Solar Thermal Systems

(Application)
Solar collectors:
• Solar power has low density per unit area (1 kW/sq. m to 0.1 kW).
Hence, it is collected by covering a large ground area by solar thermal
collectors.
• It absorbs solar energy as heat and then transfers it to the heat transfer
fluid efficiently.
Classification:
Comparison of concentrating and non-concentrating types solar
collectors:

• In concentrating type solar collectors, solar radiation is converged from a

large area into a smaller area using optical means.

• Beam radiation, which has a unique direction and travels in a straight

line, can be converged by reflection or refraction techniques.

• Thus, concentrating-type solar collectors mainly make use of the beam

radiation component (plus very little diffuse component coming directly
over the absorber), while non-concentrating (flat plate) collectors
absorb both beam as well as diffused radiation, a distinct advantage of a
flat-plate collector.
• A flat-plate collector is simple in construction and does not require sun
tracking. Also because of its simple stationary design, a flat-plate collector
requires little maintenance.

• The principal disadvantage of a flat plate collector is that because of the

absence of optical concentration, the area from which heat is lost is large.

• The main advantage of concentrating type collectors is that high

temperature can be attained due to concentration of radiation.
Performance indices:
Collector efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the energy actually absorbed and
transferred to the heat-transport fluid by the collector (useful energy) to the energy
incident on the collector.

Concentration ratio (CR): It is defined as the ratio of the area of aperture of the
system to the area of the receiver. The aperture of the system is the projected area of
the collector facing (normal) the beam.

In flat plate collector, no optical system is utilized to concentrate the solar radiation
and hence the concentration ratio is 1. The temperature range is less than 1000 C.

Line focus collectors: CR up to 100 and temperature range 150-3000 C.

Point focus collectors: CR up to 1000 and temperature range 500-10000 C.

Temperature range: Range of temperature to which the heat-transport fluid is heated

up by the collector.
Figure: Schematic diagram for representation of light concentration process

Ref.: https://www.e-education.psu.edu/eme812/node/8
Liquid Flat-Plate Collector:

A flat plate collector is placed at a location in a position such that its length aligns
with the line of longitude and is suitably tilted towards south to have maximum
collection.

The basic elements in majority of these collectors are:

(i). Transparent cover (one or two sheets of glass or plastic)

(ii). Blackened absorber plate usually made of copper, aluminum or steel

(iii). Tubes, channels or passages in thermal contact with the absorber plate

(iv). Weather tight, insulated container to enclose the above components

Liquid Flat Plate Collector

Positioning of flat plate collector

8
Liquid Flat Plate Collector

Figure. Construction of flat plate collector 9

• A liquid, most commonly water, is used as the heat-transport
medium from the collector to the next stage of the system.

• Sometimes a mixture of water and Ethylene glycol (antifreeze

mixture) is also used if the ambient temperature are likely to drop
below 00 during nights.

• As solar radiation strikes on a specially treated metallic absorber

plate, it is absorbed and raises the plates temperature.

• The absorber plate is usually made from a metal sheet ranging in

thickness from 0.2 to 1 mm.
• The heat is transferred to the heat-transfer liquid circulating in
the tube, beneath the absorber plate and in intimate contact with
it.

• The metallic tube range in diameter from 1 to 1.5 cm. These are
soldered, brazed, welded or pressure bonded to the absorber
plate with a pitch ranging from 5 to 12 cm.

• Header pipe, which are of slightly larger diameter of typically 2-

2.5 cm, lead the water in and out of the collector and distribute to
tubes.
• The metal that is most commonly used, both for the absorber plate, the tubes and
the header pipes, is copper.

• Thermal insulation provided by a 2.5 to 8 cm thick layer of glass wool prevents heat
loss from the absorber surface.

• The glass cover permits the entry of solar radiation as it is transparent for incoming
short wavelengths but is largely opaque to the longer infrared radiation reflected
from the absorber. (Green house effect)

• The glass cover also prevents the heat loss due to convection by keeping the air
stagnant.

• The glass cover may reflect some 15% of incoming solar radiation, which can be
reduced by applying anti-reflective coating on the outer surface of the glass.

• The usual practice is to have one to two covers with spacing ranging from 1.5 to 3
cm. Plain or toughened glass of 4 to 5 mm thickness is most favoured material.
• Absorber Plate: Absorber plate material should have high thermal conductivity,
adequate tensile and compressive strength and good corrosion resistance.
Copper is generally the material of choice due to high conductivity and resistance
to corrosion. Other possible materials for absorber plate may be aluminium, steel,
brass and zinc, etc.

