Microbiology

FUNDAMENTALS
A Clinical Approach

Third Edition

Marjorie Kelly Cowan

&
Heidi Smith
with
Jennifer Lusk
BSN RN CCRN

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Chapter 4

Eukaryotic Cells and

Microorganisms

©McGraw-Hill Education
 The History of Eukaryotes (1)

• The first eukaryotic cells appeared 2 to 3

billion years ago
• Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya all evolved
from the Last Common Ancestor
• First primitive eukaryotes were likely single-
celled and independent
• Over time cells aggregated, forming colonies

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 The History of Eukaryotes (2)

• Cells within colonies became specialized to

perform a specific function
• Complex multicellular organisms evolved as
individual cells lost the ability to survive
separately from the intact colony

©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Extraordinary Emergence of Eukaryotic
Cells

•Mitochondria of eukaryotic cells resembles a

prokaryotic cell (Rickettsia prowazekii )
- contains a circular chromosome

- capable of independent division

- contains prokaryotic ribosomes

- have bacterial membranes that are inhibited

by drugs that only affect bacteria

•Chloroplasts likely arose when endosymbiotic

cyanobacteria provided their host cells with a built-in
feeding mechanism
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (1)
Which of the following characteristics is
evidence that mitochondria were once
prokaryotic cells?
A. Circular chromosome
B. Prokaryotic ribosomes
C. Capable of independent division
D. Membranes that can be inhibited by antibiotics
E. All of the choices are correct.

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Structures of a Eukaryotic Cell

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education © Aaron J. Bell/Science Source
 Appendages for Moving:
Cilia and Flagella
Eukaryotic flagella:
• Different from bacterial flagella
• Thicker by a factor of 10
• Structurally more complex
• Covered by an extension of the cell membrane
• Long, sheathed cylinder containing regularly spaced
microtubules
Eukaryotic cilia:
• Similar to flagella in structure, but are smaller and more
numerous
• Found only in a single group of protozoa and certain animal cells

©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Glycocalyx
An outermost layer that comes into direct contact
with the environment
Composed of polysaccharides
Appears as:
• A network of fibers
• A slime layer
• A capsule
Contributes to protection, adherence, and signal
reception
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Boundary Structures: The Cell Wall
 Protozoa and helminths do not have cell walls
Cell walls of fungi:
• Rigid and provide structural support and shape
• Different in chemical composition from bacterial
and archaeal cell walls
• Thick inner layer of polysaccharide fibers composed
of chitin or cellulose
• Thin outer layer of mixed glycans

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Cross-Sectional Views of Cell Wall

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©Thomas Deerinck, NCMIR/Science Source
 Boundary Structures:
The Cell Membrane
 Typical bilayer of phospholipids in which
protein molecules are embedded
 Contain sterols of various kinds:
• Relative rigidity give stability to the membrane
• Important in cells that do not have a cell wall
 Cytoplasmic membranes serve as selectively
permeable barriers

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Internal Structures: The Nucleus
 Most prominent organelle of eukaryotic cells
 Separated from the cell cytoplasm by an
external boundary called the nuclear
envelope:
• Composed of two parallel membranes separated by
a narrow space
• Perforated with small, regularly spaced pores,
formed at sites where the membranes unite
• Macromolecules migrate through the pores to the
cytoplasm and vice versa
©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Nucleus (1)

Nucleolus:
• Found in the nucleoplasm
• Site for ribosomal RNA synthesis
• Collection area for ribosomal subunits
Chromatin:
• Made of linear DNA and histone proteins
• Genetic material of the cell

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 The Nucleus (2)

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©D Spector/Photolibrary/Getty Images
 Internal Structures:
Endoplasmic Reticulum
A series of membrane tunnels used in transport
and storage
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER):
• Allows transport materials from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm and to the cell’s exterior
• Ribosomes attached to its membrane surface
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER):
• Closed tubular network without ribosomes
• Functions in nutrient processing and in synthesis and
storage of nonprotein macromolecules such as lipids
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 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source
 Internal Structures: Golgi Apparatus
Site of protein modification and shipping
Consists of several flattened, disc-shaped sacs called
cisternae
Always closely associated with the endoplasmic
reticulum:
• Transitional vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum are
picked up at the face of the Golgi apparatus
• Proteins are modified within the cisternae by the addition
of polysaccharides and lipids
• Condensing vesicles pinch off of the Golgi apparatus and are
then conveyed to lysosomes or transported outside the cell
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Golgi Apparatus

