3

Actuators and Grippers

Actuators are devices which drive a robot including its grippers. They are like the
muscles of a human arm and hand. While the human arm provides motion, the hand
is used for object manipulation. As illustrated in Fig. 2.3, the same is true with a
robot. Its arm, be Cartesian or anthropomorphic or of other type, which are explained
in Section 2.2, provides motion, whereas its gripper, which is equivalent to a human
hand, manipulates objects. Both require some kind of actuator system powered by
electricity or compressed air or pressurized fluid. These systems are presented in this
chapter, along with different types of grippers used in robotic applications.
An actuator system comprises of several subsystems, namely,
(i) a power supply;
(ii) a power amplifier;
(iii) a servomotor; and
(iv) a transmission system.
The connections between all the actuator components are depicted in Fig. 3.1.

Pp: Primary source of power (electricity or pressurized fluid or compressed air); Pc: Input control
power (usually electric); Pa: Input power to motor (electric or hydraulic or pneumatic type);
Pm: Power output from motor; Pu: Mechanical power required; Pda, Pds, and Pdt: Powers lost in
dissipation for the conversions performed by the amplifier, motor, and transmission
Fig. 3.1 An actuator system

To choose an actuator, it is worth start- Actuator vs. Motor

ing from the requirements imposed on the
A motor together with transmissions and
mechanical power Pu by the force and ve- other accessories, if any, is referred as an
locity that describe the joint motion. Based actuator (see Fig. 3.1). However, in many
on the source of input power Pa, the actua- instances, they are used interchangeably
tors can be classified into three groups: to mean that they move a robot link.
 42 Introduction to Robotics

1. Electric Actuators The primary input power supply is the electric energy
from the electric distribution system.
2. Hydraulic Actuators They transform hydraulic energy stored in a reservoir
into mechanical energy by means of suitable pumps.
3. Pneumatic Actuators They utilize pneumatic energy, i.e., compressed air,
provided by a compressor and transform it into mechanical energy by means of
pistons or turbines.
A portion of the motor input power Pa is converted to the output as a mechanical
power Pm, and the rest Pds is dissipated because of mechanical, electrical, hydraulic,
or pneumatic motor losses. In a robotic application, an actuator should have the
following characteristics:
∑ Low inertia
∑ High power-to-weight ratio
∑ Possibility of overload and delivery of impulse torques
∑ Capacity to develop high accelerations
∑ Wide velocity ranges
∑ High positioning accuracy
∑ Good trajectory tracking and positioning accuracy
Based on wide application of electric actuators in industrial robots and their easy
availability in the stores next door selling
toys or repairing photocopiers, washing
Who is ABB?
machines, etc., they are presented first. It
ABB is a Zurich, Switzerland-based
will be followed by hydraulic and pneumatic multinational company operating in
actuators. While hydraulic actuators are power and automation technology
suitable for applications where the areas. It was formed in 1988 through
requirement is high power-to-weight ratio, the merger of ASEA of Sweden and
pneumatic actuators are often used by Brown, Boveri and Cie of Switzerland.
It has operations in more than 100
electrically actuated robots for their grippers countries, and is one of the major
requiring only on-off motions of the jaws. industrial robot manufacturers in the
Use of a pneumatic gripper makes the robot world.
system a little lighter and cost effective.

3.1 ELECTRIC ACTUATORS

Electric actuators are generally those where an electric motor drives robot links
through some mechanical transmission, e.g., gears, etc. In the early years of industrial
robotics, hydraulic robots were the most common, but recent improvements in electric-
motor design have meant that most new robots are of all-electric construction. The
first commercial electrically driven industrial robot was introduced in 1974 by ABB.
The advantages and disadvantages of an electric motor are the following:
Advantages
∑ Widespread availability of power supply.
∑ Basic drive element in an electric motor is usually lighter than that for fluid
power, i.e., pressurized fluid or compressed air.
∑ High power-conversion efficiency.
 Actuators and Grippers 43

∑ No pollution of working environment.

∑ Accuracy and repeatability of electric drive robots are normally better than fluid
power robots in relation to cost.
∑ Being relatively quiet and clean, they are very acceptable environmentally.
∑ They are easily maintained and repaired.
∑ Structural components can be lightweight.
∑ The drive system is well suited to electronic control.
Disadvantages
∑ Electrically driven robots often require the incorporation of some sort of
mechanical transmission system.
∑ Additional power is required to move the additional masses of the transmission
system.
∑ Unwanted movements due to backlash and plays in the transmission elements.
∑ Due to the increased complexity with the transmission system, we need complex
control requirement and additional cost for their procurement and maintenance.
∑ Electric motors are not intrinsically safe, mainly, in explosive environments.
The above disadvantages are gradually being overcome with the introduction of
direct-drive motor system, in which the electric motor is a part of the relevant robot
arm joint, thus, eliminating the transmission
dc vs. ac
elements. Moreover, the introduction of
dc stands for direct current, whereas
newer brushless motors allow electric robots
ac means alternating current. Batteries
to be used in some fire-risk applications such in flash lights, cars, etc., supply dc. For
as spray painting, as the possibility of domestic use, however, the electric
sparking at the motor brushes is eliminated. supply is ac with 230 volts, 50 cycles
Different types of electric motors are stepper (in India and other countries), 110
volts, 60 cycles (USA and others), and
motors, and the dc and ac motors, which are
similar.
explained next.
3.1.1 Stepper Motors
Stepper motors (also called stepping motors or step motors) were first used for remote
control of the direction indicators of torpedo tubes and guns in British warships and
later, for a similar purpose, in the US Navy. A variable reluctance-type stepper motor
was first patented in 1919 by C.L. Walker, a Scottish civil engineer. However, its
commercial production did not start until 1950.
Such motors are used with small and medium robots and with teaching and hobby
robots. These motors are widely used in other industrial applications mainly due to
their advantage of not requiring any feedback system and, accordingly not incurring
the associated cost. Stepper motors are, however, compatible with many feedback
devices, if so desired, and are used in full servo-control configurations in medium-
duty industrial robots. Because they are digitally controlled, they can be referred to
as digital motors or actuators. These motors do not require the expense of digital-
to-analog conversion equipment when connected to a computer-control system. A
commercially available stepper motor is shown in Fig. 3.2.
 44 Introduction to Robotics

[Courtesy: http://www.polulu.com]
Fig. 3.2 Stepper motor (Bipolar, 200 Steps/Rev, 20 ¥ 30 mm, 3.9 V, 0.6 A/Phase)

Normally, the shaft of a stepper motors rotates incrementally in equal steps in

response to a programmed input pulse train. As shown in Fig. 3.3(a), current in any of
the two phases, i.e., with P1 and P2, will magnetize the pair into north and south poles,
indicted with N and S, respectively. Accordingly, the permanent magnet at the centre
will rotate in order to align itself along a particular phase, which is demonstrated in
Fig. 3.3(b). Switching the currents in the two phases in an appropriate sequence can
produce either clockwise (CW) or counterclockwise (CCW) rotations, as tabulated
in Table 3.1. The switching sequence of Table 3.1 corresponds to what is known as
half-stepping with a step angle of 45o, whereas the full-stepping corresponds to 90o
in which one phase is energized at a time. See Example 3.3. It is pointed out here that

Fig. 3.3 Working principle of a two-phase stepper motor

 Actuators and Grippers 45

one can also achieve micro-stepping (non-identical steps) up to 1/125 of full-step by

changing the currents in small steps instead of switching them on and off, as in the
case of half- and full-stepping. While micro-stepping is advantageous from the point
of view of accurate motion control using a stepper motor, it has the disadvantage of
reduced motor torque.
Note that the steps are achieved through phase activation or switching sequences
triggered by the pulse sequences. The switching logic that decides the states of the
phases of a given step can be generated using a look-up table given in Table 3.1. The
same sequences can also be generated using a logic circuitry which is typically an
electronic device.

Table 3.1 Half-stepping sequence of a two-phase stepper motor

(both phases energized simultaneously)

Step
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Rotation
Phases
CW
P1 1 0 –1 –1 –1 0 1 1
P2 1 1 1 0 –1 –1 –1 0
CCW

As the rotor indexes round a specific amount for each control pulse, any error
in positioning is noncumulative. To know the final position of the rotor, all that
is required is to count the number of pulses fed into the stator’s phase winding of
the motor. The number of pulses per unit time determines the motor speed. The
rotor can be made to index slowly, coming to rest after each increment or it can
move rapidly in a continuous motion termed slewing. Maximum dynamic torque
in a stepper motor occurs at low pulse rates. Therefore, it can easily accelerate a
load. Once the required position is achieved and the command pulses cease, the shaft
stops without the need for clutches or brakes. The actual rotational movements or
step angles of the shaft are obtainable typically from 1.8° to 90° depending on the
particular motor choices. Thus, with a nominal step angle of 1.8°, a stream of 1000
pulses will give an angular displacement of 1800° or five complete revolutions. They
have also a low velocity capability without the need for gear reduction. For instance,
if the previously mentioned motor is driven by 500 pulses per second, it will rotate
at 150 rpm. Other advantages of the stepper motor are that the motor inertia is often
low, and also if more than one stepper motor is driven from the same source then
they will maintain perfect synchronizations.
Some disadvantages of stepper motors are that they have a lower output and
efficiency compared to other motors, namely, dc and ac, and drive inputs and
circuitry have to be carefully designed in relation to the torque and speed required.
There are various types of stepper motors which are based on the nature of a motor’s
rotor, e.g., variable reluctance, permanent magnet, and hybrid. A good account of
stepper motors is given in de Silva (2004), whereas an online video showing their
 46 Introduction to Robotics

working principles are available in WR-Stepper (2013)1. A typical specification of

a stepper motor is given in Table 3.2, whereas a general torque-speed plot is shown
in Fig. 3.4.

Table 3.2 Specifications of a stepper motor [Courtesy: www.robokits.co.in]

Brand and Model NEMA 23, RMCS-115

Step angle 1.8°
Configuration 6 wire stepper motor
Holding torque 10 kg-cm bipolar
Rated voltage 3.3 VDC
Phase current 2 Amp
Resistance/Phase 1.65 E
Inductance/Phase 2.2 mH
Rotor inertia 275 gcm2
Detent torque 0.36 kg-cm
Length 51 mm
Weight 650 grams

Torque Peak torque

Starting torque
(Standstill
torque)

No-load
speed

0 Speed

Fig. 3.4 Torque-speed characteristics of a stepper motor

1. Variable-Reluctance Stepper Motor Magnetic reluctance, or simply

reluctance, is the analog of electrical resistance. Just as current occurs only in a
closed loop, so magnetic flux occurs only around
Detent Position a closed path, although this path may be more
It is the equilibrium configuration varied than that of the current. Figure 3.5(a)
when the rotor assumes the shows the basic form of the variable-reluctance
minimum reluctance position for stepper motor. The rotor is made of soft steel
that step.
and it has four poles, whereas the stator has six

1 WR stands for Web Reference given at the end of the list of References. They mainly contain the links
to online materials including videos, which are expected to enhance the understanding of a concept to the
reader.
 Actuators and Grippers 47

poles. When one of the phases, say AA¢, is excited due to a dc current passing through
the coils around the poles, the rotor positions itself to complete the flux path shown
in Fig. 3.5(a). Note that there is a main flux
Holding Torque vs. Detent Torque
path through the aligned rotor and stator
Holding torque is the amount of
teeth, with secondary flux paths occurring as
torque that the motor produces when
indicated. When rotor and stator teeth are it has rated current flowing through
aligned in this manner, the reluctance is the windings but the motor is at rest,
minimized and the rotor is at rest in this whereas the detent torque is the amount
position. This flux path can be considered of torque that the motor produces when
it is not energized, i.e., no current is
rather like an elastic thread and always trying
flowing through the windings.
to shorten itself. The rotor will move until
the rotor and stator poles are lined up. This is
termed as the position of minimum reluctance. To rotate the motor counterclockwise,
the phase AA¢ is turned off and phase BB¢ is excited. At that point, the main flux path
has the form indicated in Figs. 3.5(b-c). This form of a stepper motor generally gives
step angles of 7.5° or 15°, which are referred as half-stepping and full-stepping,
respectively. Note that a disadvantage of variable-reluctance stepper motors is that it
has zero holding torque when the stator windings are not energized (power off)
because the rotor is not magnetized. Hence, it has no capacity to hold a load in
power-off mode unless mechanical brakes are employed.

Fig. 3.5 Variable-reluctance stepper motor

2. Permanent-Magnet Stepper Motor The basic method of operation of a

permanent-magnet type is similar to the variable-reluctance type. As illustrated in
Fig. 3.6, there are two coils A and B, each of them having four poles but displaced
from each other by half a pole pitch. The
rotor is of permanent-magnet construction Harmonic drive and Ratchet-and-
and has four poles. Each pole is wound with pawl vs. Stepper motors
field winding, the coils on opposite pairs of Harmonic drive and ratchet-and-pawl
poles being in series. Current is supplied are two transmission mechanisms
from a dc source to the winding through which produce intermittent motions
switches. It can be seen in Fig. 3.6(a) that the purely through mechanical means.
They can be loosely categorized as
motor is at rest with the poles of the
stepper motors.
permanent magnet rotor held between the
 48 Introduction to Robotics

residual poles of the stator. In this position, the rotor is locked unless a turning force
is applied. If the coils are energized and, in the first pulse, the magnetic polarity of
the poles of the coil A is reversed, the rotor will experience a torque and will rotate
counterclockwise, as shown in Fig. 3.6(b). The reverse poles are shown as A¢.

Fig. 3.6 Permanent-magnet stepper motor

If the coil B poles are now reversed to B¢, as shown in Fig. 3.6(c), the rotor will
again experience a torque, and once more the poles of the rotor are positioned midway
between the stator poles. Thus, by switching the currents through the coils, the rotor
rotates by 45°. If in the first pulse, the poles of the coil B had been reversed then the
motor would have rotated clockwise. With this type of motor, commonly produced
step angles are 1.8°, 7.5°, 15°, 30°, 34°, 90°.
3. Hybrid Stepper Motor Hybrid stepper motors are the most common variety
of stepper motors in engineering applications. They combine the features of both the
variable reluctance and permanent-magnet
motors, having a permanent magnet encaged
in iron caps which are cut to have teeth, as
shown in Fig. 3.7. A hybrid stepper motor
has two stacks of rotor teeth on its shaft (WR-
Stepper, 2013). The two rotor stacks are
magnetized to have opposite polarities, while
two stator segments surround the two rotor Fig. 3.7 Hybrid stepper motor
stacks. The rotor sets itself in the minimum
reluctance position in response to a pair of stator coils being energized. Typical step
angles are 0.9° and 1.8°.
From the descriptions of stepper motors, it is, therefore, apparent that the rate at
which the pulses are applied determines the motor speed, the total number of pulses
determines the angular displacement, and the order of energizing the coils in the first
instance determines the direction of rotation. It is because of this ease of driving
using direct digital control that stepper motors are well suited for use in a computer-
controlled robot, although the motor does require interfacing with a high-current
pulse source.
 Actuators and Grippers 49

Example 3.1 Pitch Angles of Rotors and Stators

If the angles of two adjacent teeth of a rotor Stepper Motor Model
and a stator, called the pitch angles, are
Model of a stepper motor is described
denoted by qr and qs, respectively, they can by its torque expression with respect to
be calculated as its rotor angle, i.e., t = –tmax sin(nrq),
360∞ 360∞ where tmax is maximum torque during a
qr = and q s = (3.1) step (holding torque), nr is the number
nr ns of rotor teeth, and q is any angular
position.
where by nr and ns are the corresponding
number of teeth in rotors and stators.

Example 3.2 Step Angle

Suppose, in a variable reluctance stepper motor the number of steps required is, n =
200. Then, the step angles Dq can be calculated as
360∞
Dq = = 1.8∞ (3.2)
n

Example 3.3 Sequence for Full-step Angle

As explained in the beginning of Section 3.1.1, the full-stepping requires that one
phase is energized at a time. For the two-phase motor of Fig. 3.3, the stepping
sequence is given in Table 3.3. The rotor positions are shown in Fig. 3.8.