Properties of some of the materials for absorber plate

 Flat Plate Air Heating Collector (Solar Air Heater, Solar Air Collector)

● A solar air-heating collector is similar to a liquid flat plate

collector with change in configuration of absorber and
tube (riser) as shown in Fig.
● The value of heat transfer coefficient between the
absorber plate and the air is low. For this reason, the
surfaces are sometimes roughened, or longitudinal fins
are provided in the airflow passage.
● Corrugated, V-shape, matrix, etc., are some of the other
variations of absorber plate. The principal applications of
theses collectors are drying for agricultural and industrial
purposes, and space heating.
● The electrical power required to blow the air through the
system can be significant as it involves flow of large volume of Various types of flat plate air
heating collector
fluid.

14
It has following advantages over liquid flat plate collector:
● It is compact, simple in construction and requires little maintenance.
● Corrosion is completely eliminated.
● Leakage of air from the duct is less severe.
● Possibility of freezing of working fluid is also eliminated.
● The pressure inside the collector does not become very high.

Major disadvantage of air collector are:

● Large amount of fluid is to be handled due to low density. As a result, the electrical power
required to blow the air through the system can be significant if the pressure drop is not
kept within prescribed limits.
● Heat transfer between absorber plate and air is poor.
● There is less storage of thermal energy due to low heat capacity.

15
Modified flat plate collector (With Booster Mirrors):
• By providing plane reflectors at the edge of a flat-plate collector
to reflect additional radiation into the receiver, the
concentration of the solar radiation can be increased. These
mirrors are also called booster mirrors.
• The concentration ratio of these concentrators has a maximum
value of 4.
• It requires periodic tilt adjustment.

Fig. : Modified flat-plate collector

Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator
• It consists of a cylindrical parabolic trough reflector and a metal tube receiver
at its focal line.
• The receiver tube is blackened at the outside surface to increase absorption.
• It is rotated about one axis to track the sun.
• The heat transfer fluid flows through the receiver tube, carrying the thermal
energy to the next stage of the system.
• Concentration ratio: Range 5-30

Fig.: Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator

Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator

Fig.: Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator

Ref.: https://www.alternative-energy-tutorials.com/solar-hot-water/parabolic-trough-
reflector.html
Linear Fresnel Lens Collector:
• In this collector, a Fresnel lens, which consists of fine, linear grooves on the surface
refracting material (generally optical quality plastic) on one side and flat on the
other side, is used.

• The angle of each groove is designed to make the optical behavior similar to a
spherical lens.

• The beam radiation which is incident normally, converges on the focal line, where
a receiver tube is provided to absorb the radiation.

• A concentration ratio of 10-30 may be realized and temperature range

150 − 3000 C.

Fig. Linear Fresnel Lens Collector

Parabolic Dish Collector:
• It consists of a solar reflector dish, solar
receiver, and the mounting structure.

• The dish is mounted on the dual-axis solar

tracker that keeps it oriented always
toward the sun.

• The solar radiation after being reflected

by the dish are concentrated on the
Fig. : Parabolic dish collector
central receiver positioned at the focal
point of the solar parabolic dish.

• The dish is mounted on the dual-axis solar

tracker that keeps it oriented always
toward the sun. The solar radiation after
being reflected by the dish are
concentrated on the central receiver
positioned at the focal point of the solar
parabolic dish.
• It can have a concentration ratio ranging from 10 to few thousand and can yield a
temperature up to 30000 C.

• The solar parabolic dish finds its major application in electricity generation using
the Stirling engine mounted at the central receiver.

• Size is limited by material constraints, and the largest practical dishes are
normally around 10 m in diameter, with a generating capacity of 25 kW [7].
Central Tower Receiver:
• In a central tower receiver collector, the receiver is located at the top
of a tower.

• Beam radiation is reflected on it from a large number of

independently controlled, almost flat mirrors, known as heliostats,
spread over a large area on the ground, surrounding the tower.

• Thousands of such heliostats track the sun to direct the beam

radiation on the receiver from all the sides.

• Concentration ratio of as high as a value of 3000 can be obtained.

• The absorbed energy can be extracted from the receiver and

delivered at a temperature and pressure suitable for driving the
turbine.
The central tower receiver is used for high-temperature applications
(normally above 550°C), where the efficiency of the thermodynamic
cycle is higher compared with the line-focus technologies.