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©EM Research Services, Newcastle University
 Nature’s Assembly Line
Nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi
apparatus:
• A segment of genetic code of DNA from the nucleus
is copied into RNA and passed through the nuclear
pores to the ribosomes on the endoplasmic
reticulum
• Specific proteins on the RER are deposited in the
lumen and transported to the Golgi apparatus
• Proteins in the Golgi apparatus are chemically
modified and packaged into vesicles to be used by
the cell

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 The Transport Process

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Vesicles
Lysosomes:
• Contain a variety of enzymes involved in the intracellular
digestion of food particles and protection against invading
microorganisms
• Participate in the removal of cell debris in damaged tissue
Vacuoles:
• Membrane-bound sacs containing fluids or solid particles to
be digested, excreted, or stored
• Found in phagocytic cells in response to food and other
substances that have been engulfed
• Contents of a food vacuole are digested through a merger of
a vacuole with a lysosome
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Origin and Action of Lysosomes in
Phagocytosis

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 Mitochondria (1)

 Generate energy for the cell

 Composed of a smooth, continuous outer
membrane with an inner folded membrane
 Folds on the inner membrane are called cristae:
• Hold the enzymes and electron carriers of aerobic respiration
• Extracts chemical energy contained in nutrient molecules
and stores it as ATP
 Unique organelles
• Divide independently of the cell
• Contain circular strands of DNA
• Have bacteria-sized 70S ribosomes
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Mitochondria (2)

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education ©CNRI/Science Photo Library/Getty Images
 Chloroplasts
 Found in algae and plant cells
 Capable of converting energy from sunlight
into chemical energy through photosynthesis
 Produce oxygen gas as a by-product of
photosynthesis
 Resemble mitochondria but are larger,
contain special pigments, and are more
varied in shape
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Ribosomes
Distributed throughout the cell:
• Scattered freely in the cytoplasm and cytoskeleton
• Attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum
• Appear inside mitochondria and chloroplasts
Can be found in short chains of polyribosomes
Size and structure:
• Large and small subunits of ribonucleoprotein
• Eukaryotic ribosome is 80S, a combination of 60S
and 40S subunits
©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Cytoskeleton
Functions:
• Anchoring organelles
• Moving RNA and vesicles
• Permitting shape changes and movement

Three types of cytoskeletal elements:

• Actin filaments: long, thin protein strands
• Intermediate filaments: ropelike structures
• Microtubules: long, hollow tubes

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Cytoskeleton

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©Dr. Torsten Wittmann/Science Source
 Components and Characteristics of
Each Organism Type
Function or Structure Characteristic Bacterial/ Archaeal Cells Eukaryotic Cells Viruses

Genetics Nucleic acids + + +

Genetics Chromosomes + + –
Genetics True nucleus – + –
Genetics Nuclear envelope – + –
Reproduction Mitosis – + –
Reproduction Production of sex cells +/– + –
Reproduction Binary fission + + –
Biosynthesis Independent + + –
Biosynthesis Golgi apparatus – + –
Biosynthesis Endoplasmic reticulum – + –
Biosynthesis Ribosomes + + –
Respiration Mitochondria – + –
Photosynthesis Pigments +/– +/– –
Photosynthesis Chloroplasts – +/– –
Motility/locomotor structures Flagella +/– +/– –
Motility/locomotor structures Cilia – +/– –
Shape/protection Membrane + + +/–
Shape/protection Cell wall + +/– – (capsids instead)
Shape/protection Glycocalyx +/– +/– –
Complexity of function + + +/–
Size (in general) 0.5–3μm 2–100 μm < 0.2μm
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 Endosymbiosis

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (2)
Which of the following organelles is responsible
for energy production in the cell?
A. Nucleus
B. Golgi apparatus
C. Endoplasmic reticulum
D. Mitochondrion
E. Ribosome

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Fungal Cells
Yeasts:
• Round to oval shape
• Asexual reproduction, budding
Hyphae:
• Long, threadlike cells found in the bodies of
filamentous fungi
Pseudohypha: chain of yeast cells
Some fungal cells are considered dimorphic and
can take either form, depending on growth
conditions
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 Hyphae of Molds

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©McGraw-Hill Education Courtesy Dr. Judy A. Murphy, Murphy Consultancy Microscopy & Digital Imaging, Stockton, CA
 Microscopic Morphology of Yeasts