Table 3.3 Full-stepping sequence for a two-phase motor

Step
1 2 3 4 Rotation
Phases
CW
P1 0 –1 0 1
P2 1 0 –1 0
CCW

Fig. 3.8 Stepping sequence (one phase energized at a time)

 50 Introduction to Robotics

3.1.2 dc Motors
People in their daily lives experience electric motors, whether they are dc (often
battery operated) motors to run a child’s toy or ac (mains operated) motors to turn
the blenders in the kitchen, etc. The first commercial electrically driven industrial
robot was introduced in 1974 by the Swedish giant corporation ASEA. Traditionally,
roboticists have employed electrically driven dc (direct-current) motors for robots
because, not only are powerful versions available, but they are also easily controllable
with relatively simple electronics. Although direct current is needed, batteries are
rarely used (for nonmobile robots) but instead the ac supply is rectified into a suitable
dc equivalent. The operation of any electric motor is based upon the principle
which states that a conductor will
experience a force if an electric
current in that conductor flows at
right angles to a magnetic field.
Therefore, to construct a motor, two
basic components are required. One
to produce the magnetic field usually
termed the stator, and another to act
as the conductor usually termed the
armature or the rotor. The principle
is shown in Fig. 3.9(a) for one
element of a dc motor, whereas a
two-pole dc motor is shown in Fig.
3.9(b). The magnetic field may be
created either by field coils wound on
the stator or by permanent magnets.
The field coils, if used, would be
provided with an electric current to
create magnetic poles on the stator.
In Fig. 3.9(a), the current is supplied
to a conductor via the brushes and
commutators. The current passing
through the field produces a torque,
or more accurately static torque on
the conductor, which can be given Fig. 3.9 dc motors
by
t = 2fr sin s (3.3a)
where f is the magnetic force exerted on the conductor, r is the radius of the rotor,
and s is the angle between the flux density vector of stator magnetic field b and the
unit vector normal to the plane of the coil n, as shown in Fig. 3.9(a). The angle s is
known as torque angle. In view of Lorentz’s law, the imbalanced magnetic force f
that is generated on the conductor, normal to the magnetic plane is given by
f = Bial (3.3b)
in which B is the flux density of the original field, ia is the current through the
conductor, i.e., coil rotor or armature formed by the conductors, and l is the length of
 Actuators and Grippers 51

the conductor. Substituting Eq. (3.3b) into Eq. (3.3a), the torque τ generated in the
rotor is given by
t = Aia b sin s (3.3c)
In Eq. (3.3c), A ≡ 2lr, which is nothing but the face area of the planar rotor, as
shown in Fig. 3.9(a). Moreover, unit vectors b and n represent the field direction and
normal to the plane of the rotor.
According to Eq. (3.3c), t is maximum when s = 90°. Moreover, the higher the
voltage supplied to the stator coils of the motor, the faster the motor turns, providing
a very simple method of speed
control. Similarly, varying the current
to the armature controls the torque.
Reversing the polarity of the voltage
causes the motor to turn in the
opposite direction. Some larger
robots utilize field control dc motors,
i.e., motors in which the torque is
controlled by manipulating the
current to the field coils. These motors
allow high power output at high
speeds and can give a good power-to-
weight ratio. A typical specification
of a dc motor is given in Table 3.4,
whereas its speed-torque characteristic
curve is shown in Fig. 3.10 for
Fig. 3.10 Speed-torque speed
different voltage values. characteristics of a dc motor

Table 3.4 Specifications of a dc motor [Courtesy: http://uk.rs-online.com]

Brand Parvalux
Manufacturer part no. PM2 160W511109
Type Industrial dc Electric Motors
Shaft size (S, M, L) M
Speed (rpm) 4000 rpm
Power rating (W) 160 W
Voltage rating (Vdc) 50 V(dc)
Input current 3.8 A
Height (mm) 78 mm
Width (mm) 140 mm
Length (mm) 165 mm

Note that the shape of steady-state speed-torque curves will be modified depending
on how the windings of the rotor and the stator are connected. There are three typical
ways to do that, namely, shunt-wound motor, series-wound motor, and compound-
wound motor. Figure 3.11 shows the above three windings.
 52 Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 3.11 Types of windings of dc motors

In a shunt-wound motor, the armature windings and field windings are connected
in parallel, as shown in Fig. 3.11(a). At steady state, the back electromotive force
(e.m.f.) depends directly on the supply voltage. Since the back e.m.f. is proportional
to the speed, it follows that the speed controllability is good with the shunt-wound
configuration. In series-wound motors, as the name suggests, they are connected
in series. This is shown in Fig. 3.11(b). The relation between the back e.m.f. and
supply voltage is coupled through both the armature windings and the field windings.
Hence, its speed controllability is relatively poor. But in this case, a relatively large
current flows through both windings at low speeds of the motor, giving higher starting
torque. Also, the operation is approximately at constant power. In the compound-
wound motor, a part of the field windings is connected with the armature windings
in series and the other part is connected in parallel, as shown in Fig. 3.11(c). This
kind of motors provides a compromise performance between the extremes of speed
controllability and higher starting torque characteristics, as provided by the shunt-
wound and series-wound motors, respectively. Table 3.5 summarizes the properties
derived from the above three types of windings. For an industrial robot, in general,
it is said that the current excited field control methods involve too slow a response
 Actuators and Grippers 53

time and incur losses that make permanent-magnet fields and armature control more
attractive, which are explained next.

Table 3.5 Steady-state characteristics of a dc motor [Courtesy: de Silva, 2004]

Serial Windings in a dc Field-coil resistance Speed Starting

No. motor controllability torque
1 Shunt-wound High Good Average
2 Series-wound Low Poor High
3 Compound-wound Parallel high, series low Average Average

1. Permanent-Magnet (PM) dc Motors The permanent-magnet dc motor,

which is also referred as torque motor, can provide high torque. Here, no field
coils are used and the field is produced by the permanent magnets themselves.
These magnets should have high-flux density per unit yielding a high torque/mass
ratio. Typical materials with desired characteristic of such dc motors are rare-earth
materials such as samarium cobalt, etc. Some PM motors do have coils wound on the
magnet poles but these are simply to recharge the magnets if their strength fails. Due
to the field flux being a constant, the torque of these motors is directly proportional
to the armature current. Some other advantages are: excitation power supplies for
the field coils are not required, reliability is improved as there are no field coils to
fail, and no power loss from field coils means efficiency and cooling are improved.
However, these types of motors are more expensive. Two types of PM configurations
are shown in Fig. 3.12. They are cylindrical and disk types.

Fig. 3.12 Two types of permanent-magnet dc motor configurations

The cylindrical motor operates in a similar manner to that already described for
other dc motors except that there are no field coils, whereas the disk motor has a large
diameter, short-length armature of nonmagnetic material. It is the cylindrical motor
that is more commonly used in industrial robots.
2. Brushless Permanent-Magnet dc Motors A problem with dc motors is that
they require a commutator and brushes in order to periodically reverse the current
through each armature coil. The brushes make sliding contacts with the commutators
and as a consequence sparks jump between the two and they suffer wear. Brushes
 54 Introduction to Robotics

thus have to be periodically changed and the commutator resurfaced. To avoid such
problems, brushless motors have been designed. Essentially, they consist of a
sequence of stator coiled and a permanent magnet rotor. A current-carrying conductor
in a magnetic field experiences a force; likewise, as a consequence of Newton’s third
law of motion, the magnet will also experience an opposite and equal force. With the
conventional dc motor, the magnet is fixed and the current-carrying conductors made
to move. With the brushless permanent-magnet dc motor the reverse is the case, the
current-carrying conductors are fixed and the
magnetic field moves. The rotor is a ferrite or
ceramic permanent magnet. In concept,
brushless dc motors are somewhat similar to
permanent-magnet stepper motors explained
in Section 3.1.1 and to some type of ac
motors, as in Section 3.1.3. Figure 3.13
shows the basic form of such a motor. The
current to the stator coils is electronically
switched by transistors in sequence round
the coils, the switching being controlled by
Fig. 3.13 Brushless permanent-
the position of the rotor so that there are magnet dc motor
always forces acting on the magnet causing
it to rotate in the same direction.
The brushless motors have many advantages over conventional dc motors. For
example,
∑ They have better heat dissipation, heat being more easily lost from the stator
than the rotor.
∑ There is reduced rotor inertia. Hence, they weigh less and low mass for a
specified torque rating.
∑ The motors in themselves are less expensive.
∑ They are more durable and have longer life.
∑ Low maintenance.
∑ Lower mechanical loading.
∑ Improved safety.
∑ Quieter operation.
∑ They are of smaller dimensions of comparable power.
∑ The absence of brushes reduces maintenance costs due to brush and commutator
wear, and also allows electric robots to be used in hazardous areas with flammable
atmospheres such as are found in spray-painting applications.
One disadvantage is that the control systems for brushless motors are relatively
expensive due to sensing and switching.
3. dc Servomotors and their Drivers Servomotors are motors with motion
feedback control, which are able to follow a specified motion trajectory. In a dc
servomotor, both angular position and speed might be measured using, say, shaft
encoders, tachometers, resolvers, potentiometers, etc., and compared with the desired
position and speed. The error signal which is the difference between the desired
minus actual responses is conditioned and compensated using analog circuitry or
 Actuators and Grippers 55

is processed by a digital hardware processor or a computer, and supplied to drive

the servomotor toward the desired response. Motion control implies indirect torque
control of the motor that causes the motion. In some applications like grinding, etc.,
where torque itself is a primary output, direct control of motor torque would be
desirable. This can be accomplished using feedback of the armature current or the
field current because those currents determine the motor torque. A typical layout of
a dc servomotor is given in Fig. 3.14.

Fig. 3.14 A dc servomotor [Courtesy: de Silva, 2004]

Note that the control of a dc motor is achieved by controlling either the stator field
flux or the armature flux. If the armature and field windings are connected through
the same circuit, i.e., one of the winding types shown in Fig. 3.11, both techniques
are implemented simultaneously. Two methods of control are armature control and
field control. In armature control, the field current in the stator circuit is kept constant
and the input voltage to the rotor is varied in order to achieve a desired performance.
In the field control, on the other hand, the armature voltage is kept constant and input
voltage to the field circuit is varied. These winding currents are generated using a
motor driver. It is a hardware unit that generates necessary current to energize the
windings of the motor. By controlling the current generated by the driver, the motor
torque can be controlled. By receiving feedback from a motion sensor (encoder
tachometer, etc.), the angular position and the speed of the motor can be controlled.
The drive unit of a dc servomotor primarily consists of a driver amplifier
(commercially available amplifiers are
linear amplifier or pulse-width- Impedance vs. Inertia Matching
modulation, i.e., PWM, amplifier), with In electrical systems, impedance matching is
additional circuitry and a dc power to equate the input impedance of a load (or
supply. The driver is commanded by a output impedance) with the input impedance
control input provided by a host to maximize the power transfer. Similarly,
in a motor-gearbox load configuration, the
computer through an interface (input/ inertia (or mechanical impedance) of the
output) card. A suitable arrangement is load seen by the motor should be the same
shown in Fig. 3.15. Also, the driver as its inertia in order to obtain maximum
parameters like amplifier gains are power transfer or acceleration.
 56 Introduction to Robotics

software programmable and can be set by the host computer. The control computer
receives a feedback signal of the motor motion, through the interface board, and
generates a control signal, using a suitable control law explained in Chapter 10. The
signal is then provided to the drive amplifier, again through the interface board. An
interface board or Data Acquisition (DAQ) card is a hardware module with Digital-
to-Analog (DAC) and Analog-to-Digital (ADC) capabilities built-in. These are
generally parts of a robot’s control system, as mentioned in Section 2.1.3.

Fig. 3.15 Controller of a dc servomotor

The final control of a dc motor is accomplished by controlling the supply voltage

to either the armature circuit or the field circuit. A dissipative method of achieving
this involves using a variable resistor in series with the supply source to the circuit.
This method has disadvantages of high heat generation, etc. Instead, the voltage to a
dc motor is controlled by using a solid-state switch known as a thyrister to vary the
off time of fixed voltage level, while keeping the period of pulse signal constant.
Specifically, the duty cycle of a pulse
signal is varied, as demonstrated in Duty Cycle
Fig. 3.16. This is called pulse-width- It is given in percentage as
modulation or PWM. A commercial dc On period
—————— × 100%
servomotor along with its controller unit Pulse period
is shown in Fig. 3.17.

Voltage

On period Pulse period

Reference
voltage

Time
On Off On Off On Off
Fig. 3.16 Duty cycle of a PWM signal
 Actuators and Grippers 57

[Courtesy: http://www.maxonmotor.in/
maxon/view/content/ec-max-motors]
(a) A dc servomotor (b) Maxon’s driver for its servomotor
Fig. 3.17 A dc servomotor and its driver controller

Example 3.4 Stable and Unstable Operating Points of a dc Motor

Figure 3.18 shows the steady-state characteristic curve of a dc motor for a given
load to be driven at constant power under steady-state operating condition using a
separately wound dc motor with constant supply voltages to the field and armature
windings. The constant power curve for the load is a hyperbola because twm =
constant. The two curves intersect at A and B. At A, if there is a slight decrease in
the speed of operation, the motor (magnetic) torque will increase to tmA and the load
torque demand will increase to tlA. But since t mA > tlA, the system will accelerate back
to the point A. This shows that the point A is stable. On the other hand, at B, if speed
drops slightly, the magnetic torque of the motor will increase to tmB and at the same
time, the load torque demand will also increase to tlB, where tmB < tlB. As a result,
the system will decelerate further leading to stalling the motor. Hence, the point B
is unstable.

Fig. 3.18 Steady-state characteristic curve of a dc motor

 58 Introduction to Robotics

3.1.3 ac Motors
Until recently, ac (alternating current) motors have not been considered suitable for
robots because of the problems involved in controlling their speeds. In its simplest
form, an ac motor consists of external electromagnets around a central rotor, but
without any form of mechanical switching mechanism for the electromagnets.
However, because alternating current (such as the mains electricity supply) is
constantly changing polarity (first flowing one way, then the opposite way, several
times a second, e.g., 50 in India, and 60 in the USA), it is possible to connect the
ac supply directly to the electromagnets. The alternating reversal of the direction
of current through the coils will perform the same task of polarity changing in ac
motors. The magnetic field of the coils will appear to rotate (almost as if the coils
themselves were being mechanically rotated).
A typical specification of an ac motor is given in Table 3.6. Moreover, speed-
torque characteristics of ac motors are shown in Fig. 3.19. Typical advantages of an
ac motor over its dc counterpart are listed below:
∑ Cheaper.
∑ Convenient power supply.
∑ No commutator and brush mechanism. Hence, virtually no electric spark
generation or arcing (safe in hazardous environment like spray painting and
others)
∑ Low power dissipation, and low rotor inertia.
∑ High reliability, robustness, easy maintenance, and long life.
Some of the disadvantages are the following:
∑ Low starting torque.
∑ Need auxiliary devices to start the motor.
∑ Difficulty of variable-speed control or servo control unless modern solid-state
and variable-frequency drives with field feedback compensation are used.

Table 3.6 Specifications of an ac motor [Courtesy: http://uk.rs-online.com]

Brand ABB
Manufacturer part no. 1676687
Type Industrial single and three-phase electric motors
Supply voltage 220 – 240 Vac 50 Hz
Output power 180 W
Input current 0.783 A
Shaft diameter 14 mm
Shaft length 30 mm
Speed 1370 rpm
Rated torque 1.3 Nm
Torque starting 1.3 Nm
Height 150 mm
Length 213 mm
Width 120 mm
 Actuators and Grippers 59

Due to the complexity in speed control of an ac motor, a speed-controlled dc

drive generally works out cheaper than a speed-controlled ac drive, though the price
difference is steadily dropping as a result of technological developments and the
reduction in price of solid-state devices. A brief account of an ac servo motor is given
at the end of this subsection.

[Courtesy: www.electricmotors.machinedesign.com/guiEdits/
Content/bdeee11/bdeee11_7.aspx]
Fig. 3.19 Typical speed-torque characteristics for four
different designs of an ac induction motor

Alternating current (ac) motors can be classified into two groups, single-
phase and poly-phase, with each group being further subdivided into induction or
asynchronous and synchronous motors. Single-phase motors tend to be used for low
power requirements while poly-phase motors are used for higher powers. Induction
motors tend to be cheaper than synchronous motors and are thus very widely used.
1. Single-phase Squirrel-cage Induction Motor It consists of a squirrel-cage
rotor, this being copper or aluminum bars that fit into slots in end rings to form
complete electrical circuits, as shown in Fig. 3.20. There are no external electrical
connections to the rotor. The basic motor consists of this rotor with a stator having a
set of windings. When an alternating current
passes through the stator windings, an alternative dc motor or ac motor?
magnetic field is produced, which appears like a The dc motors are easy to control
rotating magnetic field. The rotating field in the compared to the ac motors. Hence,
the former is preferred in robotic
stator intercepts the rotating windings, thereby applications.
generating an induced current due to mutual
induction or transformer action (hence, the name
induction motor). The resulting secondary magnetic flux interacts with the primary,
rotating magnetic flux, thereby producing a torque in the direction of rotation of the
stator field. This torque drives the rotor. As the rotor speed increases, initially the
motor torque also increases because of secondary interactions between the stator
circuit and the rotor circuit even though the relative speed of the rotating field with
respect to the rotor decreases, which reduces the rate of change of flux linkage and,
 60 Introduction to Robotics

hence, the direct transformer action. Note that the relative speed is termed as slip rate
given by
w f - wm
S= (3.4)
wf
where wf and wm are the speed of the field and motor’s rotor, respectively. Quite
soon, the maximum torque will be reached. Further increase in the rotor speed (i.e., a
decrease in slip rate) sharply decreases the motor torque, until at synchronous speed
(zero slip rate), the motor torques becomes zero.