Fig. : Central tower receiver

 Solar Water Heater

• A tilted flat-plate solar collector with

water as a heat-transfer fluid is used.

• A thermally insulated hot-water

storage tank is mounted above the
collector.

• The heated water of the collector

rises up to the hot water tank and
replaces an equal quantity of cold
water, which enters the collector.

• The cycle repeats, resulting in all the

water of the hot water tank getting Fig.: Solar water heater
heated up.
SOLAR WATER HEATER

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When hot water is taken from the hot
water outlet, the same is replaced by
cold water from a cold-water make up
tank fixed above the hot water tank.

This scheme is known as passive

heating scheme, as water is circulated
in the loop naturally due to thermo-
siphon action.

When the collector is fixed above the

level of the hot-water tank, a pump is Fig.: Solar water heater
required to induce circulation of water
in the loop and the scheme is known as
active or forced solar thermal system.

Temperature range =60−800 C

SOLAR DRYER
● Drying process removes the moisture and helps in the preservation of the
product. Solar crop drying is perhaps the most ancient and widespread direct
use of solar energy.

● The customary way is to spread the material to be dried in a thin layer on the
ground.

● The disadvantages associated with this method are: (i) the process is slow,
(ii) the product is vulnerable to attack by insects and (iii) dust gets mixed with
the product.

● The use of solar dryer helps to eliminate these disadvantages. Also, the
drying may be made a faster and controlled process, and better-quality
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product can be produced.
● A simple cabinet type solar dryer is shown in Fig. It is an enclosure with
transparent cover, similar to a greenhouse. The material to be dried is placed
on perforated trays.

● Solar radiation enters the enclosure and absorbed by the product as well as
surrounding internal surfaces of the enclosure, increasing its temperature.

● The inside air heats up to temperature ranging from 50 to 80°C and rises
above. Natural circulation of air is ensured by providing suitable openings at
the bottom and top. The circulating air removes the moisture from the product.
SOLAR DRYER

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SOLAR DRYER

● For large-scale drying, forced circulation of air may be used by employing

a blower. In case of green lumber, where direct exposure to sun tends to
produce curling and wrapping or for products where direct sun light is not
adequate a controlled temperature drying known as kiln drying may be
used.

● Here the air is heated separately in an array of solar air heaters and then
ducted to the chamber where the product to be dried is stored. Such
dryers are also suitable for food grains and products like tea.

30
Solar Passive Space Heating:
The south-facing thick wall, called Trombe
wall (0.45 m thickness) is made of concrete,
adobe, stone or composites of brick blocks
and sand, designed for thermal storage.

In order to increase the absorption, the outer

surface is painted black.

The entire south wall is covered by one or two Fig.: Solar passive space heating
sheets of glass or plastic with some air gap
(usually 10-15 cm) between the wall and inner
glazing.

Solar radiation after penetration through the

glazing and the wall thus gets heated, rises up
and enters the room through the upper vent.

The circulation of air continues till the wall

goes on heating the air. Thus, the thermal wall
collects, stores and transfers the heat to the
room.
Opening the damper at the top of the
glazing allows the excess heat to escape
outside, when heating is not required.

Sometimes a reflective horizontal

surface is also provided to make
available the additional radiation for
thermal storage.

Fig.: Solar passive space heating

In Fig., another variation of a solar
space-heating is shown. Here, a
collector cum-rock-bed storage
system is integrated with the
apartment.

During daytime when direct gain

through the glaze is sufficient, the hot Fig. : Solar space heating with rock bed storag
air from the air heater (collector) is
not allowed to enter the room.

The available thermal energy is stored

in the rock bed to be used later,
preferably during night.

Rocks known for thermal storage:

dolerite, granite, gneiss, etc.
SOLAR DISTILLATION (DESALINATION OF WATER)

● Potable or fresh water (water with less than 500-ppm salt content) is one
of the fundamental necessities of life. Industries and agriculture also
require fresh water without which they cannot thrive.

● Because of rapid industrialization and population explosion the demand

of fresh water has been increasing enormously. With the standard of
living, the average per capita consumption of water has also increased.

● Due to climate changes and less rainfall in many part of the world fresh
water, which was available in abundance from rivers, lakes and ponds, is
becoming scarce.