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©Science Photo Library/Getty Images
 Fungi and Human Disease (1)

Nearly 300 species of fungi can cause human

disease
Three types of fungal disease in humans:
① Community-acquired infections caused by
environmental pathogens
② Hospital-associated infections caused by fungal
pathogens
③ Opportunistic infections caused by low-virulence
species infecting weakened individuals
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Fungi and Human Disease (2)

Harmless spores can cause opportunistic

infections in AIDS patients
Fungal cell walls give off substances that cause
allergies
Toxins produced by poisonous mushrooms can
induce neurological disturbances and death
Aspergillus flavus produces a potentially lethal
poison to animals who eat contaminated grain

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Fungi and Human Disease
•Primary pathogens: sicken even healthy persons
(e.g. histoplasmosis (Histoplasma), blastomycosis
(Blastomyces), coccidiomycosis aka “Valley fever” -
Coccidioides
•Opportunistic pathogens: attack persons who are
already weakened in some way (e.g. aspergillosis
(Aspergillis), systemic candidiasis (Candida) and
cryptococcosis (Cryptococcus).
•Pneumocystis jirovecii (formerly Pneumocystis carinii),
is a classic opportunist associated with AIDS)
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©McGraw-Hill Education
 Mycoses

• Requirements for invasion:

–proximity to host
–ability to penetrate the host
–ability to digest/absorb nutrients

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Fungi and Human Disease

• Fungal infections or mycoses are classified depending

on the degree of tissue involvement and mode of
entry into the host:
• Superficial - localized to the skin, hair, and nails.
• Subcutaneous - infection confined to the
hypodermis.
• Systemic - deep infections of the internal organs (via
lungs, gastrointestinal tract or intravenous lines)
• Opportunistic - cause infection only in the
immunocompromised.
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Figure 5.17
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Selected Mycoses
o Rhizopus – black bread mold that acts as an opportunistic
pathogen and can infect individuals with diabetes mellitus
o Candidiasis– C. albicans; Vaginal candidiasis, thrush;
considered the most common nosocomial fungal infection
o Aspergillosis - Aspergillus; results in opportunistic
respiratory infections; can invade wounds, burns, the cornea
and external acoustic meatus .
o Histoplasmosis (Ohio Valley Fever or “Darling’s Disease”) –
soil fungus, H. capsulatum; associated with bird/bat excreta.

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Agricultural Impact of Fungi (2)

A number of species are pathogenic to corn and

grain:
• Reduces crop production
• Can cause disease in domestic animals consuming
contaminated feed crops
Fungi rot fresh produce during shipping and
storage:
• 40% of fresh produce is consumed by fungi

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Benefits of Fungi
 Play an essential role in decomposing organic matter
and returning minerals to the soil
 Form stable associations with plant roots and increase
their ability to absorb water and nutrients
(mycorrhizae)
 Fungi have been engineered to produce large
quantities of antibiotics, alcohol, organic acids, and
vitamins
 Some fungi are eaten or used to impart flavoring to
food
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Fungal Nutrition
Heterotrophic: acquire nutrients from a wide variety of
organic substrates
Saprobic: obtain nutrients from the remnants of dead
plants and animals in soil or aquatic habitats
Parasitic: grow on the bodies of living animals or plants,
although very few require a living host
Fungi penetrate the substrate and secrete enzymes that
reduces it to small molecules that can be absorbed by the
cells
Fungi thrive in nutritionally poor or adverse
environments, and those with high salt or sugar content
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Morphology of Fungi (1)

Cells of most microscopic fungi grow in loose

associations or colonies
 Colonies of yeasts are much like bacteria: they
have a soft, uniform texture and appearance
 Colonies of filamentous fungi have a cottony,
hairy, or velvety texture

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Morphology of Fungi (2)

Mycelium: the woven, intertwining mass of hyphae

that makes up the body or colony of a mold
Septa: segments or cross walls found in most fungi
that allow the flow of organelles and nutrients
between adjacent compartments:
• Nonseptated hyphae consist of one, long, continuous cell

Vegetative hyphae are responsible for the visible mass

of growth that appears on a substrate
Reproductive, or fertile, hyphae produce spores
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Reproductive Strategies
and Spore Formation
Most can propagate by the outward growth of
hyphae or by fragmentation
Spores:
• Primary reproductive mode of fungi
• Can be dispersed through the environment by air,
water, and living things
• Will germinate upon finding a favorable substrate
and produce a new fungus colony in a short time