Fig. 3.20 Single-phase induction motor

For a single-phase supply, when the rotor is stationary initially, the forces on the
current-carrying conductors or the rotor in the magnetic field of the stator are such as
to result in no net torque. Hence, the
motor is not self-starting. A number of Not Self-Starting of a
methods are used to make the motor self- Single-Phase Motor?
starting and give this initial impetus to The stator winding of a single-phase motor
start it. For example, to provide the can only produce the field (flux), which is
starting torque, most single-phase motors only alternating but not rotating. Hence, it
cannot produce any rotation.
have a main and auxiliary winding. The
auxiliary winding current from the main
winding is phase-shifted. Connecting a capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding
causes the motor to start rotating. The rotor rotates at a speed determined by the
frequency of the alternating current applied to the stator. For a constant frequency
supply to a two-pole single-phase motor, the magnetic field will alternate at this
frequency. This speed of rotation of the magnetic field is termed synchronous speed.
The rotor will never quite match this frequency of rotation, typically differing from
it by about 1 to 3%. For a 50 Hz supply, the speed of rotation of the rotor, i.e., wm,
will be almost 50 revolutions per second.
2. Three-phase Induction Motor As shown in Fig. 3.21(a), it is similar to
the single-phase induction motor but has a stator with three windings located 120°
apart, each winding being connected to one of the three lines of the supply. Because
the three phases reach their maximum currents at different times, the magnetic field
 Actuators and Grippers 61

can be considered to rotate round the stator poles, completing one rotation in one full
cycle of the current. The rotation of the field is much smoother than with the single-
phase motor. The three-phase motor has a great advantage over the single-phase
motor in being self-starting. The direction of rotation is reversed by interchanging
any two of the line connections, thus changing the direction of rotation of the
magnetic field.
3. Synchronous Motor A synchronous motor has a stator similar to those
described above for induction motors, but a rotor is a permanent magnet as shown
in Fig. 3.21(b). The magnetic field produced by the stator rotates and so the magnet
rotates with it. With one pair of poles per phase of the supply, the magnetic field
rotates through 360° in one cycle of the supply and so the frequency of rotation with
this arrangement is the same as the frequency of the supply. Synchronous motors are
used when a precise speed is required. They are not self-starting and some system
has to be employed to start them.

Fig. 3.21 An ac three-phase motor

4. ac Servomotor Generally, a modern servomotor refers to an ac permanent-

magnet synchronous servomotor. It consists of a stator winding plus rotor with
feedback units like encoders, resolvers, etc. These motors have typical advantages
of ac motors as mentioned in the beginning of Section 3.1.3. Speed control of ac
motors is based on the provision of a variable frequency supply, since the speed of
such motors is determined by the frequency of the supply. In principle, the higher
the frequency of the alternating current applied to the motor, the faster it will rotate.
Providing varying frequency supplies to a number of axis drives simultaneously has
been, until recently, largely impractical. In some special cases, e.g., wound-rotor
ac induction motors, speed can be controlled by accessing the rotor circuit where
different values of resistance can be inserted in the rotor circuit. Electromagnetic
is used to provide regenerative braking to cut down the deceleration times, and
minimize axis overrun. Many industrial robots, e.g., KUKA KR-5 of Fig. 2.1, use
ac servomotors today. A typical ac servomotor is shown in Fig. 3.22, whereas its
servo controllers look like those shown in Fig. 2.9(c) for the KUKA robot. Typical
specification of an ac servomotor used is shown in Table 3.7.
 62 Introduction to Robotics

[Courtesy: http://motorsforautomation
portal.info/kuka-robot-servo-motor/]
Fig. 3.22 A typical ac servomotor

Table 3.7 Specifications of an ac servo motor [Courtesy: http://uk.rs-online.com]

Brand Siemens
Manufacturer part no. 1FK7042-5AF21-1PA3
Type ac synchronous servomotor
Supply voltage 230 V 50 Hz
Power rating 820 W
Maximum output torque 2.6 Nm
Output speed 3000 rpm
Shaft diameter 19 mm
Stall torque 3 Nm
Height 96 mm
Length 162 mm
Width 90 mm
Encoder system for motor 14-bit resolver (with DRIVE-CLiQ-interface)

3.1.4 Linear Actuators

Linear actuators like solenoids are used widely in robotic and other automation
applications for on-off of the gripper and other devices. Electrically powered stepper
and dc/ac linear actuators can also be used in motion generation of Cartesian robots,
etc.
A solenoid shown in Fig. 3.23 has a coil and a soft-iron core. When the coil is
activated by a dc signal, the soft core becomes magnetized. This electromagnet can
serve as on-off (push-pull) actuator.
Solenoids are rugged and inexpensive Backlash
devices. Common applications of Backlash is the term used to describe the
solenoids are valve actuators (as explained unwanted play in transmission components
in Section 3.2 and 3.3 for fluid-power from their intended position, when put
actuators), mechanical switches, relays, under load conditions, due to wear or
etc. Most commonly generated linear clearances between surfaces.
 Actuators and Grippers 63

motions are with the help of an electrically powered rotary motor, as explained in
sections 3.1.1–3.1.3, coupled with transmission mechanisms like nut and ball-screw,
cam-follower, rack-and-pinion, etc. These devices inherently have problems of
friction and backlash. Additionally, they add inertia and flexibility to the driven load,
thereby generating undesirable resonances and motion errors. Proper inertia matching
is also essential. In order to avoid the above difficulties of using a transmission
system, direct rectilinear electromechanical actuators are desirable. They can be
based on any of the principles mentioned for the rotary actuators, i.e., stepper or dc
or ac motors. In these actuators, flat stators and rectilinearly moving elements (in
place of rotors) are employed. These types of actuators are also referred to as electric
cylinders in line with hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders that are explained next.

Fig. 3.23 A solenoid and its characteristic curve

3.2 HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

Hydraulic actuators are one of the two
What is 1 Bar?
types of fluid power devices for industrial
robots. The other type is pneumatic, It is a unit of pressure.
described in the next section. Hydraulic One Bar = one atm = 14.7 Psi = 101356.5
actuators utilize high-pressure fluid such N/m2 (Pa) or approximately 0.1 MPa.
as oil to transmit forces to the point of
application desired. A hydraulic actuator is very similar in appearance to that of
pneumatically driven one. Different components are shown in Fig. 3.24, whereas
typical specifications of a cylinder are given in Table 3.8. Hydraulic actuators
designed to operate at much higher pressures (typically between 70 and 170 bar).
They are suitable for high power applications. Advantages and disadvantages of a
hydraulic actuator are as follows:
Advantages
∑ High efficiency and high power-to-size ratio.
∑ Complete and accurate control over speed, position, and direction of actuators
are possible.
 64 Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 3.24 A hydraulic actuator

∑ Few backlash problems occur due to the stiffness and incompressibility of the
fluid, especially, when the actuator acts as the joint itself. Large forces can be
applied directly at the required locations.
∑ They generally have a greater load-carrying capacity than electric and pneumatic
robots.
∑ No mechanical linkage is required, i.e., a direct drive is obtained with mechanical
simplicity.
∑ Self-lubricating (low wear) and non-corrosive.
∑ Due to the presence of an accumulator, which acts as a ‘storage’ device, the
system can meet sudden demands in power.
∑ Hydraulic robots are more capable of withstanding shock loads than electric
robots.
Disadvantages
∑ Leakages can occur to cause loss in performance, and general contamination of
the work area. There is also higher fire risk.
 Actuators and Grippers 65

∑ The power pack can be noisy, typically about 70 decibel (dBA) or louder if not
protected by an acoustic muffler.
∑ Changes in temperature alter the viscosity of How noisy is 70 decibels?
the hydraulic fluid. Thus, at low temperatures,
fluid viscosity will increase, possibly, causing The level of 70 decibels is
about the noise level of heavy
sluggish movement of the robot.
traffic.
∑ For smaller robots, hydraulic power is usually
not economically feasible as the cost of hydraulic
components do not decrease in proportion to size.
∑ Servo control of hydraulic systems is complex and is not as widely understood
as electric servo control.
Hydraulic systems power the strongest and the stiffest robots and, hence, the
bulk modulus of the oil is an extremely important attribute to be selected. A high
bulk modulus implies a stiff, quickly responding system with a corresponding quick
pressure build-up, while a low bulk modulus may result in a system that is too loose
because of the high compressibility of the oil. Hydraulic systems or circuits have
always four essential components: a reservoir to hold the fluid, pumps to move it,
valves to control the flow, and an actuator to carry out the dictates of the fluid on some
load. Rotary hydraulic actuators are also available in the market. A commercially
available hydraulic cylinder is shown in Fig. 3.25(a), whereas its design using
software is available in WR-Hydraulic (2013). A video of such cylinders is also
available at WR-Hydraulic-video (2013).

Table 3.8 Specifications of a hydraulic cylinder [Courtesy: http://uk.rs-online.com]

Brand Rexroth
Manufacturer part no. CDL1M00/32/18/50/C1X/B1CHUMS
Type Cylinder-rod ends bearing
Body Carbon steel
Bore size 32 mm
Stroke 50 mm
Port size G 1/4
Static proof pressure 240 bar
Working pressure 160 bar
Maximum force at 160 bar 12.8 kN
Maximum flow at 0.1 mm/s 4.8 l/min
Overall length 200 mm
Overall length (piston extended) 250 mm
Rod-end diameter 18 mm
Rod-end thread size 18 mm
Seal material NBR/Pollyurethane
Recommended hydraulic medium Mineral-oil-based fluids
Hydraulic fluid operating temperature range –20 to +80o C
 66 Introduction to Robotics

[Courtesy: www.meritindustriesltd.com]

[Courtesy: www.festo.com]
(a) Hydraulic cylinder (b) Pneumatic cylinder
Fig. 3.25 Commercially available cylinders

3.3 PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS

Pneumatic actuators are the other type of fluid power devices for industrial robots.
Pneumatic actuators utilize compressed air for the actuation of cylinders as shown
in Fig. 3.25 (b), and are widely used for typical opening and closing motions of
jaws in the gripper of a robot, as shown in Fig. 2.4 (a), or for the actuation of simple
robot arms used in applications where continuous motion control is not of concern.
A pneumatic actuator comprising of a pneumatic cylinder and other accessories are
shown in Fig. 3.26, whereas the specifications of a cylinder are given in Table 3.9.
Typical advantages and disadvantages of pneumatic actuators are as follows:
Advantages
∑ It is the cheapest form of all actuators. Components are readily available and
compressed air is normally an already existing facility in factories.
∑ Compressed air can be stored and conveyed easily over long distances.
∑ Compressed air is clean, explosion-proof and insensitive to temperature
fluctuations, thus, lending itself to many applications.
∑ They have few moving parts making them inherently reliable and reducing
maintenance costs.
∑ Since pneumatic systems are common throughout industry, therefore, relevant
personnel are often very familiar with the technology.
∑ Very quick in action and response time, thus, allowing fast work cycles.
∑ No mechanical transmission is usually required.
∑ Pneumatics can be intrinsically safe in explosive areas as no electrical control is
required. Also in wet conditions there is no danger of electrocution.
∑ The systems are usually compact.
∑ Control is simple, e.g., mechanical stops are often used.
∑ Individual components can be easily interconnected.
Disadvantages
∑ Since air is compressible, precise control of speed and position is not easily
obtainable unless more complex electromechanical devices are incorporated
into the system. This means that only a limited sequence of operation at a fixed
speed is often available.
 Actuators and Grippers 67

Fig. 3.26 A pneumatic actuator

∑ If mechanical stops are used, resetting the system can be slow.

∑ Pneumatics is not suitable for moving heavy loads under precise control due
to the compressibility of air. This compressibility necessitates the application
of more force than would normally be necessary to ensure that the actuator is
firmly in position against its stop under load conditions.
∑ If moisture penetrates the units and ferrous metals have been used then damage
to individual components can result.
The compressibility of the air in a pneumatic actuator does not allow for
sophisticated control, but the same can be used to advantage, preventing damage
 68 Introduction to Robotics

due to overload and providing compliance that may be required in many practical
applications.

Table 3.9 Specifications of a pneumatic cylinder for a gripper

[Courtesy: http://uk.rs-online.com]

Brand SMC
Manufacturer part no. MHC2-25D
Type Gripper (double acting)
Bore 25 mm
Operating angle 30° (open) to –10° (Closed)
Pressure range 1 to 6 Bar
Connection port size M5 m
Temperature range 0 to 60°C
Media Non lubricated air
Holding moment 1.4 Nm at 5 bar
Repeatability at closing position ±0.1 mm
Maximum operating frequency 80 cpm (cycles per minute)

3.4 SELECTION OF MOTORS

For any application of robots, one must decide which of available actuators is
most suitable. Positioning accuracy, reliability, speed of operation, cost, and other
factors must be considered. Electric motors are inherently clean and capable of high
precision if operated properly. In contrast, pneumatic systems are not capable of high
precision for continuous-path operation and hydraulic actuators require the use of oil
under pressure. Hydraulic system can generate greater power in a compact volume
than electric motors. Oil under pressure can be piped to simple actuators capable of
extremely high torque and rapid operations. Also, the power required to control an
electro-hydraulic valve is small. Essentially, the work is done in compressing the
oil and delivering it to the robot-arm drives. All the power can be supplied by one
powerful, efficient electric motor driving the hydraulic pump at the base of the robot
or located at some distance away. Power is controlled in compact electro-hydraulic
valves. However, high-precision electro-hydraulic valves are more expensive and
less reliable than low-power electric amplifiers and controllers. On the other hand,
electric motors must have individual controls capable of controlling their power. In
large robots, this requires switching of 10 to 50 amperes at 20 to 100 volts. Current
switching must be done rapidly; otherwise there is large power dissipation in the
switching circuit that will cause excessive heat. Small electric motors use simple
switching circuits and are easy to control with low-power circuits. Stepper motors
are especially simple for open-loop operation. The single biggest advantage of a
hydraulic system is their intrinsically safe operation.
As a rule of thumb, hydraulic actuators are preferred where rapid movement at
high torques is required, at power ranges of approximately over 3.5 kW unless the
slight possibility of an oil leakage cannot be tolerated. Electric motors are preferred
 Actuators and Grippers 69

at power levels under about 1.5 kW unless there is danger due to possible ignition
of explosive materials. At ranges between 1-5 kW, the availability of a robot in
a particular coordinate system with specific characteristics or at a lower cost
may determine the decision. Reliability of all types of robots made by reputable
manufacturers is sufficiently good that this is not a major determining factor.

Example 3.5 Selection of a Motor

Simple mathematical calculations are needed to determine the torque, velocity, and
power characteristics of an actuator or a motor for different applications. Torque is
defined in terms of force times distance or moment. A force, f, at distance, a, from the
center of rotation has a moment or torque, t, i.e., t = fa. In general terms, power, P,
transmitted in a drive shaft is determined by the torque, t, multiplied by the angular
velocity, w. Power P is expressed as, P =t w. For an example, a calculation can tell
one what kilowatt or horsepower is required in a motor used to drive a 2-meter robot
arm lifting a 25 kg mass at 10 rpm. If the mass of the arm is assumed zero then, P =
(25 ¥ 9.81 ¥ 2) ¥ (2p ¥ 10/60) = 0.513 kW. The use of simple equations of this type
is often sufficient to make a useful approximation of a needed value. More detailed
calculations can take place using the equations of statics and dynamics that apply.

3.5 GRIPPERS
Grippers are end-effectors, as introduced in Section 2.1.1, which are used to grasp
an object or a tool, e.g., a grinder, and hold it. Tasks required by the grippers are
to hold workpieces and load/unload from/to a machine or conveyer. Grippers can
be mechanical in nature using a combination of mechanisms driven by electric,
hydraulic, or pneumatic powers, as explained in earlier sections. Grippers can be
classified based on the principle of grasping mechanism. For example, grippers can
hold with the help of suction cups, magnets, or by other means. A gripper is then
accordingly referred to as pneumatic gripper, magnetic gripper, etc. Another way to
classify a gripper is based on how it holds an object, i.e., based on grasping the object
on its exterior (external gripper) or interior (internal gripper) surface.
3.5.1 Mechanical Grippers
As shown in Fig. 2.4(a), mechanical grippers have their jaw movements through
pivoting or translational motion using a transmission element, e.g., linkages or gears,
etc. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.27. The gripper can be of single or double type.
While the former has only one gripping device at the robot’s wrist, the latter type has
two. The double grippers can be actuated independently and are especially useful in
machine loading and unloading. As illustrated in Groover et al. (2012), suppose a
particular job calls for a raw part to be loaded from a conveyor onto a machine and
the finished part to be unloaded onto another conveyor. With a single gripper, the
robot would have to unload the finished part before picking up the raw part. This
would consume valuable time in the production cycle because the machine would
remain idle during these handling motions. With a double gripper, the robot can pick
up the part from the incoming conveyor with one of its gripping devices and have
it ready to exchange for the finished part on the machine. When the machine cycle
is completed, the robot can reach in for the finished part with the available grasping
 70 Introduction to Robotics

device, and insert the raw part into the machine with the other grasping device. The
amount of time spent in exchanging the parts or the time to keep the machine idle is
minimized.
A gripper uses its fingers or jaws to hold an object, as illustrated in Fig. 3.28.
The function of a gripper mechanism is to translate some form of power input, be it
electric, hydraulic or pneumatic, into the grasping action of the fingers against the
part. Note that there are two ways a gripper can hold an object, i.e., either by physical
constriction as shown in Fig. 3.28(a) or by friction, as demonstrated in Fig. 3.38(b).
In the former case, contacting surfaces of the fingers are made of approximately
the same shape of the part geometry, while in the latter case the fingers must apply
sufficient force to retain the part against gravity or accelerations. The friction method
of holding a part is less complex and hence less expensive. However, they have to be
designed properly with its surfaces having sufficient coefficient of friction so that the
parts do not slip during motion. Example 3.6 illustrates the situation.