34
● Also, the available resources are getting polluted due to discharge of industrial
effluents and sewage in large quantities. Thus, due to climate change, pollution and
over consumption, at present more than 2000 million people have no regular
access to adequate safe water.

● In some villages, people travel up to 30 km to collect fresh water.

● Conversion of brackish or saline water to fresh water through distillation process

using solar energy is a good idea for places where plenty of saline water and sun
are available.

● The conversion device is known as solar still. Several types of solar stills have
evolved. However, only basin type has been tried commercially on a large scale.
Solar Distillation (Desalination of water)

Fig. : Simple basin-type solar still

• According to one estimate, about 79 percent of water available on the earth is
salty, 20 percent is brackish (less salty water from wells) and only one percent is
fresh.

• A simple basin-type solar still consists of a shallow blackened basin filled with
saline or brackish water to be distilled. The depth of water is kept about 5-10 cm.

• It is covered with a slopey transparent roof.

• Solar radiation, after passing through the roof, is absorbed by the blackened
surface of the basin and thus increases the temperature of water.

• The evaporated water increases the moisture content, which gets condensed on
the cooler underneath the glass.

• The condensed water slips down the slope and is collected through the
condensate channel attached to the glass.

• A typical solar still in Indian climate varies from 5.3 l/sq. m day in summer to 0.9
l/sq. m day in winter
Solar Vapour Compression Refrigeration:
Here, solar power is first converted to mechanical power.

The shaft power thus produced drives the compressor of a

conventional vapour compression refrigerator.

A suitable refrigerant vapour is compressed and then condensed to a

liquid, rejecting heat to the ambient.

Now, the pressure is reduced by passing it through an expansion valve

where it gets evaporated at low pressure, producing a cooling effect.

Thus, the refrigerant absorbs heat in the evaporator, from the space to
be cooled and rejects it in the condenser.
 Fig.: Solar-vapour compression refrigeration system

Freon-12 boiling point : -29.8 deg

Solar power cycle:

Fig. : Solar power generation method using cylindrical parabolic (line focusing) concentrators
Cylindrical parabolic concentrators are generally used to supply steam
at 1500 C.

Because of their geometry, such troughs are usually made to track the
sun by being rotated about their focal line.

Line focus systems are used in small-sized electrical generating

systems for applications such as driving irrigation pumps, providing
space heating and cooling, providing industrial process heat, etc.
 Solar pond
• A solar pond is a pool of salt water which collects and stores
solar energy.

• The salt water naturally forms a vertical salinity gradient, in

which low-salinity water floats on top of high-salinity water.

• The layers of salt solutions increase in concentration (and

therefore density) with depth.

• Below a certain depth, the solution has a uniform high salt

concentration.
Solar Pond:

Salt Gradient or Non-Convective Solar Ponds:

Fig: Salt-gradient solar pond

Fig. : Solar gradient solar pond with heat exchanger

• In ordinary water ponds, solar radiation is transmitted through water to the
bottom, and the water in the bottom gets heated.

• As a result of buoyancy, the heated water rises, and the heat is finally
released to the atmosphere through convection and evaporation from its
surface.

• In a non-convective solar pond, the convective and evaporative heat losses

are reduced, and thermal energy is stored.

• In this case, the warm water in the bottom is prevented from rising to the
surface.

• Non-convective ponds may be stabilized by varying the salt concentration in

the pond.
• The salt-gradient solar pond is the most common type of non-convective
solar pond.

• The most commonly used salts is such ponds are sodium chloride and
magnesium chloride.

• The salt gradient pond consists of three layers.

• The top layer is relatively cold and has less salt content. In the top layer,
convection takes place due to wind evaporation.

• The second layer, which is non-convective because the higher salt

concentration with increasing depth negates the thermal buoyancy forces.

• The third layer (bottom layer) is hot and very salty. It is a convective layer of
essentially constant salt concentration, which acts as a thermal storage.

• Non-convective salt gradient ponds are typically 1 to 3 meters deep.

Fig.: Temperature and concentration profile for a typical pond
Fig.: Flow diagram of solar pond electric power plant
Solar pond electric power plant

● Because of movement and mixing of the fluid both at the top and at the bottom, the
solar pond is characterized by three zones: (i) a surface convective zone, (ii) a
nonconvective concentration gradient zone and a (iii) lower convective zone.

● The surface convective zone usually has a small thickness, around 10–20 cm. It
has a uniform temperature, close to ambient air temperature and low, uniform
concentration close to zero.