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Types of Asexual Mold Spores

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©McGraw-Hill Education
 Asexual Spore Formation
Sporangiospores: formed by successive cleavages
within a saclike head called a sporangium, which
is attached to a stalk, the sporangiophore
Conidiospores or conidia: free spores not
enclosed by a spore-bearing sac

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Sexual Spore Formation
Linking of genes from two parent fungi creates
offspring with combinations of genes different
from that of the parents
Variations lead to potentially advantageous
adaptations
Sexual spores vary from simple fusion of fertile
hyphae to a complex union of male and female
structures

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (3)
From which sources can fungi derive nutrients?
A. Dead plants and animals
B. Living tissues
C. Rubber
D. Petroleum products
E. All of the choices are correct.

©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Protozoa
 Name comes from the Greek for “first
animals”
 About 12,000 species of single-celled
creatures
 Most are harmless, free-living inhabitants of
water and soil
 A few species are pathogens responsible for
hundreds of millions of infections each year

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Protozoan Form and Function (1)

Single cells containing all of the major

eukaryotic organelles except chloroplasts
Cytoplasm divided into two parts:
• Ectoplasm: clear outer layer involved in locomotion,
feeding, and protection
• Endoplasm: granular inner region housing the
nucleus, mitochondria, and food and contractile
vacuoles

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Protozoan Form and Function (2)

• Some organelles act as a primitive nervous system

to coordinate movement
• Can move through fluids by means of pseudopods
(“false feet”)
• Cell membrane regulates food, wastes, and
secretions
• Cell shape can remain constant (as in most ciliates),
or change constantly (as in amoebas)
• Size of most protozoans range from 3 to 300 μm:
• Giant amoebas and ciliates range from 3 to 4 mm
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Nutritional and Habitat Range
• Heterotrophic, require food in a complex organic form
• Free-living species scavenge dead plant or animal debris or
graze on bacteria and algae
• Some have special feeding structures, such as oral grooves
• Some absorb food directly through the cell membrane
• Pathogenic species may live on the fluids of their host or actively
feed on tissues
• Main limiting factor is availability of moisture
• Predominant habitats are fresh and marine water, soil, plants,
and animals
• Can survive in extremes of temperature and pH
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Life Cycles
Trophozoite: motile feeding stage requiring
ample food and moisture to stay active
Cyst:
• Dormant, resting stage when conditions in the
environment become unfavorable
• Resistant to heat, drying, and chemicals
• Can be dispersed by air currents
• Important factor in the spread of disease

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Life Cycle of Protozoa

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©McGraw-Hill Education Source: CDC/Dr. Stan Erlandsen
 Life Cycles and Transmission
• Some protozoan groups exist only in the
trophozoite phase
• Many alternate between the trophozoite and
cyst stage, depending on the habitat
• Trichomonas vaginalis, a common STD, does
not form cysts and must be transmitted by
intimate contact
• Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia
form cysts and are readily transmitted in
contaminated water and foods
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Reproduction
All protozoa reproduce by simple, asexual
mitotic cell division or multiple fission
Sexual reproduction also occurs in most
protozoa:
• Ciliates participate in conjugation in which two cells
fuse and exchange micronuclei
• This results in new and different genetic
combinations that can be advantageous in evolution

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Mastigophora
• Move using flagella
• Complex life cycles
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Undulating membrane Flagellum

• Many parasitic
species
– Trypanosoma - vectors
include Tse tse fly and
Reduviid bug.
– Giardia lamblia
– Trichomonas vaginalis
– Leishmania – vector:
Sand fly
a: © David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited;

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Figure 5.24
©McGraw-Hill Education
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Sarcodina
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Move using Nucleus

pseudopodia Food
Pseudo pod

vacuole

• Includes amoeba
Water-expelling
–Entamoeba vacuole

histolytica
–Naegleria
–Acanthamoeba (b)
(b): © Stephen Durr

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Ciliophora
• Move using cilia
“eyelashes”
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Most are free living

• Paramecium
• Balantidium coli
Cilia

c: © BioMEDIA ASSOCIATES

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Apicocomplexa (Sporozoa)

• Non-motile protozoa Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cytostome Food vacuoles Nucleus

• Obligate parasites
• Plasmodium vivax –
vector: Anopheles
mosquito
• Toxoplasma gondii
d: © Yuuji Tsukii, Protist Information Server, http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/protist_menuE.html