Rotational
Drive or Gripper
system Transmission
Pivoting or motion
Linear Linkages, gears, translational
Electric, hydraulic,
cams, cables, etc.
pneumatic

Fig. 3.27 Motion of a mechanical gripper

Example 3.6 Friction-based Gripper

Consider the weight w of an object to be carried by a parallel-fingered gripper shown
in Fig. 3.28(b). Gripper force can be calculated using the following force balance:
mnf = w (3.5a)
where m is the coefficient of friction of the object and finger surfaces, whereas n,
f, and w are the number of contacting surfaces, finger forces, and the weight of the
object to be held by the gripper. If w = 140 kg, n = 2, and μ = 0.2, f is computed
simply as
140 ¥ 9.81
f= @ 3500 N (3.5b)
2 ¥ 0.2
Note that the value of 9.81 m/s2 is the value of g, i.e., acceleration due to gravity.

Fig. 3.28 Fingers gripping objects

 Actuators and Grippers 71

Example 3.7 Gripper Accelerating with an Object

Assume the object of Example 3.6 is to be lifted up with an acceleration of 10 m/s2.
The gripper will require almost twice the force as the acceleration to be experienced
by it is (9.81 + 10) = 19.81 @ 2g. Rest of the calculation is same as in equation
(3.5a-b).
Note that the motion of the fingers in mechanical grippers is obtained by means
of any of the following transmission elements: (i) Linkage; (ii) Gear and rack;
(iii) Cam; (iv) Screw; and (v) Cable and pulley, etc. Figure 3.29 shows some of
these arrangements, where the transmission elements are either driven by an electric
motor or a hydraulic/ pneumatic actuator. The final gripping action of the fingers is,
however, achieved by one of the following means:
1. Pivoting Movement In this arrangement, the fingers rotate about fixed pivot
points on the gripper to open and close. This is indicated in Fig. 3.29(a). The motion
is usually achieved by some kind of linkage mechanism.
2. Translational Movement In the translational or linear motion, the fingers
open and close by moving parallel to each other, as shown in Fig. 3.29 (b-d).
It is interesting to note that in the literature, e.g., in Groover et al. (2012), Deb
and Deb (2010), and others, the mechanical grippers were classified as per either the
transmission elements used or the type of finger movements, besides the input power,
i.e., electric or pneumatic. For example, cam-operated gripper or pivoting gripper,
etc. In the true sense, they should fall in the specifications of a mechanical gripper.
Moreover, mechanical grippers with more fingers are also in use in industries, e.g.,
to hold spherical objects. One such robotic gripper, namely, a three-fingered hand, is
shown in Fig. 2.4(b).
3.5.2 Magnetic Grippers
Unlike mechanical grippers, the principle of a magnetic gripper is based on the
magnetic property of a gripper. Hence, they can be used only for ferrous objects.
They have the following advantages:
∑ Variations in object sizes can be tolerated.
∑ Operations are very fast.
∑ Require only one surface to hold an object.
The disadvantages with magnetic grippers are, however, the difficulty to pick thin
sheets one at a time because the magnetic force penetrates through more than one
sheet. As a result, more than one sheet is picked up. To overcome such disadvantages,
one needs to take care during the design stage itself either by limiting the magnetic
force by the gripper or by introducing some means (mechanical or otherwise) not to
allow more than one sheet to be picked up.
Magnetic grippers can have either (i) permanent magnets, or (ii) electromagnets.
While electromagnetic grippers are easy to control requiring only a dc power source,
grippers with permanent magnets do not require any external power source to operate
the magnets. Besides, no electric sparks in handling hazardous materials. They,
however, require an external stripping mechanism during the release of the object.
One such mechanism is illustrated in Fig. 3.30.
 72
Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 3.29 Pivoting and translating mechanical grippers

[Courtesy: http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/90/35274061/3527406190.pdf ]
 Actuators and Grippers 73

Fig. 3.30 Stripping of a sheet from a magnetic gripper

3.5.3 Vacuum Grippers

Such grippers are suitable to handle large flat objects. The material of an object
is of no concern with vacuum gripers, except that the object’s surface should not
have any holes. An example of vacuum gripper which uses suction cups made of
elastic materials is shown in Fig. 3.31. For a vacuum gripper, lifting capacity can be
determined from the negative pressure and the effective area of the cups as
f = pA (3.6)
where f is the force or lift capacity, p is the negative pressure, and A is the total
effective area of the suction cups.

Gripper

Vacuum cup
Object

Fig. 3.31 Vacuum gripper

Example 3.8 Lifting Capacity

Consider lifting of four steel plates, each piece is 6 mm thick and measures 6 m ¥ 10 m.
The weight of the four steel plates is given by
w = 4 ¥ (0.006 ¥ 6 ¥ 10) ¥ 7800 ¥ 9.81 = 110187.12 N
where 7800 kg/m3 is the mass density of the steel plates, whereas 9.81 m/s2 is the
acceleration due to gravity. Assuming the diameter of vacuum cups as 100 mm, the
required negative pressure can be obtained from Eq. (3.6) as
 74 Introduction to Robotics

110187.12
p= = 175.35 N/m 2 (3.7)
2 ¥ p ¥ (0.1)2

3.5.4 Adhesive Grippers

An adhesive substance used for a grasping action can be used to handle fabrics and
other lightweight materials. One of the limitations is that the adhesive substance
loses its effectiveness with repeated use. Hence, it has to be continuously fed like a
mechanical typewriter’s ribbon which needs to be attached to the robot’s wrist.
3.5.5 Hooks, Scoops, and Others
There exist other types of gripping devices, e.g.,
hooks, scoops or ladles, inflatable devices, etc.,
based on the need of item to be handled. For
example, Fig. 3.32 shows one of these devices.
3.5.6 Selection of Grippers
Some of the criteria to be used in selecting an
appropriate gripper are highlighted below:
∑ One needs to decide the drive system. In fact,
in an industrial scenario where electric and
pneumatic power sources are easily available,
one needs to decide the type. If fast but not
so accurate motion is desired then pneumatic
should be preferred. Otherwise, one can go Fig. 3.32 Expandable bladder
for electric. For heavy objects, certainly to grip objects with
one must prefer hydraulic, as pointed in holes from inside
Section 3.2.
∑ Object or the part surface to be gripped must be reachable by a gripper.
∑ The size variation should be kept in mind. For example, a cast object may be
difficult to put in a machine chuck.
∑ The gripper should tolerate some dimension change. For example, before and
after machining a workpiece, their sizes change.
∑ Quality of surface area must be kept in mind. For example, a mechanical gripper
may damage the surface area of an object.
∑ Force should be sufficient to hold an object and should not fly away while
moving with certain accelerations. Accordingly, the materials on the surfaces of
the fingers should be chosen.

SUMMARY
A robot is moved by actuators. Different forms of actuators, namely, electric, hydraulic
and pneumatic types are explained. For electric motors, their typical specifications and
speed-torque characteristics are presented. How to select a suitable motor is also outlined.
Besides, grippers used to hold an object in order to transfer it to a new location are
explained. Important aspects to select an appropriate gripper are also highlighted.
 Actuators and Grippers 75

EXERCISES
3.1 Name the components of a joint actuating system.
3.2 What is an actuator?
3.3 Give the requirements of an actuator for robotic applications.
3.4 What are different actuators?
3.5 List the advantages and disadvantages of electric motors.
3.6 What are the types of stepper motors?
3.7 Why are dc motors preferred as servomotors?
3.8 Describe the functional differences of steppers, dc, and ac motors.
3.9 Draw a typical speed-torque plot of a dc motor.
3.10 Distinguish a stable operating point from the unstable one of a dc motor.
3.11 When are hydraulic actuators preferred in a robot system?
3.12 What fluid is used in hydraulic actuators and what is the pressure range?
3.13 State different types of hydraulic actuators.
3.14 What are the risks of using hydraulic actuators?
3.15 What is the function of direction control valve?
3.16 List any three advantages and disadvantages of a pneumatic actuator.
3.17 State the typical applications of pneumatic actuators.
3.18 Why are pneumatic actuators preferred in factory set-up robots?
3.19 Why is a storage tank necessary in pneumatic actuators?
3.20 Which component basically provides the mechanical motion?
3.21 How is a motor selected?
3.22 What is a mechanical gripper? Show a sketch to hold a cylindrical object.
3.23 What are the limitations of friction-based grippes?
3.24 State one example for the use of a hook.
3.25 What is the main drawback of using adhesive gripper?

WEB-BASED EXERCISES
Based on Web search, find the answers to the following questions:
3.26 Find at least three manufacturers of dc and ac electric motors. What are their prices?
3.27 What is a typical value of the dc motor constant?
3.28 Find out if there is any software that can provide motor specifications based on the load
and speed requirement of a robot. Name it.
3.29 Find out two companies who make direct-drive motors.
3.30 Name three companies who make both pneumatic and hydraulic actuators. What are the
prices for these actuators?
 4
Sensors, Vision and
Signal Conditioning
Sensors in robots are like our nose, ears, mouth, and skin, whereas vision or robot
vision can be thought of as our eyes. Based on the function of human organs, for
example, eyes, skin, etc., terminology like vision, tactile, etc., have cropped up in
robot sensors. Robots, like humans, must gather extensive information about their
environment in order to function effectively. They must pick up an object and know
it has been picked up. As the robot arm moves through the 3-dimensional Cartesian
space, it must avoid obstacles and approach items to be handled at a controlled speed.
Some objects are heavy, others are fragile, and others are too hot to handle. These
characteristics of objects and the environment must be recognized, and fed to the
computer that controls a robot’s movement. For example, to move the end-effector
of a robot, with or without a payload along a desired trajectory and to exert a desired
force on an object, the end-effector and sensors (normally located at the joints and at
the end-effector) work in coordination with the robot controller (a microprocessor, or
a computer or a microcontroller).
Note that in industrial applications of robots, as explained in Chapter 2, sensors
must play important roles. For example, they must at least provide the following
functions:
1. Safe Operation Sensors must protect human workers who work in the vicinity
of the robot or other equipment. For example, one can provide a sensor on the floor
of a work cell where a robot is working so that if anybody steps in the robot’s power
should be switched off.
2. Interlocking This is required to coordinate the sequence of operations on a
component. For example, unless a turning is done on a component, it should not be
transferred to the conveyor.
3. Inspection This is essential for Sensor vs. Transducer
quality control. For example, one can Sensor and transducer are used
use a vision system to measure the interchangeably to denote a sensor-
transducer unit. They are the functional
length of a component to check if it is stages of sensing. First, a measurand
within the acceptable tolerance or not. is felt or sensed before it is transduced
or converted from one type of energy to
4. Part Configuration If a robot is another for various purposes including the
used to weld two parts of a car body, measurement of physical parameters like
the sensors must identify the correct position, velocity, etc.
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 77

configurations, i.e., position and orientation of the parts, before the robot starts
welding.
There could be other scenarios like identifying the color code of a particular car
model before painting with that color is done by the robot, etc.

4.1 SENSOR CLASSIFICATION

The major capabilities required by a robot are as follows:
Simple Touch The presence or absence of an object.
Taction or Complex Touch The presence of an object plus some information on
its size and shape.
Simple Force Measured force along a single axis.
Complex Force Measured force along two or more axes.
Proximity Noncontact detection of an object.
Simple Vision Detection of edges, holes, corners, and so on.
Complex Vision Recognition of shapes.
Based on the type of signals a sensor or transducer receives and processes, it can
be classified as analog or digital. In analog sensors, with the variation of input there
is a continuous variation of output, whereas in case of digital sensors, the output is
of digital or discrete nature. For example, potentiometers, tacho-generators located
at the joints and strain-gauge-based sensors located at the end-effector of a robot fall
in the category of analog sensors, whereas encoders, located at the robot’s joints,
are digital sensors. In this book, sensors are, however, classified based on what they
sense, i.e., internal or external state of the robots, etc., as shown Fig. 4.1.

4.2 INTERNAL SENSORS

Internal sensors, as the name suggests, are used to measure internal state of a robot,
i.e., its position, velocity, acceleration, etc., at a particular instant. Based on these
information, control command is decided by the controller. Depending on the
quantities it measures, a sensor is termed as the position, velocity, acceleration, or
force sensor.
4.2.1 Position Sensors
Position sensors measure the position of each joint, i.e., joint angle of a robot. From
these joint angles, one can find the end-effector configuration, namely, its position
and orientation, through forward kinematics which will be taken up in Chapter 6.
Different position sensors are explained next.
1. Encoder The encoder is a digital optical device that converts motion into a
sequence of digital pulses. By counting a single bit or by decoding a set of bits, the
pulses can be converted to relative or absolute measurements. Thus, encoders are of
incremental or absolute type. Further, each type may be again linear and rotary.
 78
Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 4.1 Classification of sensors

 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 79

Incremental Linear Encoder As shown in Fig. 4.2(a), it has a transparent glass

scale with opaque grating. The thickness of grating lines and the gap between them
is made same, which are in the range of microns. One side of the scale is provided
with a light source and a condenser lens. On the other side there are light-sensitive
cells. The resistance of the cells (photodiodes) decreases whenever a beam of light
falls on them. Thus, a pulse is generated each time a beam of light is intersected by
the opaque line. This pulse is fed to the controller, which updates a counter (a record
of the distance traveled).
Absolute Linear Encoder It is similar in principle as the incremental linear
encoder. The difference is that it gives absolute value of the distance covered at
any time. Thus, the chance of missing the pulses at high speeds is less. The output
is digital in this case. The scale is marked in a sequence of opaque and transparent
strips, as shown in Fig. 4.2(b). In the scale shown, if the opaque block represents
1 (one) and the transparent block as 0 (zero) then the leftmost column will show a
binary number as 00000, i.e., a decimal value of 0, and the rightmost column will
show a binary number 11111, i.e., a decimal value of 61.
Incremental Rotary Encoder It is similar to the linear incremental encoder with a
difference that the gratings are now on a circular disc, as in Fig. 4.2(c). The common
value of the width of transparent spaces is 20 microns. There are two sets of grating
lines on two different circles which detect direction of rotation, and one can also
enhance the accuracy of the sensor. There is another circle, which contains only one
grating mark. It is used for measurement of full circles.
Absolute Rotary Encoder Similar to the absolute linear encoder, the circular disk
is divided into a number of circular strips and each strip has definite arc segments,
as shown in Fig. 4.2(d). This sensor directly gives the digital output (absolute). The
encoder is directly mounted on the motor shaft or with some gearing to enhance the
accuracy of measurement. To avoid noise in this encoder, a gray scale is sometimes
used. A Gray code, unlike binary codes, allows only one of the binary bits in a code
sequence to change between radial lines. It prevents confusing changes in the binary
output of the absolute encoder when the encoder oscillates between points. A sample
Gray code is given in Table 4.1 for some numbers. Note the difference between the
Gray and binary codes. The basic arrangement of the rotary encoder is shown in Fig.
4.2(e).

Table 4.1 Sample Gray codes

Decimal Binary code Gray code

0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0011
3 0011 0010
4 0100 0110
 80 Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 4.2 Encoders

Example 4.1 Angular Position of an Encoder

If maximum count possible is p pulses and the range of a rotary encoder is ±qm then
the angular position corresponding to a count of n pulses is given as follows:
n
q= q (4.1)
p m

2. Potentiometer A potentiometer, also referred as simply pot, is a variable-

resistance device that expresses linear or angular displacements in terms of voltage,
as shown in Figs. 4.3(a-b), respectively. It consists of a wiper that makes contact with
a resistive element, and as this point of contact moves, the resistance between the
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 81

wiper and end leads of the device changes in proportion to the displacement, x and q
for linear and angular potentiometers, respectively.

Fig. 4.3 Potentiometers

3. LVDT The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is one of the most
used displacement transducers, particularly when high accuracy is needed. It generates
an ac signal whose magnitude is related to the displacement of a moving core, as
indicated in Fig. 4.4. The basic concept is that of a ferrous core moving in a magnetic
field, the field being produced in a manner similar to that of a standard transformer.
There is a central core surrounded by two identical secondary coils and a primary
coil, as shown in Fig. 4.4. As the core changes position with respect to the coils, it
changes the magnetic field, and hence the voltage amplitude in the secondary coil
changes as a linear function of the core displacement over a considerable segment. A
Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) operates under the same principle
as the LVDT is also available with a range of approximately ±40°.