● The non-convective zone is much thicker and occupies more than half the depth of
the pond. In this zone, both temperature as well as concentration increase with
depth.

48
● It principally serves as an insulating layer and reduces heat loss in the upward
direction. It also serves as part of heat storage as some of the heat collection
takes place in this zone also.

● The lower convective zone is comparable in thickness to the non-convective zone.

Both the temperature and concentration are nearly constant in this zone.

● It serves as the main heat-collection as well as thermal storage medium. This zone
is also referred to as storage zone.
Solar pond electric power plant

● Solar radiation penetrates through water up to the blackened bottom, where it gets
absorbed and increases the temperature near bottom.

● In spite of the temperature rise of the bottom layers of the brine its specific gravity
remains higher than that at the top because of concentration gradient and thus,
convection mixing is minimized.

● The bottom layers of the brine reach 70–85 °C while the top remains at 25 °C.

● The hot brine from the bottom is slowly withdrawn in a laminar flow pattern from the pond
and used to evaporate an organic working fluid in a heat exchanger and returned to the
pond.

50
● Alternatively, heat is extracted by water flowing through a heat exchanger coil
submerged at the bottom. The organic working fluid produces mechanical power
in a Rankine cycle, which in turn generates electrical power using alternator.

● The annual collector efficiency generally ranges between 15 to 20 percent.

These values are lower than those obtained for a flat plate collector.

● Nevertheless, solar ponds are more cost effective, since their cost per square
meter is much less than that for a liquid flat plate collector.
Solar pond electric power plant

● The first experimental solar pond was constructed in Israel to demonstrate its
principle of working. So far, more than sixty solar ponds have been built all
around the world for a variety of applications.
● A 2000 sq. m. solar pond equipped with a 20 kW turbine has been
constructed in Australia.
● The largest solar pond built so far is a 2,50,000-m2 pond at Bet Ha Arava in
Israel, to generate 5 MW electric power using an organic fluid Rankine cycle.
The plant operated till 1988.
● In India some experimental solar ponds are built for thermal applications.

52
 Solar Cooker
• Box Type Solar Cooker

• The external dimensions of a typical

family size (4 dishes):
60 cm x 60 cm x 20 cm

• An insulated box of blackened

aluminium contains the utensils filled
with food material

• The box receives direct radiation and

also reflected radiation from the
reflected radiation from a mirror.

• The angle of the reflector can be

adjusted.

• A glass cover consisting of two-layers of

glass sheets serves as the box door.

Fig. : Box type solar cooker [9]

 Box Type Solar Cooker

The maximum air temperature obtained inside the box is around

140−1600 C.
This is enough for cooking boiling type food-stuffs slowly in about
2-3 hours.
Electrical backup is also provided in some models for use during
non-sun shine hours.
• Paraboloidal Dish-type Solar Cooker

Fig.: Paraboloidal Dish-type Solar Cooker [9]

• Paraboloidal reflector surface concentrates the beam radiation
at its focus.

• The reflector is periodically adjusted to track the Sun.

• A fairly high temperature of about 4500 C can be obtained and a

variety of food requiring boiling, baking and frying can be
cooked for 10-15 persons.

• The cooking time is approximately 20-30 minutes.

COMMUNITY SOLAR COOKER:

Community solar cookers have been developed for indoor cooking.

It consists of a large automatically tracked paraboloidal reflector standing

outside the kitchen.

The reflector, reflects the sun’s rays into the kitchen through an opening in
the wall.

A secondary reflector further concentrates the rays on the bottom of the

cooking pot.

It can cook all types of food for about 40-50 people with 7 sq. m dish size.
Ref. :
Kaushik, Subhash Chandra and M. K. Gupta. “Energy and exergy efficiency comparison of
community-size and domestic-size paraboloidal solar cooker performance.” Energy for
Sustainable Development 12 (2008): 60-64.
• Due to high temperature and power at focal point, the cooking
rate is significantly higher compared to other solar cookers.

Automatic tracking
• There is a tracking clockwork arrangement which rotates the
outside primary reflector to track the sun automatically.

• The cook has to set this reflector in focus only once a day in the
morning and thereafter for rest of the time the clockwork keeps
on rotating the reflector automatically.
 Solar Cooker
• Advanced Solar Cooker

Fig.: Advanced Solar Cooker [9]

 Advanced Solar Cooker
There is provision for storage for thermal energy so that it can be used when
solar radiation is not available.
Oil is used as heat transport fluid.
It consists of a two parts:
(i). An outdoor parabolic cylindrical reflector of size 3m x 2m x 0.5 m.
(ii). An indoor, insulated hot box reservoir of a size typically
0.4m x 0.4m x 1.2m

Oil is used as heat-transport fluid from the collector to hot-box reservoir.