©McGraw-Hill Education
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Major Pathogenic Protozoa (1)

Amoeboid Protozoa Disease Reservoir/Source

Entamoeba histolytica Amoebiasis (intestinal and Humans, water, and food
other symptoms)
Naegleria, Acanthamoeba Brain infection Free-living in water

Ciliated Protozoa Disease Reservoir/Source

Balantidium coli Balantidiosis (intestinal and Pigs, cattle
other symptoms)

Flagellated Protozoa Disease Reservoir/Source

Giardia lamblia Giardiasis (intestinal distress) Animals, water, and food

Trichomonas vaginalis Trichomoniasis (vaginal Human

symptoms)
Trypanosoma brucei, T. cruzi Trypanosomiasis (intestinal Animals, vector-borne
distress and widespread organ
damage)
Leishmania donovani, Leishmaniasis (either skin Animals, vector-borne
L. tropica, L. brasiliensis lesions or widespread
involvement of internal organs)

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Major Pathogenic Protozoa (2)

Apicomplexan Protozoa Disease Reservoir/Source

Plasmodium vivax, Malaria (cardiovascular Human, vector-borne
P. falciparum, P. malariae and other symptoms)
Toxoplasma gondii Toxoplasmosis (flulike Animals, vector-borne
illness or silent infection)

Cryptosporidium Cryptosporidiosis Water, food

(intestinal and other
symptoms)
Cyclospora cayetanensis Cyclosporiasis (intestinal Water, fresh produce
and other symptoms)

Amoeboid Protozoa Ciliated Protozoa Flagellated Apicomplexan

Using Pseudopods (Ciliophora) Protozoa Protozoa–Nonmotile
(Sarcodina) (Mastigophora) (Sporozoa)
©Stephen Durr (Amoeba proteus); ©J. R. Factor/Science Source (Balantidium coli); ©Eye of Science/Science Source (SEM of Trichomonas vaginalis. Magnification-9,000x);
©BSIP/Universal Images Group/Getty Images (SEM of Toxoplasma gondii. Magnification not available)

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (4)
The active, feeding, and motile stage of the
protozoan life cycle is the ______ stage.
A. cyst
B. endospore
C. trophozoite
D. merozoite
E. All of the choices are correct.

©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Helminths
Include tapeworms, flukes, and roundworms
Adult specimens are usually large enough to be
seen with the naked eye
Not all flatworms and roundworms are
parasites; many live free in soil and water
Parasitic helminths spend part of their lives in
the gastrointestinal tract

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Flatworms and Roundworms
Flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes):
• Very thin, often segmented body plan
• Divided into cestodes (tapeworms) and trematodes
(flukes)
Roundworms (phylum Aschelminthes):
• Also called nematodes
• Elongated, cylindrical, unsegmented body

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Pathogenic Flatworms

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education ©Geoff Brightling/Dorling Kindersley/Getty Images (a); ©Eye of Science/Science Source (b)
 Pathogenic Roundworm

©McGraw-Hill Education Source: CDC

 General Worm Morphology
Multicellular animals that are equipped with
organs and organ systems
In pathogenic helminths, the most developed
organ is the reproductive tract
Therefore, there is a reduction in the digestive,
excretory, nervous, and muscular systems

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Life Cycles and Reproduction (1)

Complete life cycle includes the fertilized egg,

larval, and adult stages
Adults derive nutrients and reproduce sexually
in a host’s body
 Nematodes: sexes are separate and different
in appearance
 Trematodes: sexes can be separate or
hermaphroditic
 Cestodes: generally hermaphroditic
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Life Cycles and Reproduction (2)

Helminth life cycle:

• Must transmit an infective form (egg or larva) to the body of
another host
• The host in which the larva develops is known as the
intermediate host
• Adulthood and mating occur in the definitive (final) host
• Transport host is an intermediate that experiences no parasitic
development
Sources for human infection are contaminated food, soil,
and water or infected animals
Routes of infection are by oral intake or penetration of
tissues
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Examples of Helminths and How They
Are Transmitted
Common Name Disease or Host Spread to Humans By
Worm Requirement
Roundworms—Nematodes
Intestinal Nematodes Ingestion
Infective in egg (embryo) stage:
Ascaris lumbricoides Ascariasis Humans Fecal pollution of soil with eggs
Enterobius vermicularis Pinworm Humans Close contact
Infective in larval stage:
Trichinella spiralis Trichina worm Pigs, wild mammals Consumption of meat containing larvae
Tissue Nematodes Burrowing of larva into tissue
Onchocerca volvulus River blindness Humans, black flies Fly bite
Dracunculus medinensis Guinea worm Humans and Ingestion of water containing Cyclops
Cyclops (an aquatic
invertebrate)
Flatworms—Trematodes
Schistosoma japonicum Blood fluke Humans and snails Skin penetration of larval stage
Flatworms—Cestodes
Taenia solium Pork tapeworm Humans, swine Consumption of undercooked or raw pork
Diphyllobothrium latum Fish tapeworm Humans, fish Consumption of undercooked or raw fish
©McGraw-Hill Education
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Egg Laying
Fertilized eggs:
• Released to the environment
• Provided with a protective shell and extra food to
aid their development into larvae
• Vulnerable to heat, cold, drying, and predators
Certain helminths can lay from 200,000 to 25
million eggs a day to assure successful
completion of their life cycle

©McGraw-Hill Education
 A Helminth Cycle: The Pinworm (1)

Enterobius vermicularis:
• Pinworm or seatworm
• Common infestation of the large intestine
• Range from 2 to 12 mm long with a tapered, curved
cylindrical shape

©McGraw-Hill Education
 A Helminth Cycle: The Pinworm (2)

Life cycle:
• Microscopic eggs are swallowed: picked up from
another infected person or objects they have
touched
• Eggs hatch in the intestine
• Larvae mature into adults within 1 month
• Male and female worms mate
• Female migrates to the anus to deposit eggs
• Intense itching ensues
• Scratching spreads the eggs
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Life Cycle of the Pinworm

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©MNStudio/Shutterstock
 Distribution and Importance
of Parasitic Worms
• About 50 species of helminths cause disease
in humans
• Distributed in all areas of the world
• Higher incidence in tropical areas
• Yearly estimate of cases is in the billions and
are not confined to developing countries
• Conservative estimate of 50 million helminth
infections in North America alone
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (5)
Adulthood and mating of helminths occurs in
the ______.
A. larvae
B. intermediate host
C. cyst
D. definitive host
E. egg

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Microbiology
FUNDAMENTALS
A Clinical Approach

Third Edition

Marjorie Kelly Cowan

&
Heidi Smith
with
Jennifer Lusk
BSN RN CCRN

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Chapter 5

Viral Structure and

Multiplication

©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Position of Viruses in the
Biological Spectrum
Viruses infect every type of cell, including bacteria,
algae, fungi, protozoa, plants, and animals
Seawater can contain 10 million viruses per milliliter
For many years, the cause of viral infections was
unknown:
• Louis Pasteur hypothesized that rabies was caused
by a “living thing” smaller than bacteria
• He also proposed the term virus, which is Latin for
“poison”

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Discovery of Viruses
Ivanovski and Beijerinck showed that a disease in
tobacco was caused by a virus.
Loeffler and Frosch discovered an animal virus that
causes foot-and-mouth disease in cattle.
Filterable virus:
• These early researchers found that when fluids from
host organisms passed through porcelain filters
designed to trap bacteria, the filtrate remained
infectious.
• This proved that an infection could be caused by a fluid
containing agents smaller than bacteria.
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Questions About Viruses Remain
• Are they organisms; that is, are they alive?

• What role did viruses play in the evolution of life?

• What are their distinctive biological characteristics?

• How can particles so small, simple, and seemingly

insignificant be causing disease and death?

• What is the connection between viruses and cancer?

©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Viral Debate
Two sides of the debate:
1 Since viruses are unable to multiply independently
from the host cell, they are not living things and
should be called infectious molecules
2 Even though viruses do not exhibit most of the life
processes of cells, they can direct them, and thus
are certainly more than inert and lifeless molecules
Viruses are better described as active or inactive
rather than alive or dead

©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Vital Role of Viruses in Evolution
- Infect cells and influence their genetic makeup
- Shape the way cells, tissues, bacteria, plants, and
animals have evolved
- 8% of the human genome consists of sequences
that come from viruses
- 10 to 20% of bacterial DNA contains viral
sequences
Obligate intracellular parasites:
• Cannot multiply unless they invade a specific host cell
and instruct its genetic and metabolic machinery to
make and release new viruses
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Properties of Viruses (1)