Fig. 4.4 Principle of LVDT

 82 Introduction to Robotics

4. Synchros and Resolver While encoders give digital output, synchros and
resolvers provide analog signal as their
What are arc-minute
output. They consist of a rotating shaft
and arc-second?
(rotor) and a stationary housing (stator).
Their signals must be converted into the They are the measures of small angles.
one degree = 60 arc-minutes and
digital form through an analog-to-digital
one arc-minute = 60 arc-seconds.
converter before the signal is fed to the
computer.
As illustrated in Fig. 4.5, synchros and resolvers employ single-winding rotors
that revolve inside fixed stators. In a simple synchro, the stator has three windings
oriented 120° apart and electrically connected in a Y-connection. Resolvers differ
from synchros in that their stators have only two windings oriented at 90°. Because
synchros have three stator coils in a 120° orientation, they are more difficult than
resolvers to manufacture and are, therefore, more costly.
Modern resolvers, in contrast, are available in a brushless form that employ a
transformer to couple the rotor signals from the stator to the rotor. The primary
winding of this transformer resides on the stator, and the secondary on the rotor.
Other resolvers use more traditional brushes or slip rings to couple the signal into the
rotor winding. Brushless resolvers are more rugged than synchros because there are
no brushes to break or dislodge, and the life of a brushless resolver is limited only by
its bearings. Most resolvers are specified to work over 2 V to 40 V rms (root mean
square) and at frequencies from 400 Hz to 10 kHz. Angular accuracies range from 5
arc-minutes to 0.5 arc-minutes.

Fig. 4.5 Synchros and resolvers

In operation, synchros and resolvers resemble rotating transformers. The rotor

winding is excited by an ac reference voltage, at frequencies up to a few kHz. The
magnitude of the voltage induced in any stator winding is proportional to the sine
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 83

of the angle q between the rotor-coil axis and the stator-coil axis. In the case of a
synchro, the voltage induced across any pair of stator terminals will be the vector
sum of the voltages across the two connected coils. For example, if the rotor of a
synchro is excited with a reference voltage, V sin (w t), across its terminal R1 and R2,
the stator’s terminal will see voltages denoted as V0 in the form:
V0(S1 − S3) = V sin (w t) sin q (4.2a)
V0(S3 − S2) = V sin (w t) sin (q + 120°) (4.2b)
V0(S2 − S1) = V sin (w t) sin (q + 240°) (4.2c)
where S1, S2, etc., denotes the stator terminals. Moreover, V and w are the input
amplitude and frequency, respectively, whereas q is the shaft angle. In the case of a
resolver, with a rotor ac reference voltage of V sin (w t), the stator’s terminal voltages
will be
V0(S1 − S3) = V sin (w t) sin q (4.3a)
V0(S4 − S2) = V sin (w t) sin (q + 90°) = V sin (w t) cos q (4.3b)
As said earlier, the output of these synchros and resolvers must be first digitized.
To do this, analog-to-digital converters are used. These are typically 8-bit or 16-
bit. An 8-bit means that the whole range of analog signals will be converted into a
maximum of 28 = 256 values.
4.2.2 Velocity Sensors
Velocity or speed sensors measure by taking consecutive position measurements at
known time intervals and computing the time rate of change of the position values or
directly finding it based on different principles.
1. All Position Sensors Basically, all position sensors when used with certain
time bounds can give velocity, e.g., the number of pulses given by an incremental
position encoder divided by the time consumed in doing so. But this scheme puts
some computational load on the controller which may be busy in some other
computations.
2. Tachometer Such sensors can directly find the velocity at any instant of time,
and without much of computational load. This measures the speed of rotation of
an element. There are various types of tachometers in use but a simpler design is
based on the Fleming’s rule, which states ‘the voltage produced is proportional to the
rate of flux linkage.’ Here, a conductor (basically a coil) is attached to the rotating
element which rotates in a magnetic field (stator). As the speed of the shaft increases,
the voltage produced at the coil terminals also increases. In other ways, as shown in
Fig. 4.6, one can put a magnet on the rotating shaft and a coil on the stator. The
voltage produced is proportional to the speed of rotation of the shaft. This information
is digitized using an analog-to-digital converter and passed on to the computer.
3. Hall-effect Sensor Another velocity-measuring device is the Hall-effect
sensor, whose principle is described next. If a flat piece of conductor material, called
Hall chip, is attached to a potential difference on its two opposite faces, as indicated
in Fig. 4.7 then the voltage across the perpendicular faces is zero. But if a magnetic
field is imposed at right angles to the conductor, the voltage is generated on the two
 84 Introduction to Robotics

other perpendicular faces. Higher the field value, higher the voltage level. If one
provides a ring magnet, the voltage produced is proportional to the speed of rotation
of the magnet.

Fig. 4.6 Schematic diagram of a tachometer

Fig. 4.7 Principle of Hall-effect sensor

4.2.3 Acceleration Sensors

Similar to measurements of velocity Why acceleration from force
from the information of position sensors, but not from velocity?
one can find the accelerations as the time
rate of change of velocities obtained Finding acceleration from force involves
integration which suppresses any noise in
from velocity sensors or calculated the force signal. However, if the velocity
from the position information. But signal is used to determine acceleration,
this is not an efficient way to calculate differentiation has to be performed which
the acceleration because this will put amplifies the noise in the velocity signal.
a heavy computational load on the Hence, the latter is never advisable.
computer and that can hamper the speed
of operation of the system. Another way to compute the acceleration is to measure
the force which is the result of mass times acceleration. Forces are measured, for
example, using strain gauges for which the formula is
DRAE
F= (4.4)
RG
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 85

where F is force, DR is the change in resistance of the strain gauge, A is the cross-
sectional area of the member on which the force being applied, E is the elastic
modulus of the strain-gauge material, R is the original resistance of the gauge, and
G is gauge factor of the strain gauge. Then, the acceleration a is the force divided by
mass of the accelerating object m, i.e.,
F DRAE
a= = (4.5)
m RCm
It is pointed out here that the velocities
What is Gauge Factor?
and accelerations that are measured using
It is a measure of sensitivity for the strain
position sensors require differentiations.
gauges, and defined by
It is generally not desirable, as the 1 DR
noise in the measured data, if any, will G=
e R
be amplified. Alternatively, the use of
where G is the gauge factor, and e is
integrators to obtain the velocity from strain.
the acceleration, and consequently the
position, are recommended. Integrators tend to suppress the noise.
Example 4.2 Change in Resistance
If the gauge factor G = 2, resistance of the unreformed wire R = 100 W, and strain
e = 10–6, then change in resistance is given by
DR = GeR = 2 × 10–6 × 100 = 0.0002 W (4.6)

4.2.4 Force Sensors

A spring balance is an example of a force sensor in which a force, namely, the weight,
is applied to the scale pan that causes displacement, i.e., the spring stretches. The
displacement is then a measure of the force. There exist other types of force sensors,
e.g., strain-gauge based, Hall-effect sensor, etc.
1. Strain-gauge Based The principle of this type of sensors is that the elongation
of a conductor increases its resistance. Typical resistances for strain gauges are 50–
100 ohms. The increase in resistance is due to
∑ Increase in the length of the conductor; and
∑ Decrease in the cross-section area of the conductor.
Strain gauges are made of electrical conductors, usually wire or foil, etched on a
base material, as shown in Fig. 4.8. They are glued on the surfaces where strains are
to be measured, e.g., R1 and R2 of Fig. 4.9(a). The strains cause changes in the
resistances of the strain gauges, which are measured by attaching them to the
Wheatstone bridge circuit as one of the four resistances, R1 . . . R4 of Fig. 4.9(b). The
principle of a Wheatstone bridge is explained in Section
4.5.5. It is a cheap and accurate method of measuring
strain. But care should be taken for the temperature
changes. In order to enhance the output voltage and cancel
away the resistance changes due to the change in
temperature, two strain gauges are used, as shown in Fig.
4.9(a), to measure the force at the end of the cantilever
beam. Fig. 4.8 Strain gauges
 86 Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 4.9 Strain measurement

2. Piezoelectric Based A piezoelectric material exhibits a phenomenon known

as the piezoelectric effect. This effect states that when asymmetrical, elastic crystals
are deformed by a force, an electrical potential will be developed within the distorted
crystal lattice, as illustrated in Fig. 4.10. This effect is reversible. That is, if a potential
is applied between the surfaces of the
crystal, it will change its physical
dimensions. The magnitude and polarity of
the induced charges are proportional to the
magnitude and direction of the applied
force. The piezoelectric materials are
quartz, tourmaline, Rochelle salt, and
others. The range of forces that can be
measured using piezoelectric sensors are
from 1 to 20 kN and at a ratio of 2 × 105.
These sensors can be used to measure an Fig. 4.10 Piezoelectric sensor
instantaneous change in force (dynamic
forces).
3. Current Based Since the torque provided by an electric motor is a function
of the current drawn, its measurement, along with the known motor characteristics,
gives the torque sensing.
Example 4.3 Force and Acceleration using Strain Gauges
If the strain gauge of Example 4.2 is used to measure applied force, F on a member
of cross-sectional area, A = 10 mm2, and Young’s modulus, E = 6.9×10-10 N/m2 (for
aluminium), then using Eq. (4.4)
AE DR (10 ¥ 10 -6 )(6.9 ¥ 1010 )(0.0002)
F= = = 0.69 N (4.7)
GR 2(100)
If the mass of the member m = 3 kg then using equations (4.5) and (4.7)
0.69
a= = 0.21 m/s2 (4.8)
3
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 87

4.3 EXTERNAL SENSORS

External sensors are primarily used to learn more about a robot’s environment,
especially the objects being manipulated. External sensors can be divided into the
following categories:
∑ Contact type, and
∑ Noncontact type.
4.3.1 Contact Type
In this section, a contact-type force sensor is explained.
Limit Switch A limit switch is constructed
much as the ordinary light switch used at homes
and offices. It has the same on-off characteristics.
The limit switch usually has a pressure-sensitive
mechanical arm, as shown in Fig. 4.11(a). When
an object applies pressure on the mechanical arm,
the switch is energized. An object might have an
attached magnet that causes a contact to rise and
close when the object passes over the arm. As
shown in Fig. 4.11(b), the pull-up register keeps
the signal at +V until the switch closes, sending Fig. 4.11 Limit switch
the signal to ground. Limit switches can be either
Normally Open (NO) or Normally Closed (NC), and may have multiple-poles. A
normally open switch has continuity when pressure is applied. A single-pole switch
allows one circuit to be opened or closed upon contact, whereas a multi-pole switch
allows multiple switch circuits to be open or closed. Limit switches are mechanical
devices which have problems like
∑ they are subjected to mechanical failure,
∑ their mean time between failures is low compared to noncontact sensors, and
∑ the speed of operation is relatively slow compared to the speed of switching of
photoelectric micro-sensors which is up to 3000 times faster.
Limit switches are used in robots to detect the extreme positions of the motions,
where the link reaching an extreme position switches off the corresponding actuator,
thus, safeguarding any possible damage to the mechanical structure of the robot arm.
4.3.2 Noncontact Type
Here, noncontact-type force sensors and their principles are presented.
1. Proximity Sensor Proximity sensing is the technique of detecting the presence
or absence of an object with an electronic noncontact-type sensor. Proximity sensors
are of two types, inductive and capacitive. Inductive proximity sensors are used in
place of limit switches for noncontact sensing of metallic objects, whereas capacitive
proximity sensors are used on the same basis as inductive proximity sensors.
However, these can also detect nonmetallic objects.
Inductive Proximity Sensor All inductive proximity sensors consist of four basic
elements, namely, the following:
 88 Introduction to Robotics

∑ Sensor coil and ferrite core

∑ Oscillator circuit
∑ Detector circuit
∑ Solid-state output circuit
As shown in Fig. 4.12, the oscillator circuit
generates a radio-frequency electromagnetic field.
The field is centred around the axis of the ferrite
core, which shapes the field and directs it at the
sensor face. When a metal target approaches the
face and enters the field, eddy currents are induced
into the surface of the target. This results in a
loading or damping effect that causes a reduction
in amplitude of the oscillator signal. The detector
circuit detects the change in the oscillator
amplitude. The detector circuit will ‘switch on’ at
specific operating amplitude. This signal ‘turns
on’ the solid-state output circuit. This is often
referred to as damped condition. As the target
leaves the sensing field, the oscillator responds
with an increase in amplitude. As the amplitude
increases above a specific value, it is detected by
the detector circuit, which is ‘switched off’ causing
the output signal to return to the normal or ‘off’
state. The sensing range of an inductive proximity
sensor refers to the distance between the sensor
face and the target. It also indicates the shape of
the sensing field generated through the coil and the
core. There are several mechanical and
environmental factors that affect the sensing range.
The usual range is up to 10–15 mm but some Fig. 4.12 Inductive proximity
sensors have ranges as high as 100 mm. sensor

Capacitive Proximity Sensor A capacitive proximity sensor operates much like

an inductive proximity sensor. However, the means of sensing is considerably
different. Capacitive sensing is based on dielectric capacitance. Capacitance is the
property of insulators to store the charge. A capacitor consists of two plates separated
by an insulator, usually called a dielectric.
When the switch is closed, a charge is stored on
the two plates. The distance between the plates
determines the ability of the capacitor to store
the charge and can be calibrated as a function of
stored charge to determine discrete ON and
OFF switching status. Figure 4.13 illustrates
the principle of a capacitive sensor. One
capacitive plate is part of the switch, the sensor
face is the insulator, and the target is the other Fig. 4.13 Principle of capacitive
plate. Ground is the common path. The sensors
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 89

capacitive switch has the same four elements as the inductive sensor, i.e., sensor (the
dielectric media), oscillator circuit, detector circuit, and solid-state output circuit.
The oscillator circuit in a capacitive switch operates like one in an inductive
switch. The oscillator circuit includes capacitance from the external target plate
and the internal plate. In a capacitive sensor, the oscillator starts oscillating when
sufficient feedback capacitance is detected. Major characteristics of the capacitive
proximity sensors are as follows:
∑ They can detect non-metallic targets.
∑ They can detect lightweight or small objects that cannot be detected by
mechanical limit switches.
∑ They provide a high switching rate for rapid response in object counting
applications.
∑ They can detect limit targets through nonmetallic barriers (glass, plastics, etc.).
∑ They have long operational life with a virtually unlimited number of operating
cycles.
∑ The solid-state output provides a bounce-free contact signal.
Capacitive proximity sensors have two major limitations.
∑ The sensors are affected by moisture and humidity, and
∑ They must have extended range for effective sensing.
Capacitive proximity sensors have a greater sensing range than inductive
proximity sensors. Sensing distance for capacitive switches is a matter of plate
area, as coil size is for inductive proximity sensors. Capacitive sensors basically
measure a dielectric gap. Accordingly, it is desirable to be able to compensate for
the target and application conditions with a sensitivity adjustment for the sensing
range. Most capacitive proximity sensors are equipped with a sensitivity adjustment
potentiometer.
2. Semiconductor Displacement Sensor As shown in Fig. 4.14, a
semiconductor displacement sensor uses a semiconductor Light Emitting Diode
(LED) or laser as a light source, and a Position-Sensitive Detector (PSD). The laser
[Courtesy: http://www.sensorcentral.com/displacement/
laser02.php]

Fig. 4.14 Semiconductor-based sensor

 90 Introduction to Robotics

beam is focused on the target by a lens. The target reflects the beam, which is then
focused on to the PSD forming a beam spot. The beam spot moves on the PSD as
the target moves. The displacement of the workpiece can then be determined by
detecting the movement of the beam spot.

4.4 VISION
Vision can be defined as the task of
extracting information about the external Computer Vision vs. Computer Graphics
world from light rays imaged by a camera Computer vision can be thought of as
or an eye. Vision, also referred in the ‘inverse computer graphics.’ Computer
literature as computer vision or machine graphics deals with how to generate images
from a specification of the visual scene (e.g.,
vision or robot vision, is a major subject objects, scene structures, light sources),
of research and many textbooks, e.g., by whereas computer vision inverts this process
Haralick and Shapiro (1992, 1993), and to infer the structure of the world from the
others. A good coverage on the topic has observed image(s).
also appeared in Niku (2001). There are
also dedicated journals, e.g., Computer Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing, and
conferences in the area of robot vision. The area is so vast that it cannot be covered
in one section or chapter of a book. However, an attempt is made here to introduce
the basic concepts and techniques so that one is able to understand the systems and
methodologies used in robot vision. For detailed study and research, other references
in the area should be consulted.
Note in Fig. 4.1 that the vision systems or vision sensors are classified as external
noncontact type. They are used by robots to let them look around and find the parts,
for example, picking and placing them at appropriate locations. Earlier, fixtures
were used with robots for accurate positioning of the parts. Such fixtures are very
expensive. A vision system can provide alternative economic solution. Other tasks
of vision systems used with robots include the following:
1. Inspection Checking for gross surface defects, discovery of flaws in labeling,
verification of the presence of components in assembly, measuring for dimensional
accuracy, checking the presence of holes and other features in a part.
2. Identification Here, the purpose is to recognize and classify an object rather
than to inspect it. Inspection implies that the part must be either accepted or rejected.
3. Visual Servoing and Navigation Control The purpose here is to direct the
actions of the robot based on its visual inputs, for example, to control the trajectory
of the robot’s end-effector toward an object in the workspace. Industrial applications
of visual servoing are part positioning, retrieving parts moving along a conveyor,
seam tracking in continuous arc welding, etc.
All of the above applications someway require the determination of the
configuration of the objects, motion of the objects, reconstruction of the 3D geometry
of the objects from their 2D images for measurements, and building the maps of the
environments for a robot’s navigation. Coverage of vision system is from a few
millimetres to tens of metres with either narrow or wide angles, depending upon the
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 91

system needs and design. Figure 4.15 shows a typical visual system connected to an
industrial robot.