The oil in the reservoir rises up due to natural convection after absorbing
heat from the reflector and stores in the reservoir.
The temperature at the top of the reservoir on sunny days reaches 1500 C.
All types of cooking except those require frying and roasting can be done
with this cooker.
 Solar Greenhouse
• A greenhouse is an enclosure where proper environment is provided
for growth and production of crops, vegetables and flower plants
under adverse climate conditions.

• By controlling the environment, a particular vegetable or flower can

be grown throughout the year.

• In cold countries, winter greenhouse provide supplementary heat to

maintain adequate temperature during the cold months when solar
insolation is low.

• In tropical countries, the solar insolation and ambient temperature

are quite high and therefore the solar greenhouses are used to
maintain low temperatures inside.
 Solar Greenhouse
• In a greenhouse, visible light, CO2 and water are required for the
photosynthesis process.
Light energy + water + CO2 =Carbohydrate + oxygen (photosynthesis)

• In the respiration process, energy is released which is used by the

plant for various functions such as nutrient uptake, protein
formation, division of cells etc.
Carbohydrate + oxygen = CO2 + energy + water (respiration)

• Adequate availability of CO2 can be maintained by supplying either

outside air or by organic manure or by combustion of sulphur-free
fossil fuels or by supplying it directly from a CO2 cylinder.
 Solar Greenhouse
• Basic Design Styles

Fig.: Basic design styles of greenhouse frames [9]

 Solar Greenhouse
• Greenhouse for cold climate (Winter Greenhouse)

Fig: Greenhouse for cold climate [9]

 Solar Greenhouse
• Greenhouse for warm climate

Fig: Greenhouse for warm climate [9]

 Thermal Energy Storage

The intermittent, variable and unpredictable nature of solar radiation

generally leads to a mismatch between the rate and time of collection of
solar energy and the load needs of a thermal application.

As a result, it is often necessary to use a storage system in between.

The storage system stores energy when the collected amount is in excess
of the requirements of the application and discharges energy when the
collected amount is inadequate.

The size of a storage system is largely determined by the specific

purpose for which it is used.
The three situations are shown in Fig. 1:

The time interval during the day over which the energy required is essentially
the same as the time of collection (Fig. 1(a)). However, a storage system is
needed because there is some mismatch between the amount of energy
required and the amount collected at any instant.

The storage system in such a situation has to store energy only for short
intervals of time and is relatively small in size. It is called a buffer storage
In Fig. 1 (b), the load demand shown extends over all 24 hours, whereas the
collection takes place only during the sunshine hours. As a result, a system larger
than a buffer storage having the capacity to store energy for a day or two is required,
such a system is called diurnal storage.

Fig. 1(c) shows the situation in which the storage system stores energy during the
summer when the collection is in excess of the demand, and delivers the excess
energy in winter when the collection is less than the demand. Such a system is also
called an annual storage.

Fig. 1: Different situations for using a thermal energy storage (a) Buffer storage, (b) Diurnal
storage, (c) Annual storage
 There are three basic methods for storing thermal energy:

1. Sensible heat storage: In sensible hot heat storage systems, heat is

supplied to the storing medium (i.e., raised temperature). In contrast, in
sensible cold heat storage systems, heat is withdrawn, resulting in a
decrease in temperature. The amount of energy stored is dependent on the
temperature change of the material and can be expressed in the form:

𝑇𝑇
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑚𝑚 ∫𝑇𝑇 2 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1

Where m is the mass and Cp , the specific heat. T1 and T2 represent the lower
and upper temperature levels between which the storage operates.

The major drawback with SHS is that the amount of heat that can be stored is based
on the rise of temperature. To store large energy the temperature rise is also larger.
2. latent heat storage:
A latent heat storage system is a method of storing thermal energy by using a
material that absorbs or releases a large amount of heat during a phase
change, like melting from solid to liquid, at a relatively constant temperature,
essentially "storing" the energy within the material during this transition. This
material is commonly called a Phase Change Material (PCM).

