find that 3 and 5 are factors of 15.

3. Define the term teleportation and how is achievable in future by using the property
of quantum mechanics.
Quantum teleportation is the process of transferring the quantum state of a particle (such as an electron or
photon) from one location to another without physically transporting the particle itself. This process relies
on the phenomenon of quantum entanglement, a fundamental property of quantum mechanics.
How Quantum Teleportation Works
Quantum teleportation involves three key steps:
1. Entanglement Creation:
Two particles, A and B, are entangled such that the state of one is dependent on the state of the other,
no matter the distance between them.
2. Quantum State Measurement:
The quantum state of the particle to be teleported (particle C) is measured alongside particle A. This
measurement alters the entangled state, encoding the information of C into A and B's entanglement.
3. State Reconstruction:
Using the measurement result, the quantum state of particle C is reconstructed at particle B's location.
The information is effectively transferred, even though particle C never physically travelled.
4.
Feasibility in the Future
In the future, quantum teleportation could be achievable at a practical level using advancements in quantum
mechanics, particularly in these areas:
 Development of Stable Quantum Entanglement:
Increasing the stability and distance over which entangled states can exist without decoherence (loss
of quantum information).
 High-Precision Quantum Measurement:
Enhancing measurement techniques to capture quantum states without introducing significant errors.
 Quantum Communication Networks:
Building large-scale quantum communication infrastructure, like quantum repeaters and satellites, to
enable long-distance entanglement sharing.
 Scalable Quantum Computers:
Leveraging quantum computing power to process and simulate teleportation protocols effectively.
Though quantum teleportation is not about "teleporting matter" like in science fiction, it has practical
implications in fields like quantum computing, cryptography, and secure communication.
5. Define interference using Thomas Young double split experiment and discuss
about types of interference.
Interference is a phenomenon in which two or more waves overlap and combine to form a resultant wave
of greater, lower, or the same amplitude. In the context of light, interference occurs when light waves
from coherent sources superimpose, resulting in regions of constructive and destructive interference.

In quantum computing, interference refers to the phenomenon where quantum states combine to either
amplify (constructive interference) or cancel out (destructive interference) the probabilities of certain
outcomes when measured; essential for the functioning of quantum algorithms.

Thomas Young's double-slit experiment demonstrated the wave nature of light through interference. In
this experiment:

1. A monochromatic light source passes through two closely spaced slits, producing two coherent light
waves.
2. These waves overlap on a screen, forming an interference pattern of bright and dark fringes.

Types of Interference

1. Constructive Interference:

 Occurs when two waves are in phase (their peaks and troughs align).
 The resultant wave has an amplitude equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves.
 Bright fringes appear on the screen in the double-slit experiment.

2. Destructive Interference:

 Occurs when two waves are out of phase (the peak of one aligns with the trough of the other).
 The resultant wave has an amplitude equal to the difference in amplitudes, leading to cancellation if
amplitudes are equal.
 Dark fringes appear on the screen in the double-slit experiment.