[Courtesy: PAR Lab., IIT Delhi]

Fig. 4.15 Hardware components of a vision system

4.4.1 Elements in a Vision Sensor

In vision systems, the principal imaging component is a complete camera including
sensing array, associated electronics, output signal format, and lens, as shown in
Fig. 4.16.

Fig. 4.16 Principal of a camera or vision system [Courtesy: Siciliano, 2010]

The task of the camera as a vision sensor is to measure the intensity of the light
reflected by an object, as indicated in Fig. 4.16, using a photosensitive element
termed pixel (or photosite). A pixel is capable of transforming light energy into
electric energy. The sensors of different types like CCD, CMOS, etc., are available
depending on the physical principle exploited to realize the energy transformation.
Depending on the application, the camera could be RS-170/CCIR, NTSC/PAL (These
are American RS-170 monocolor, European/Indian CCIR monocolor, NTSC color,
PAL color television standard signal produced by the video cameras, respectively)
progressive scan, variable scan, or line scan. Five major system parameters which
govern the choice of camera are field of view, resolution, working distance, depth of
field, and image data acquisition rate. As a rule of thumb, for size measurement, the
sensor should have a number of pixels at least twice the ratio of the largest to smallest
object sizes of interest.
 92 Introduction to Robotics

1. Camera Systems As indicated in Fig. 4.16, a camera is a complex system

comprising of several devices inside it. Other than the photosensitive sensor, there
are shutter, a lens, and analog preprocessing electronics. The lens is responsible
for focusing the light reflected by the object on the plane where the photosensitive
sensors lies, called the image plane. In order to use it to compute the position and/
or orientation of an object, the associated coordinate transformations, etc., need
to be performed using the knowledge of Chapter 5, i.e., Transformation. This is
generally carried out by a software residing inside a personal computer which saves
the images. Specific calculations related to camera calibration, etc., can be found in
Haralick and Shapiro (1993), Siciliano et al. (2011), and others. They are not covered
in this introductory book on robotics.
Note that there are two types of video cameras: analog and digital. Analog
cameras are not in common anymore. However, if it is used, a frame grabber or
video capture card, usually a special analog-to-digital converter adopted for video
signal acquisition in the form of a plug-in board which is installed in the computer,
is often required to interface the camera to a host computer. The frame grabber will
store the image data from the camera on-board, or system memory, and performs
sampling and digitizing of the analog data as necessary. In some cases, the camera
may output digital data, which is compatible with a standard computer. So a separate
frame grabber may not be needed. Vision software is needed to create the program
which processes the image data. When an image has been analyzed, the system must
be able to communicate the result to control the process or to pass information to a
database. This requires a digital input/output interface. The human eye and brain can
identify objects and interpret scenes under a wide variety of conditions. Robot-vision
systems are far less versatile. So the creation of a successful system requires careful
consideration of all elements of the system and precise identification of the goals to
be accomplished, which should be kept as simple as possible.
Vidicon Camera Early vision systems employed vidicon cameras, which were
bulky vacuum tube devices. They are almost extinct today but explained here for the
sake of completeness in the development of video cameras. Vidicons are also more
sensitive to electromagnetic noise interference and require high power. Their chief
advantages are higher resolution and better light sensitivity. Figure 4.17 shows the
schematic diagram of a vidicon camera.
The mosaic reacts to the varying intensity of a light by varying its resistance.
Now, as the electric gun generates and sends a continuous cathode beam to the
mosaic passing though two pairs of orthogonal capacitors (deflectors), the electron
beam gets deflected up or down, and left or right based on the charge on each pair of
capacitors. As the beam scans the image, at each instant, the output is proportional to
the resistance of the mosaic or the light intensity on the mosaic. By reading the output
voltage continuously, an analog representation of the image can be obtained. Please
note that the analog signal of vidicon needs to be converted to digital signal using
analog-to-digital converters (ADC), as mentioned in Section 2.1.2 in order to process
the image further using a PC. The ADC which actually performs the digitization
of the analog signal requires mainly three steps, i.e., sampling, quantization, and
encoding.
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 93

Fig. 4.17 Schematic diagram of a vidicon camera [Courtesy: Niku (2001)]

In sampling, a given analog signal is sampled periodically to obtain a series of

discrete-time analog signal, as
illustrated in Fig. 4.18. By setting a
Analog Signal
specified sampling rate, the analog
Voltage

signal can be approximated by the

sampled digital outputs. However,
while reconstructing the original
signal from the sample data, one may Time
Time
end up with a completely different
signal. This loss of information is Sampled Output
Voltage

called aliasing, and it can be a serious Signal

problem. In order to prevent aliasing,
according to the sampling theorem,
the sampling rate must be at least Time
twice the largest frequency in the
original video signal if one wishes to Fig. 4.18 Sampling and digitalization
reconstruct that signal exactly.
In quantization, each sampled discrete time voltage level is assigned to a finite
number of defined amplitude levels. These levels correspond to the Gray scale used
in the system. The predefined amplitude levels are characteristics to a particular ADC
and consist of a set of discrete values of voltage levels. The number of quantization
levels is defined by 2n, where n is the number of bits of the ADC. For example, a 1-bit
ADC will quantize only at two values, whereas with an 8-bit ADC, it is possible to
quantize at 28 = 256 different values. Note that a large number of bits enables a signal
to be represented more precisely. Moreover, sampling and quantization resolutions
are completely independent of each other.
Finally, encoding does the job of converting the amplitude levels that are quantized
into digital codes, i.e., 0 or 1. The ability of the encoding process to distinguish
between various amplitude levels is a function of the spacing of each quantization
level.
 94 Introduction to Robotics

Example 4.4 Quantization

An 8-bit ADC is to be used to represent a range of video signal between 0 and 5 V.
The resolution or quantization spacing is given by
5
= 0.0195 V (4.9)
28
Accordingly, quantization error can be given by,
0.0195
± = 0.00975 V (4.10)
2

Digital Camera A digital camera is based on solid-state technology. The main

part of these cameras is a solid-state silicon wafer image area that has hundreds of
thousands of extremely small photosensitive areas called photsites printed on it. Each
small area of the wafer is a pixel. As the
image is projected onto the image area, at What is a Pixel?
each pixel location of the wafer, a charge A pixel is a short form for picture element.
is developed that is proportional to the It is a single point in a graphic image.
intensity of the light at that location.
Thus, a digital camera is also called a Charged Coupled Device (CCD) camera or
Charge Integrated Device (CID) camera. The collection of charges, as shown in
Fig. 4.19, if read sequentially, would be a representation of the image pixels. The
output is a discrete representation of the image as a voltage sampled in time. Solid-
state cameras are smaller, more rugged, last longer, and have less inherent image
distortion than vidicon cameras. They are also slightly more costly, but prices are
coming down.

Fig. 4.19 Basic principle of a CCD device (Image acquisition)

Both the CCDs and CID chips use large transfer techniques to capture an image.
In a CCD camera, light impinges on the optical equivalent of a Random Access
Memory (RAM) chip. The light is absorbed in a silicon substrate, with charge build-
up proportional to the amount of light reaching the array. Once sufficient amount of
energy has been received to provide a picture, the charges are read out through built-
in control registers. Some CCD chips use an interline charge-transfer technique.
Others use frame-transfer approach, which is more flexible for varying the integration
period.
The CID camera works on a similar principle. A CID chip is a Metal Oxide
Semiconductor (MOS) based device with multiple gates similar to CCDs. The video
signal is the result of a current pulse from a recombination of carriers. CIDs produce
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 95

a better image (less distortion) and use a different read-out technique than CCDs
which require a separate scanning address unit. CIDs are, therefore, more expensive
than CCDs. The principle difference between a CCD and a CID camera is the method
of generating the video signal.
2. Lighting Techniques One of the key questions in robot vision is what
determines how bright the image of some surface on the object will be? It involves
radiometry (measurement of the flow and transfer of radiant energy), general
illumination models, and surface having both diffuse and specular reflection
components. Different points on the objects in front of the imaging system will
have different intensity values on the image, depending on the amount of incident
radiance, how they are illuminated, how they reflect light, how the reflected light is
collected by a lens system, and how the sensor camera responds to the incoming light.
Figure 4.20 shows the basic reflection phenomenon. Hence, proper illumination of
the scene is important. It also affects the complexity level of the image-processing
algorithm required. The lighting techniques must avoid reflections and shadow unless
they are designed for the purpose of image processing. The main task of lighting is to
create contrast between the object features to be detected. Typical lighting techniques
are explained below.

Fig. 4.20 Light reflections

Direct Incident Lighting This simple lighting technique can be used for non-
reflective materials which strongly scatter the light due to their matte, porous, fibrous,
non-glossy surface. Ideally, a ring light is chosen for smaller illuminated fields that
can be arranged around the lens. Shadows are avoided to the greatest extent due to the
absolutely vertical illumination. Halogen lamps and large fluorescence illumination
can be used too.
Diffuse Incident Lighting Diffused light is necessary for many applications,
e.g., to test reflective, polished, glossy, or metallic objects. It is particularly difficult
if these surfaces are not glossy, perfectly flat, but individually shaped, wrinkled,
curved, or cylindrical. To create diffused lighting, one may use incident light with
diffusers, coaxial illumination, i.e., light is coupled into the axis of the camera by
means of a beam splitter or half-mirror, or the dome-shaped illumination where light
is diffused by means of a diffused coated dome in which the camera looks through
an opening in the dome onto the workpiece.
 96 Introduction to Robotics

Lateral Lighting Light from the side can be radiated at a relatively wide or narrow
angle. The influence on the camera image can be significant. In an extreme case, the
image information can almost be inverted.
Dark Field Lighting At first sight, images captured using dark field illumination
seem unusual to the viewer. The light shines at a shallow angle. According to the
principle of angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection, all the light is directed
away from the camera. The field of view, therefore, remains dark. Inclined edges,
scratches, imprints, slots, and elevations interfere with the beam of light. At these
anomalies, the light is reflected towards the camera. Hence, these defects appear
bright in the camera image.
Backlighting Transmitted light illumination is the first choice of lighting when it
is necessary to measure parts as accurately as possible. The lighting is arranged on
the opposite side of the camera, the component itself is put in the light beam.
Example 4.5 Pixel Processing
Assume a vidicon tube generates a signal for 512 lines of a faceplate. If the sampling
capability of an ADC is 100 nanoseconds, i.e., the time required to process one pixel,
and 1/30 seconds are required to scan all 512 lines then scanning rate for each line is,
1
= 65.1 microsecond per line (4.11)
(30 ¥ 512)
Hence, the number of pixels which can be processed per line is given below:
65.1 ¥ 10 -6
= 651 pixels per line (4.12)
100 ¥ 10 -9

Example 4.6 Memory Requirement

If a video image requires 256 ¥ 256 pixels, the total number of pixels in an image is,
256 ¥ 256 = 65,536 (4.13a)
Assuming each pixel is digitalized at the rate of 8 bits for 256 shades of gray then
it would require
65,536 ¥ 8 = 524,288 bits or 65,536 bytes (4.13b)
In case the picture is in three colors of red, green, and blue (RGB), and the video
image changes at the rate of 30 images per second then the memory requirement is,
65,536 ¥ 3 ¥ 30 = 5,898,240 bytes per second (4.13c)

4.4.2 Steps in a Vision System

As depicted in Fig. 4.21, vision sensing has two steps, namely, image acquisition and
image processing. They are explained below.

Fig. 4.21 Steps in vision

 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 97

1. Image Acquisition In image acquisition, an image is acquired from a vidicon

which is digitized or from a digital camera (CCD or CID), as explained in the previous
section. The image is stored in computer memory (also called a frame buffer) in
the format such as TIFF, JPG, Bitmap, etc. The buffer may be a part of the frame
grabber card or in the computer itself. Note that the image acquisition is primarily a
hardware function, however, software can be used to control light intensity, focus,
camera angle, synchronization, field of view, read times, and other functions. Image
acquisition has four principle elements, namely, a light source, either controlled or
ambient, which is explained in Section 4.4.1, a lens that focuses reflected light from
the object on to the image sensor, an image sensor that converts the light image into a
stored electrical image, and the electronics to read the sensed image from the image-
sensing element, and after processing, transmit the image information to a computer
for further processing. A typical acquired image is shown in Fig. 4.22.

Fig. 4.22 Digitized picture

Example 4.7 Image Storage and Retrieval

Note that an image is generally acquired at the rate of 30 frames per second or each
image stored in every 1/30 second. If a vision system has a pixel density of 350 pixels
per line and 280 lines, there will be a total of 350 ¥ 280 = 98,000 pixels. Moreover,
for a 6-bit register to represent various gray levels of a pixel, there is a requirement
of storage of 98,000 ¥ 6 = 588,000 bits of data, which is to be processed in every
1/30 second. For storage, a combination of row and column counters is used in the
frame grabber. To read the information stored in the frame buffer, the data is grabbed
via a signal sent from the computer to the address corresponding to a row-column
combination.

2. Image Processing Image-processing techniques are used to enhance,

improve, or otherwise alter an image and to prepare it for image analysis. Usually,
during image processing, information is not extracted from the image. The intention
is to remove faults, trivial information, or information that may be important, and
to improve the image. Image processing examines the digitized data to locate and
 98 Introduction to Robotics

recognize an object within the image field. It is divided into several sub-processes,
which are discussed below:
Image Data Reduction Here, the objective is to reduce the volume of data.
As a preliminary step in the data analysis, the schemes like digital conversion or
windowing can be applied to reduce the data. While the digital conversion reduces
the number of gray levels used by the vision system, windowing involves using
only a portion of the total image stored in the frame buffer for image processing
and analysis. For example, in windowing, to inspect a circuit board, a rectangular
window is selected to surround the component of interest and only pixels within that
window are analyzed.
Histogram Analysis A histogram is a representation of the total number of pixels
of an image at each gray level. Histogram information is used in a number of different
processes, including thresholding. For example, histogram information can help in
determining a cut-off point when an image is to be transformed into binary values.
Thresholding It is the process of dividing an image into different portions or
levels by picking a certain grayness level as a threshold. Comparing each pixel value
with the threshold, and then assigning the pixel to the different portions or level,
depending on whether the pixel’s grayness level is below the threshold (‘off’ or 0, or
not belonging) or above the threshold (‘on’ or 1, or belonging).
Masking A mask may be used for many different purposes, e.g., filtering operations
and noise reduction, and others. It is possible to create masks that behave like a low-
pass filter such that higher frequencies of an image are attenuated while the lower
frequencies are not changed very much. This is illustrated in Example 4.8. Thereby,
the noise is reduced. Masking an image considers a portion of an imaginary image
shown in Fig. 4.23(a), which has all the pixels at a gray value of 20 except the one at
a gray level of 100. The one with 100 may be considered noise. Applying the 3 ¥ 3
mask shown in Fig. 4.23(b) over the corner of the image yields the following value:
(m1 A + m2 B + m3C + m4 E + m5 F + m6 G + m7 I + m8 J + m9 K )
X= = 29 (4.14)
S
where S ∫ m1 + m2 + � + m9 = 9, and values of A, B, …, and m1, m2, … are shown
in Figs. 4.23 (a) and (b), respectively. As a result of application of the mask, the pixel
with the value of 100 changes to 29, as indicated in Fig. 4.23(c). The large difference

Fig. 4.23 Masking of an image

 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 99

between the noisy pixel and the surrounding pixels, i.e., 100 vs. 20, becomes much
smaller, namely, 29 vs. 20, thus reducing the noise. With this characteristic, the mask
acts as a low-pass filter. Note that the above reduction of noise has been achieved
using what is referred as neighborhood averaging, which causes the reduction of the
sharpness of the image as well.
Edge Detection Edge detection is a general name for a class of computer programs
and techniques that operate on an image and result in a line drawing of the image.
The lines represent changes in values such as cross section of planes, intersections
of planes, textures, lines, etc. In many edge-detection techniques, the resulting edges
are not continuous. However, in many applications, continuous edges are preferred,
which can be obtained using the Hough transform. It is a technique used to determine
the geometric relationship between different pixels on a line, including the slope
of the line. Consider a straight line in the xy-plane, as shown in Fig. 4.24, which is
expressed as
y = mx + c (4.15)
where m is the slope and c is the intercept. The line represented by Eq. (4.15) can
be transformed into a Hough plane of m – c with x and y as its slope and intercept,
respectively. Thus, a line in the xy-plane with a particular slope and intercept will
transform into a point in the Hough plane. For the Hough or m-c plane, if a line
passes through (m1, c1), as shown in Fig. 4.24(b), it represents a point (x1, y1) in the
x-y plane of Fig. 4.24(a). In that way, all lines through a point in the Hough plane
will transform into a single line in the x-y plane. Alternatively, if a group of points
is collinear, their Hough transform will all intersect. By examining these properties
in a particular case, it can be determined whether a cluster of pixels is on a straight
line or not, whereupon the orientation of an object in a plane can be determined by
calculating the orientation of a particular line in the object.