The amount of energy stored in this case depends upon the mass and the
latent heat of fusion of the material. Thus,

𝐸𝐸 = 𝑚𝑚.ℎ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Where, ℎ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is latent heat of fusion. In this case, the storage operates
isothermally at the melting point of the material. Some applications involve
changes in sensible energy also.

How it works:

When heat is added to a PCM, it absorbs the energy and changes phase (e.g.,
solid to liquid), releasing the stored heat when the phase change reverses.
Key points about latent heat storage:

•Phase Change Materials (PCMs):

These materials, like paraffin wax or salt hydrates, are the core of a latent heat
storage system and are designed to absorb large amounts of heat when they melt
(solid to liquid) and release that heat when they solidify (liquid to solid) at a specific
temperature.

•Constant Temperature Release:

During the phase change process, the temperature remains constant, allowing for
controlled heat delivery to a system. Also, making it useful for applications requiring
stable heat output.

•High Energy Density:

•Compared to sensible heat storage, latent heat systems can store a large amount of
energy in a smaller volume due to the large latent heat associated with phase
change.

•Example application:
•Solar Thermal Storage: Solar energy collected during the day can be stored in a
latent heat system using PCMs, which then release the stored heat at a consistent
temperature during the night when needed
3. Thermochemical Storage: Using heat to induce a certain chemical
reaction and then storing the products. The heat is released when the
reverse reaction is made to occur.
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Sensible heat storage: In the case of sensible heat storage systems,
energy is stored or extracted by heating or cooling a liquid or a solid
which does not change its phase during the process.

A variety of substances have been used in such systems.

These include

• Liquids: water, heat transfer oils and certain inorganic molten salts,

• Solids: rocks, pebbles and refractories.

Molten salts are a phase change material that is commonly used for thermal energy
storage.

Molten salts are solid at room temperature and atmospheric pressure but change
to a liquid when thermal energy is transferred to the storage medium.

In most molten salt energy storage systems, the molten salt is maintained as a
liquid throughout the energy storage process.

Molten salts are typically made up of 60% sodium nitrate and 40% potassium
nitrate, and the salts melt at approximately 220°C [8].

In the case of solids, the material is invariably in the porous form and heat is stored
or extracted by the flow of a gas or a liquid through the pores or voids.
Comparative Assessment

Sensible heat storage systems are simpler in design than latent heat
or thermochemical storage systems. However, they suffer from the
disadvantage of being bigger in size.

For this reason, an important criterion in selecting a material for

sensible heat storage is its 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 value.

A second disadvantage associated with sensible heat storage is that

they cannot store or deliver energy at a constant temperature.
Materials for low temperature storage:

• Liquids:

Water is the most commonly used medium in a sensible heat storage system at
temperature below 1000 C. Most solar water-heating and space-heating systems
use hot water storage tanks located either inside or outside the buildings, or
underground.

An approximate thumb rule for fixing the size is to use about 75 to 100 liters of
storage per square meter of collector area.

Water storage tanks are made from a variety of materials like steel, concrete and
fiberglass. The tanks are suitably insulated with glass wool, mineral wool or
polyurethane.
• Glass wool is an insulating material made from glass fiber
arranged using a binder into a texture similar to wool. The
process traps many small pockets of air between the glass, and
these small air pockets result in high thermal insulation
properties.

• Mineral wool is any fibrous material formed by spinning or

drawing molten mineral or rock materials such as slag and
ceramics.
• Underground Aquifers:
In such systems, the need for building a storage tank is eliminated.

For storing, hot water is pumped into the aquifer through an injection well.

For withdrawing energy, the reverse procedure is followed.

Fig.: Schematic diagram of the underground aquifer storage concept

An aquifer is a body of rock that holds groundwater.

Groundwater is the word used to describe precipitation that has infiltrated the soil
beyond the surface and collected in empty spaces underground.
• The quality of water available in the aquifer should be fit for
direct use. Since heat insulations cannot be used, the problem
of heat loss is also an issue in such systems.
Solids:
For temperatures up to 1000 C, energy can be stored in rocks or pebbles
packed in insulated vessels. This type of storage is used very often in
conjunction with solar air heaters.

• It is simple in design and relatively expensive.

• An approximate thumb rule is to use 300 to 500 kg of rock per square meter
of collector area for space heating applications.
Materials for intermediate and high temperature storage:
Liquids: Synthetic oils are used in sensible heat storage systems for intermediate
temperatures ranging from 100 to 3000 C. One of the Indian brands which is suitable
is Servotherm.