Fig. 4.24 Hough transform

Segmentation Segmentation is a generic name for a number of different techniques

that divide the image into segments of its constituents. The purpose of segmentation
is to separate the information contained in the image into smaller entities that can
be used for other purposes. Segmentation includes edge detection, as mentioned
100 Introduction to Robotics

above, region growing and splitting, and others. While region growing works based
on the similar attributes, such as gray-level ranges or other similarities, and then try
to relate the regions by their average similarities, region splitting is carried out based
on thresholding in which an image is split into closed areas of neighborhood pixels
by comparing them with thresholding value or range.
Morphology Operations Morphology operations are a family of operations
which are applied on the shape of subjects in an image. They include many different
operations, both for binary and gray images, such as thickening, dilation, erosion,
skeletonization, opening, closing, and filing. These operations are performed on an
image in order to aid in its analysis, as well as to reduce the ‘extra’ information that
may be present in the image. For example, Fig. 4.25(a) shows the object which after
skeletonization is shown in Fig. 4.25(b).

(a) Object (b) After reducing image to lines

Fig. 4.25 Skeletonization

3. Image Analysis Image analysis is a collection of operations and techniques

that are used to extract information from images. Among these are feature extraction;
object recognition; analysis of the position, size, orientation; extraction of depth
information, etc. Some techniques can be used for multiple purposes. For example,
moment equations may be used for object recognition, as well as to calculate the
position and orientation of an object. It is assumed that image processing has already
been performed to the image and available for the image analysis. Some of the image-
analysis techniques are explained below.
Feature Extraction Objects in an image may be recognized by their features
that uniquely characterize them. These include, but are not limited to, gray-level
histograms, morphological features such as perimeter, area, diameter, number of
holes, etc., eccentricity, cord length, and moments. As an example, perimeter of an
object may be found by first applying an edge-detection routine and then counting the
number of pixels on the perimeter. Similarly, the area can be calculated by region-
growing techniques, whereas diameter of a non circular object is obtained by the
maximum distance between any two points on any line that crosses the identified
area of the object. In order to know the thinness of an object, it can be calculated
using either of the two ratios:
(Perimeter)2 Diameter
Thickness = or Thinness = (4.16)
Area Area
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 101

Moreover, moment of an image, denoted with np,q, can be calculated as

np,q = Â x p yq (4.17)
x, y
where x and y are the coordinates of each pixel that is turned on within an image, and
p and q are their respective powers, as
illustrated in Fig. 4.26. The coordinates x
and y are measured either from a designated
coordinate frame located at the edge of the
image or are measured from the frame
formed by the first row and column of the
image. As an example, in Fig. 4.26, the first
‘on-pixel’ appears in the second row and
fourth column. As per xy coordinate frame,
it is at (4, 2) location, whereas the x distance
of the pixel with respect to the first column
is 3. For calculation purposes, only one
Fig. 4.26 Moment of an image
coordinate frame should be used.
According to Eq. (4.17), when p = q = 0,
the moment n0,0 can be calculated as
n0,0 = Â1 = Number of pixels, i.e., area (4.18)
x, y

Similarly, one can find n0,1 as the summation of y-coordinates which is same as
the summation of each pixel area multiplied by its distance from the x-axis. Hence, it
is similar to the first moment of the area relative to the x-axis. Then, the location of
the center of the area relative to the x-axis can be calculated immediately as
1 n0,1
y– = Â y= (4.19a)
Area n0,0
Following Eq. (4.19a), one can also find the location of the center of the area
relative to the y-axis as
1 n1,0
x– = Â x= (4.19b)
Area n0,0
In a similar manner, one can also find the second moment of area with respect to
x and y axes by putting p = 2; q = 0, and p = 0; q = 2, respectively. Note here that the
first moments are independent of orientation, whereas the second moments are not.

Example 4.8 Moments Calculation

Referring to Fig. 4.26 and Eqs. (4.17–4.19),
n0,0 = Â 1 = 13 (4.20a)
x, y

n0,1 = Â y = Â x 0 y1 = 1(2) + 5(3) + 5(4) + 1(5) + 1(6) = 48 (4.20b)

n1,0 = Â x = Â x1 y 0 = 2(2) + 2(3) + 5(4) + 2(5) + 1(6) + 1(7) = 53 (4.20c)

102 Introduction to Robotics

n0,2 = Â x 0 y 2 = 1(2)2 + 5(3)2 + 5(4)2 + 1(5)2 + 1(6)2 = 190 (4.20d)

2 0 2 2 2 2 2 2
n2,0 = Â x y = 2(2) + 2(3) + 5(4) + 2(5) + 1(6) + 1(7) = 241 (4.20e)
Using Eqs (4.20a-c), one can easily find the center of the picture as,
n1,0 53 n0,1 48
x= = = 4.1; and y = = = 3.7 (4.21)
n0,0 13 n0,0 13

Object Recognition The next in image analysis is to identify the object that the
image represents based on the extracted features. The recognition algorithm should
be powerful enough to uniquely identify the object. Typical techniques used in the
industries are template matching and structural technique.
In template matching, the features of the object in the image, e.g., its area,
diameter, etc., are compared to the corresponding stored values. These values
constitute the stored template. When a match is found, allowing for certain statistical
variations in the comparison process, the object has been properly classified. For
example, the area of an image given by the moment n0,0 can be used to determine
nature of the object, and to distinguish it from other objects that have different
areas. Similarly, the first and second moments can be used to identify an object’s
position and orientation so that it can be picked up by the robot. Note that, instead of
calculating the moment values which change as the object moves, a look-up table can
be prepared. For example, the moment of inertia of an object varies significantly as
the object rotates about its center. Hence, the values of n2,0 and n0,2 will also change.
Since each orientation creates a unique value, a look-up table that contains these
values can later be used to identify the orientation of the object.
An important aspect here is that similar shapes,
as shown in Fig. 4.27 cannot be distinguished with
their first and second moments, as they are similar
or close to each other. In such a situation, a small
difference between the two objects may be
exaggerated through higher-order moments,
Fig. 4.27 Two similar objects
making identification of the object possible.
Structural techniques of pattern recognition rely on the relationship between
features or edges of an object. For example, if the image of an object can be subdivided
in four straight lines connected at their end points, and the connected lines are at right
angles then the object is a rectangle. This kind of technique is known as syntactic
pattern recognition.
In case depth information of an object is required, it can be obtained either by
using a range finder in conjunction with a vision system, or using a stereo vision. The
details of these systems are beyond the scope of this book. Readers are encouraged to
look at Haralick and Shapiro (1992) and others.
4.4.3 Hierarchy of a Vision System
The collection of processes involved in visual perception are often perceived as a
hierarchy spanning the range from ‘low’ via ‘intermediate’ to ‘high-level’ vision. The
notion of ‘low’ and ‘high’ vision are used routinely, but there is no clear definition of
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 103

the distinction between what is considered ‘high’ as opposed to ‘low-level’ vision. As

shown in Fig. 4.28, a vision is classified as ‘low’, ‘intermediate’ or ‘high-level’ vision
based on specific activities during the image-processing stage. They are explained
below.
1. Low-level Vision The sequence of steps from image formation to image
acquisition, etc., described above, along with the extraction of certain physical
properties of the visible environment, such as depth, three-dimensional shape, object
boundaries, or surface-material properties, can be classified as a process of low-level
vision. Activity in the low-level vision is to process images for feature extraction
(edge, corner, or optical flow). Operations carried out on the pixels in the image to
extract the above properties with respect to intensity or depth at each point in the
image. One may, for example, be interested in extracting uniform regions, where
the gradient of the pixels remains constant, or first-order changes in gradient, which
would correspond to straight lines, or second-order changes which could be used to
extract surface properties such as peaks, pits, ridges, etc. A number of characteristics
that are typically associated with low-level vision processes are as follows:
∑ They are spatially uniform and parallel, i.e., with allowance for the decrease in
resolution from the center of the visual field outwards, similar process is applied
simultaneously across the visual field. For example, processing involved in edge
detection, motion, or stereo vision, often proceed in parallel across the visual
field, or a large part of it.
∑ Low-level visual processes are also considered ‘bottom-up’ in nature. This
means that they are determined by the data, i.e., data driven, and are relatively
independent of the task at hand or knowledge associated with specific objects.
As far as the edge detection is concerned, it will be performed in the same
manner for images of different objects, with no regard to whether the task to do
with moving around, looking for a misplaced object, or enjoying the landscape.
2. Intermediate-level Vision In this level, objects are recognized and 3D
scenes are interpreted using the features obtained from the low-level vision. The
intermediate-level processing is fundamentally concerned with grouping entities
together. The simplest case is when one groups pixels into lines. One can then express
the line in a functional form. Similarly, if the output of the low-level information
is a depth map, one may further need to distinguish object boundaries, or other
characteristics. Even in the simple case where one is trying to extract a single sphere,
it is not an easy process to go from a surface-depth representation to a center-and-
radius representation. In contrast to higher-level vision, the process here does not
depend on the knowledge about specific object.
3. High-level Vision High-level vision, which is equivalent to image underst-
anding, is concerned mainly with the interpretation of scene in terms of the objects
in it, and is usually based on knowledge of specific objects and relationships. It is
concerned primarily with the interpretation and use of information in the image
rather than the direct recovery of physical properties.
In high-level vision, interpretation of a scene goes beyond the tasks of line
extraction and grouping. It further requires decisions to be made about types of
boundaries, such as which are occluding, and what information is hidden from the
104 Introduction to Robotics

Fig. 4.28 Hierarchy of a vision system

user. Further grouping is essential at this stage since one may still need to be able
to decide which lines group together to form an object. To do this, it is necessary to
further distinguish lines which are part of the object structure, from those which are
part of a surface texture, or caused by shadows. High-level systems are, therefore,
object oriented, and sometimes called ‘top-down’. High-level visual processes are
applied to a selected portion of the image, rather than uniformly across the entire
image, as done in low- and intermediate-level visions. They almost always require
some form of knowledge about the objects of the scene to be included.
4.4.4 Difficulties in Vision and Remedies
A vision system cannot uniquely represent or process all available data because of
computational problem, memory, and processing-time requirements imposed on the
computer. Therefore, the system must compromise. Other problems include variation
of light, part-size, part placement, and limitations in the dynamic ranges available in
typical vision sensors. A vision system requires specialized hardware and software.
It is possible to purchase just the hardware with little or no vision application
programming. In fact, a few third-party programs are available. A hardware-only
approach is less expensive and can be more flexible for handling usual vision
requirements. But, since this approach requires image processing expertise, it is only
of interest to users who wish to retain the responsibility of image interpretation. It
is usual practice to obtain the hardware and application software together from the
supplier. However, the user might still need custom programming for an application.
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 105

Major vision system suppliers specialise in providing software for only a few
application areas.
Every vision system requires a sensor to cover the visual image into an electronic
signal. Several types of video sensors are used, including vidicon cameras, vacuum
tube devices, and solid-state sensors. Many of these vision systems were originally
designed for other applications, such as television so the signal must be processed to
extract the visual image and remove synchronization information before the signal
is sent to the computer for further processing. The computer then treats this digital
signal as the array pixels, and processes this data to extract the desired information.
Image processing can be very time consuming. For a typical sensor of 200,000
or more pixels, a vision system can take many seconds, even minutes, to analyze
the complete scene and determine the action to be taken. The number of bits to be
processed is quite large, for example, a system with 512 × 512 pixels array and an
8-bit intensity per pixel yields over two million of bits to be processed. If continuous
image at a 30 FPS frame rate were being received, data bytes would be received at
an 8 MHz rate. Few computers can accept inputs at these data rates and, in any case,
there would be no time left to process the data. When higher resolution system, color
system, or multiple camera systems are considered, data-handling requirements
become astronomical. Several methods can be used to reduce the amount of data
handled and, therefore, the processing time. They are explained as follows:
(a) One approach is the binary vision, which is used when only black-and-white
information is processed (intensity variations and shades of gray are ignored).
In binary vision, a picture is converted into a binary image by thresholding, as
illustrated in Fig. 4.29. In thresholding, a brightness level is selected. All data
with intensities equal to or higher than this value are considered white, and all
other levels are considered black.
(b) Another method of shortening process time is to control object placement so
that objects of interest cannot overlap in the image. Complicated algorithms
to separate images are then not necessary, and the image-processing time is
reduced.

Fig. 4.29 Image thresholding [Courtesy: Shell and Hall (2000)]

106 Introduction to Robotics

(c) A third approach reduces data handling by processing only a small window of
the actual data; that is, the object is located in a predefined field of view. For
example, if the robot is looking for a mark on the printed circuit board, the
system can be held in such a way that the mark is always in the upper right
corner.
(d) A fourth approach takes a statistical sample of data and makes decisions on this
data sample. Unfortunately, all of these approaches ignore some of the available
data and, in effect, produce a less robust system. Processing time is saved, but
some types of complex objects cannot be recognized.
Note that some of the above steps are actually a part of image processing explained
in Section 4.4.2.

4.5 SIGNAL CONDITIONING

The basic information or data generated by the transducers (or sensors as mentioned in
‘Sensors vs. Transducers’ text box in the beginning) generally requires ‘conditioning’
or ‘processing’ of one sort or another before they are presented to the observer as an
indication or a record, or to be used by a robot controller for further action. Some of
the commonly used devices used for signal conditioning of those obtained from the
sensors explained in this chapter are explained next. The detailed descriptions are
out of the scope of this book. However, they are available in the books by Doebelin
(1990), de Silva (2004), Nakra and Chaudhry (2009), and others.
4.5.1 Amplifiers
Since the electrical signals produced by most transducers of a sensor are at a low
voltage, generally they require amplification before they are suitably recognized
by a monitoring system like a data processor, controller, or data logger. While the
discussion is aimed mainly at users (rather than designers) of amplifiers, the use of
operational amplifiers with the sensors will be explained here.
The operational amplifier (op-amp) is the most widely utilized analog electronic
sub-assembly. It is the basis of instrumentation amplifier, filters, and a myriad of
analog and digital data-processing equipment. An op-amp could be manufactured
in the discrete-element form using, say, ten bipolar junction transistors and as many
discrete resistors or alternatively (and preferably) in the monolithic form as in IC
(Integrated Circuit) chip that may be equivalent to over 100 discrete elements. In any
form, the device has an input impedance Zi, an output impedance Zo and a gain K, as
indicated in Fig. 4.30(a). A common 8-pin dual in-line package (DIP) or V-package
is shown in Fig. 4.30(b). From Fig. 4.30(a), the open-loop condition yields
vo = Kvi (4.22)
where the input voltage vi is the differential input voltage defined as the algebraic
difference between the voltages at the +ve and –ve leads. Thus,
vi = vip – vin (4.23)
The open-loop voltage gain K is typically very high (105 – 109), whereas values of
Zi and Zo are typically 2 MW (could be as high as 10 MW) and 10 W (may reach about
75W), respectively. Since v0 is typically 1–15 V, from Eq. (4.22), it follows that vi
@ 0 since K is very large. Hence, from Eq. (4.23) we have vip @ vin. In other words,
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 107

Fig. 4.30 Operational amplifier

the voltages at the two input leads are nearly equal. If a large voltage differential vi
(say, 10 V) at the input then according to Eq. (4.22), the output voltage should be
extremely high. This never happens in practice, because the device saturates quickly
beyond moderate output voltages in the order of 15 V. From Eqs (4.22–4.23), it is
clear that if the –ve input lead is grounded, i.e., vin = 0 then
vo = Kvip (4.24a)
and if the +ve input lead is grounded, i.e., vip = 0 then
vo = –Kvin (4.24b)
This is the reason why vip is termed non-inverting input and vin is termed inverting
input.
4.5.2 Filters
A filter is a device that allows through only
Dynamic System vs. Analog Filter
the desirable part of a signal, rejecting
the unwanted part. Unwanted signals can The way an analog sensor is defined, any
dynamic system can be interpreted as an
seriously degrade the performance of a
analog filter.
robotic system. External disturbances,
error components in excitations, and noise generated internally within system
components and instrumentation are such spurious signals, which may be removed
by a filter. There are four broad categories of filters, namely, low-pass filters, high-
pass filters, band-pass filters, and band-reject (or notch) filters, which are shown in
Fig. 4.31.