• The main problem associated with the use of synthetic oils is that they tend to
degrade with time. The use of oils present safety problems since there is a
possibility of ignition above their flash point.

• Flash and fire point are important properties that are relevant to the safety and
transmission of refinery products.

The flash point is the lowest temperature at which the vapor above the oil sample will
momentarily ignite when an ignition source is passed over it.

Fire point : The lowest temperature at which a liquid's vapors will continue to burn
after the ignition source is removed.
• For this reason, it is recommended that they be used in systems with an
inert gas cover.

• A further limitation to the use of these oils is their cost.

• A few molten organic salts have been considered for high temperatures
(3000 C and above).

• A promising molten salt which has been used in solar thermal power plant
is solar salt, a binary mixture containing 60 % NaNO3 (Sodium Nitrate)
and 40 % KNO3 (Potassium nitrate) (by weight).

• It melts at approximately 220 °C and remains in thermally stable liquid

phase at temperatures up to 600 °C.
Solids: Refractory materials like magnesium oxide (magnesia), aluminum oxide
(alumina) and silicon oxide are suitable for high-temperature sensible heat storage.

Bricks made of magnesia have been used in many countries for many years for
storing heat.

Table: Typical properties of some sensible heat storage solids

Latent heat storage:
In a latent heat storage system, heat is stored in a material when it melts and
extracted from the material when it freezes.
Compared to sensible heat storage, latent heat storage system exhibit the
characteristic of having a high energy density leading to more compact systems.
A number of materials called phase change materials (PCMs) are available for
solar energy applications.

The properties required for a phase change material are as follows:

1. A melting point in the temperature range of the application for which it is
being considered.
2. A high value of the latent heat of fusion
3. A small volume change during the phase change, and
4. A negligible amount of superheating for the phase change to occur
5. In addition, it is desirable that thermal conductivity of the material should be
high in both phases.
6. It should be non-corrosive.
PCMs may be considered under the following groupings:
1. Organic materials
2. Inorganic materials

The most suitable PCMs under the category of organic materials are paraffin waxes.
They are readily available with melting points in the range of 40 to 600 C.

Table: Phase change materials

An advantage associated with a latent heat storage system is that it is more compact
than a sensible heat system. However, the heat exchange system for transferring
energy between the working fluid (which is usually a gas) and the storage material is
always complex.

This is due to the fact that during the heat extraction process, the storage material
first solidifies at the heat transfer surface. Hence the thermal resistance to the flow
keeps on increasing as heat is extracted from the storage.

In order to prevent the thermal resistance from becoming too large, the source
material is placed in long thin containers and the gas is passed through narrow spaces
between the tubes.

Alternatively, the storage material is in the spaces between the tubes and the gas is
passed through the tubes. Both these arrangements are shown in Fig.
Fig. : Latent heat storage arrangements
Thermochemical Storage:
• In a thermochemical storage system, the solar energy to be stored is used to produce a
certain endothermic chemical reaction (reactants absorb heat energy from the
surroundings to form products) and the products of the reaction are stored.

• When the energy is required to be released, the reverse exothermic reaction is made to
take place.

• Both reactions take place at different temperatures, the forward reaction occurring at a
higher temperature than the reverse reaction.

• Their volumetric energy densities are about 5 times the values obtained in latent heat
transfer storage systems.

• Only those reactions that produce two distinct phases such as solid and liquid or solid and
gas are considered suitable since they can be stored separately.
Table: Thermochemical storage reactions
References :
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Education (India) Private Limited
2. Solar Energy, Fundamentals and Applications by H P Garg and J Prakash, First
revised edition, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
3. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes by John A. Duffie and William A.
Beckman, Second Edition, A Wiley-Interscience Publication, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.
4. An introduction to Solar Radiation by M. Iqbal, Academic Press, 1983
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wave radiation of vertical and inclined surfaces from sunshine records for
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6. Non-Conventional Energy Sources by G. D. Rai, Narosha Publishers, 2011
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8. Samuel C.Johnson, F. Todd Davidson, Joshua D.Rhodes, Justin L. Coleman,
Shannon M.Bragg-Sitton, Eric J.Dufekm, Michael E.Webber, Storage and
Hybridization of Nuclear Energy, Chapter Five - Selecting Favorable Energy
Storage Technologies for Nuclear Power, 2019, Pages 119-175
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• Thermodynamics : An engineering approach by Y A Cengel and M A Boles,
TMH