Magnitude Magnitude Magnitude Magnitude

1 1 1 1

fc(cut-off) fc(cut-off) fc1 fc 2 fc 1 fc 2

Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency
(a) Low-pass (b) High-pass (c) Band-pass (d) Band-reject

Fig. 4.31 Filter characteristics

108 Introduction to Robotics

An analog filter contains active components like transistors or op-amps. It is a

physical dynamic system, typically an electric circuit, whose dynamics will determine
which (desired) signal components would be allowed through and which (unwanted)
signal components would be rejected. In a way, output of the dynamic system is the
filtered signal. An analog filter can be represented as a differential equation with
respect to time.
Filtering can be achieved through digital filters as well which employ digital signal
processing. Digital filtering is an algorithm by which a sampled signal (or sequence
of numbers), acting as an input, is transformed to a second sequence of numbers
called the output. It is a discrete-time system and can be represented as a difference
equation. Digital filtering has the usual digital benefits of accuracy, stability, and
adjustability by software (rather than hardware) changes.
4.5.3 Modulators and Demodulators
Signals are sometimes deliberately modified to maintain the accuracy during their
transmission, conditioning, and processing. In modulation, the data signal which is
referred to as modulating signal is used to vary a property, say, amplitude or frequency,
of a carrier signal. Thus, the carrier signal is modulated by the data signal. After
transmitting or conditioning, the data signal is recovered by removing the carrier
signal from the modulated signal. This step is known as demodulation. The carrier
signal can be either sine or square wave, and its frequency should be 5–10 times the
highest frequency of the data signal.
Figure 4.32 shows some typical modulation techniques in which the amplitude
of a high-frequency sinusoidal carrier signal is varied according to the amplitude of
the data signal. Figure 4.32(a) shows the data signal which needs to be transmitted.
The carrier signal’s frequency is kept constant, while amplitude is same as that of the
data signal. This is called Amplitude Modulation (AM), and the resulting amplitude-
modulated signal is shown in Fig. 4.32(b). In Fig. 4.32(c), however, the frequency of

Fig. 4.32 Modulation techniques

 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 109

the carrier signal is varied in proportion to the amplitude of the data signal
(modulating signal), while keeping the amplitude of the carrier signal constant. This
is called Frequency Modulation (FM). An FM is less susceptible to noise than AM.
In Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM), the carrier signal is a pulse sequence, and its
width is changed in proportion to the amplitude of the data signal, while keeping
the pulse spacing constant. This is shown in Fig. 4.32(d). The PWM signals can be
used directly in controlling a process without having to demodulate them. There
also exists Pulse-Frequency Modulation (PFM), where the carrier signal is a pulse
sequence. Here, the frequency of the pulses is changed in proportion to the value
of the data signal, while keeping the pulse width constant. It has the advantages of
ordinary FM.
Demodulation or detection is the process of extracting the original data signal
from a modulated signal. A simple and straightforward method of demodulation is
by detection of the envelope of the modulated signal.
4.5.4 Analog and Digital Conversions
Most sensors have analog output while much data processing is done using digital
computers. Hence, devices for conversion between these two domains have to be
performed. These can be achieved using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and a
digital-to-analog converter (DAC), as mentioned in Chapter 2. Explanation on DAC
is given first as some ADC uses DAC as its component.
1. Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) The function of a digital-to-analog-
convertor or DAC is to convert a sequence of digital words stored in a data register,
typically in the straight binary form, into an analog signal. A typical DAC unit is
an active circuit in the integrated circuit (IC) form and consists of a data register
(digital circuits), solid-state switching circuits, resistors, and op-amps powered by an
external power supply. The IC chip that represents the DAC is usually one of many
components mounted on a Printed Circuit Board (PCB), which is the I/O board or
card. This board is plugged into a slot of the PC having DAQ. A typical commercial
DAC is shown in Fig. 2.10.
2. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) An analog-to-digital converter or ADC,
on the other hand, converts an analog signal into the digital form, according to an
appropriate code, before the same is used by a digital processor or a computer. The
process of analog-to-digital conversion is more complex and time consuming than
the digital-to-analog conversion. ADCs are usually more costly, and their conversion
rate is slower than DACs. Several types of ADCs are commercially available.
However, their principle of operation may vary depending on the type. A typical
commercial ADC is shown in Fig. 2.8.
Note that the most fundamental property of any DAC or ADC is their number of
bits for which it is designed, since this is a basic limit on resolution. Units of 8 to
12 bits are most common even though higher bits are also available. Both DAC and
ADC are elements in typical input/output board (or I/O board, or data acquisition
and control card, i.e., DAC or DAQ), which are usually situated on the same digital
interface board.
110 Introduction to Robotics

4.5.5 Bridge Circuits B

Various bridge circuits are employed R2
widely for the measurement of R1
resistance, capacitance, and inductance,
as many transducers convert physical
A C
variables to these quantities. Figure 4.33
shows a purely resistive (Wheatstone) Meter
bridge in its simplest form. The basic
R4
principle of the bridge may be applied R3
in two different ways, namely, the null
method and the deflection method. D
If the resistances are adjusted so
Fig. 4.33 Wheatstone bridge
that the bridge is balanced then there is
no voltage across AC, i.e., vAC = 0. This happens when R1/R4 = R2/R3. Now if one of
the resistors, say, R1, changes its resistance then there will be unbalance in the bridge
and a voltage will appear across vAC causing a meter reading. This meter reading is
an indication of the change in R1 of the transducer element, and can be utilized to
compute the change. This method of measurement is called the deflection method.
In the null method, one of the resistors is adjustable manually. Thus, if R1 changes
causing a meter deflection, R2 can be adjusted manually till its effect just cancels
that of R1 and the bridge is returned to its balanced position. Here, the change in R1
is directly related to the change in R2 required to effect the balance. Note that both
the deflection and null methods require a calibration curve so that one knows the
numerical values of R1 or R2 that has caused the imbalance or balance, respectively.
Note that the measurements of rapid dynamic phenomenon can be done using the
deflection method. Moreover, based on the alternate current (ac) and direct current
(dc) excitations in the bridge, there are ac bridges and dc bridges, respectively.
4.5.6 Signal Analyzer
Modern signal analyzers employ digital techniques of signal analysis to extract useful
information that is carried by the signal. Digital Fourier analysis using Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) is perhaps the singlemost common procedure that is used in the vast
majority of signal analyzers. Fourier analysis produces the frequency spectrum of a
time signal, which is explained here in brief.
Any periodic signal f(t) can be decomposed into a number of sines and cosines
of different amplitudes, an and bn, and frequencies nw t, for n = 1, 2, …•, which is
expressed as
a0 • •
f(t) = + Â an cos(nw t ) + Â bn sin(nw t ) (4.25)
2 n =1 n =1

If one adds sine and cosine functions together, the original signal can be
reconstructed. Equation (4.25) is called a Fourier series, and the collection of
different frequencies present in the equation is called the frequency spectrum or
frequency content of the signal. Even though the signal is in amplitude-time domain,
the frequency spectrum is in the amplitude-frequency domain. For example, for the
function, f(t) = sin(t) of Fig. 4.34(a), which consists of only one frequency with
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 111

constant amplitude, the plotted signal would be represented by a single line at the
given frequency, as shown in Fig. 4.34(b). If the plot with given frequency and
amplitude is represented by the arrow in Fig. 4.34(b), the same sine function can be
reconstructed. The plots in Fig. 4.35 are similar and represent the following:
1
f(t) = Â sin(nt ) (4.26)
n =1,3,...,15 n

where w = 1.
Amplitude Amplitude

1 1

Time 1 Frequency

(a) Signal (b) Frequency domain

Fig. 4.34 Time domain vs. frequency domain

Amplitude Amplitude

Time 1 3 5 7 15 Frequency

(a) Time domain (b) Frequency domain

Fig. 4.35 Complex functions

The frequencies are also plotted in the frequency-amplitude domain. Clearly,

when the number of frequencies contained in f(t) increases, the summation becomes
closer to a square function. Theoretically, to reconstruct a square wave from sine
functions, an infinite number of sines must be added together. In practice, however,
some of the major frequencies within the spectrum will have larger amplitudes.
These major frequencies or harmonics are used in identifying and labeling a signal,
including recognizing shapes, objects, etc.

4.6 SENSOR SELECTION

In using sensors, one must first decide what the sensor is supposed to do and what
result one expects. A sensor detects the quantity to be measured (the measurand). The
transducer converts the detected measurand into a convenient form for subsequent
use, e.g., for control or actuation. The transducer signal may be filtered, amplified and
suitably modified using the devices mentioned in Section 4.5. Selection of suitable
sensors for robotic applications relies heavily of their performance specifications.
112 Introduction to Robotics

Majority of manufacturers provide what are actually static parameters. However,

dynamic parameters are also important. In this section, static characteristics will be
studied, whereas the dynamic characteristics can be described using the transient
response of a system explained in Chapter 10 (Control), and the associated definitions
appear therein, as a sensor is also a dynamic system whose behavior changes with
the input signals. The following definitions will help a user or a designer select
appropriate sensors for a robotic application.
1. Range Range or span is a measure of the difference between the minimum and
maximum values of its input or output (response) so as to maintain a required level of
output accuracy. For example, a strain gauge might be able to measure output values
over the range from 0.1 to 10 Newtons.
2. Sensitivity Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the change of output to change
in input. As an example, if a movement of 0.025 mm in a linear potentiometer causes
an output voltage by 0.02 volt then the sensitivity is 0.8 volts per mm. It is sometimes
used to indicate the smallest change in input that will be observable as a change in
output. Usually, maximum sensitivity that provides a linear and accurate signal is
desired.
3. Linearity Perfect linearity would allow output versus input to be plotted as a
straight line on a graph paper. Linearity is a measure of the constancy of the ratio of
output to input. In the form of an equation, it is
y = mx (4.27)
where x is input and y is output, and m is a constant. If m is a variable, the relationship
is not linear. For example, m may be a function of x, such as m = a + bx where the
value of b would introduce a nonlinearity. A measure of the nonlinearity could be
given as the value of b.
4. Response Time Response time is the time required for a sensor to respond
completely to a change in input. The response time of a system with sensors is the
combination of the responses of all individual components, including the sensor. An
important aspect in selecting an appropriate sensor is to match its time response to
that of the complete system. Associated definitions like rise time, peak time, settling
time, etc., with regard to the dynamic response of a sensor are given in Chapter 10.
5. Bandwidth It determines the maximum speed or frequency at which an
instrument associated with a sensor or otherwise is capable of operating. High
bandwidth implies faster speed of response. Instrument bandwidth should be several
times greater than the maximum frequency of interest in the input signals.
6. Accuracy Accuracy is a measure of the difference between the measured
and actual values. An accuracy of ±0.025 mm means that under all circumstances
considered, the measured value will be within 0.025 mm of the actual value. In
positioning a robot and its end-effector, verification of this level of accuracy would
require careful measurement of the position of the end-effector with respect to the
base reference location with an overall accuracy of 0.025 mm under all conditions
of temperature, acceleration, velocity, and loading. Precision-measuring equipment,
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 113

carefully calibrated against secondary standards, would be necessary to verify this

accuracy. Accuracy describes ‘closeness to true values.’
7. Repeatability and Precision Repeatability is a measure of the difference in
value between two successive measurements under the same conditions, and is a far
less stringent criterion than accuracy. As long as the forces, temperature, and other
parameters have not changed, one would expect the successive values to be the same,
however poor the accuracy is.
An associated definition is precision, which means the ‘closeness of agreement’
between independent measurements of a quantity under the same conditions without
any reference to the true value, as done above. Note that the number of divisions
on the scale of the measuring device generally affects the consistency of repeated
measurement and, therefore, the precision. In a way, precision describes ‘repeatability.’
Figure 4.36 illustrates the difference between accuracy and precision.

Fig. 4.36 Interpretation of accuracy and precision

8. Resolution and Threshold Resolution is a measure of the number of

measurements within a range from minimum to maximum. It is also used to indicate
the value of the smallest increment of value that is observable, whereas threshold is a
particular case of resolution. It is defined as the minimum value of input below which
no output can be detected.
9. Hysteresis It is defined as the change in the input/ Output
output curve when the direction of motion changes, as
indicated in Fig. 4.37. This behavior is common in loose
components such as gears, which have backlash, and in
magnetic devices with ferromagnetic media, and others. Input

10. Type of Output Output can be in the form of a

mechanical movement, an electrical current or voltage, a
pressure, or liquid level, a light intensity, or another form. Fig. 4.37 Hysteresis
To be useful, it must be converted to another form, as in
the LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transducer) or strain gauges, which are
discussed earlier.
In addition to the above characteristics, the following considerations must also be
made while selecting a sensor.
11. Size and Weight Size and weight are usually important physical characteristics
of sensors. If the sensor is to be mounted on the robot hand or arm, it becomes a part
114 Introduction to Robotics

of the mass that must be accelerated and decelerated by the drive motors of the wrist
and arm. So, it directly affects the performance of the robot. It is a challenge to
sensor designers to reduce size and weight. An early wrist force-torque sensor, for
example, was about 125 mm in diameter but was reduced to about 75 mm in diameter
through careful redesign.
12. Environmental Conditions Power requirement and its easy availability
should be considered. Besides, conditions like chemical reactions including
corrosion, extreme temperatures, light, dirt accumulation, electromagnetic field,
radioactive environments, shock and vibrations, etc., should be taken into account
while selecting a sensor or considering how to shield them.
13. Reliability and Maintainability Reliability is of major importance in all
robot applications. It can be measured in terms of Mean Time To Failure (MTTF) as
the average number of hours between failures that cause some part of the sensor to
become inoperative. In industrial use, the total robot system is expected to be available
as much as 98 or 99% of the working days. Since there are hundreds of components
in a robot system, each one must have a very high reliability. Some otherwise good
sensors cannot stand the daily environmental stress and, therefore, cannot be used
with robots. Part of the requirement for reliability is ease of maintenance. A sensor
that can be easily replaced does not have to be as reliable as one that is hidden in the
depths of the robot. Maintainability is a measure in terms of Mean Time To Repair
(MTTR).
14. Interfacing Interfacing of sensors with signal-conditioning devices and the
controller of the robot is often a determining factor in the usefulness of sensors.
Nonstandard plugs or requirements for nonstandard voltages and currents may make
a sensor too complex and expensive to use. Also, the signals from a sensor must be
compatible with other equipment being used if the system is to work properly.
15. Others Other aspects like initial cost, maintenance cost, cost of disposal and
replacement, reputation of manufacturers, operational simplicity, ease of availability
of the sensors and their spares should be taken into account. In many occasions, these
nontechnical considerations become the ultimate deciding factor in the selection of
sensors for an application.

SUMMARY
Necessity of sensors in robotics, different types of sensors used in robotic applications
and the selection criteria are presented in this chapter. Functional aspects, rather than
their mathematical models, are emphasized so that the reader is able to decide which
sensor to use and when. Different sensors are classified from their functional uses, for
example, position, velocity, acceleration, force, sensors, etc. Special attention has been
paid to vision system, its elements, how it can be processed, etc. Signal-conditioning
units, their characteristics, and when to use what are also explained. Finally guidelines
are provided to select appropriate sensors.
 Sensors, Vision and Signal Conditioning 115

EXERCISES
4.1 Define sensitivity and linearity.
4.2 Distinguish accuracy from repeatability.
4.3 State the physical characteristics in sensor selection.
4.4 What are the essential components of a sensor?
4.5 Why are the terms internal and external used to classify sensors?
4.6 Classify internal sensors.
4.7 Name some velocity sensors?
4.8 Why are position sensors not preferred to obtain velocity and acceleration?
4.9 Is there any advantage of external sensors over internal types?
4.10 Name some contact and noncontact type sensors.
4.11 What are the advantages of capacitive proximity sensors?
4.12 What is a machine vision?
4.13 What are the major components in a vision system?
4.14 What is the sensor component in a vision system?
4.15 What are different types of cameras? Explain the vidicon camera.
4.16 What are the typical difficulties in a vision system?
4.17 What is thresholding in vision?
4.18 Why is signal processing important?
4.19 Name at least three devices used in signal conditioning.
4.20 Define different types of filters.
4.21 What are the characteristics one should check while selecting a sensor?
4.22 What is Hough transform?
4.23 What are the static characteristics a sensor should have?

WEB-BASED EXERCISES
Based on Web search, find the answers for the following questions:
4.24 Name at least five commercial companies who make different types of sensors. List the
sensors against each company’s name.
4.25 What are the typical prices of encoders, tachogenerators, and accelerometers?
4.26 What is the price of a CCD camera?
4.27 Name two camera companies and mention which camera you will select for industrial
robot system involved in accurate pick-and-place operation?
4.28 Name a robot manufacturing company who implements vision system in their robots.
4.29 Give a typical significance of a force/torque sensor.
4.30 What command MATLAB uses for digital filtering and image processing?