Are obligate intracellular parasites of bacteria, protozoa, fungi,

algae, plants, and animals
Estimated 10 31 virus particles on earth, approximately 10 times
the number of bacteria and archaea combined
Are ubiquitous in nature and have had major impact on
development of biological life
Are ultramicroscopic in size, ranging from 20 nm up to 1,000 nm
(diameter)
Are not cells; structure is very compact and economical
Do not independently fulfill the characteristics of life
Basic structure consists of protein shell (capsid) surrounding
nucleic acid core
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Properties of Viruses (2)

• Nucleic acid can be either DNA or RNA, but not both

• Nucleic acids can be double-stranded DNA, single-
stranded DNA, single-stranded RNA, or double-stranded
RNA
• Molecules on virus surfaces give them high specificity
for attachment to host cell
• Multiply by taking control of host cell’s genetic material
and regulating the synthesis and assembly of new
viruses
• Lack enzymes for most metabolic processes
• Lack machinery for synthesizing proteins
©McGraw-Hill Education
How Viruses Are Classified and Named
For many years, animal viruses were classified on the
basis of their hosts and the diseases they caused
Newer classification systems emphasize the following:
• Hosts and diseases they cause
• Structure
• Chemical composition
• Similarities in genetic makeup
International Committee on the Taxonomy of Viruses:
• 8 orders and 38 families (another 84 families not yet
assigned to any order)
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Classification of HIV

• Example: Human Immunodeficiency Virus

– Family: Retroviridae
» Based on nucleic acid type, capsid morphology, envelope
and size
– Genus: Lentivirus
– Species: Human Immunodeficiency Virus
– Species names often include a group name and number (eg,
HIV-1)

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (1)
Which of the following best describes viruses?
A. Heterotrophic
B. Saprobic
C. Obligate intracellular parasites
D. Chemoautotrophic
E. Photosynthetic

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Virus Size Range
• Among the smallest infectious agents
• Smallest virus: parvoviruses around 20 nm in
diameter
• Largest virus: herpes simplex virus around
150 nm in length
• Some cylindrical viruses can be relatively
long (800 nm) but are so narrow in diameter
(15 nm) that their visibility is limited without
an electron microscope
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Size Comparison of Viruses with a
Eukaryotic Cell (Yeast) and Bacteria

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Viral Architecture Is Best Observed with
Special Stains and Electron Microscopy

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education Source: CDCl/Dr. F. A. Murphy (a); ©Phototake (b); ©A.B. Dowsette/SPL/Science Source (c)
 Viral Components (1)

Viruses bear no resemblance to cells and lack any of

the protein-synthesizing machinery found in cells
Viral structure is composed of regular, repeating
subunits that give rise to their crystalline appearance
The structure contains only those parts needed to
invade and control a host cell:
• External coating
• Core containing one or more nucleic acid strains of DNA
or RNA
• Sometimes one or two enzymes
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Viral Components (2)

Capsid: protein shell that surrounds the nucleic acid:

• Nucleocapsid: the capsid together with the nucleic acid
• Naked viruses consist only of a nucleocapsid.
Envelope: external covering of a capsid, usually a
modified piece of the host’s cell membrane
Spikes can be found on naked or enveloped viruses:
• Project from the nucleocapsid or the envelope
• Allow viruses to dock with host cells
Virion: a fully formed virus that is able to establish an
infection in a host cell
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Structure of Viruses

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Viral Capsid
Capsid:
• Most prominent feature of viruses
• Constructed from identical protein subunits called
capsomeres
• Capsomeres spontaneously self-assemble into the
finished capsid
Two different types of non-bacterial viruses:
① Helical
② Icosahedral
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Viral Envelope
Enveloped viruses:
• Take a bit of the cell membrane when they are
released from a host cell
Enveloped viruses can bud from:
• Cell membrane
• Nuclear envelope
• Endoplasmic reticulum
More flexible than the capsid so enveloped
viruses are pleomorphic
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Helical Capsid Structure
Helical Capsids The simpler helical capsids have rod-shaped capsomeres that bond together to
form a series of hollow discs resembling a bracelet. During the formation of the
nucleocapsid, these discs link with other discs to form a continuous helix into
which the nucleic acid strand is coiled.
Naked The nucleocapsids of naked helical viruses are very rigid and tightly wound into a
cylinder-shaped package. An example is the tobacco mosaic virus, which attacks
tobacco leaves.
Enveloped Enveloped helical nucleocapsids are more flexible and tend to be arranged as a
looser helix within the envelope. This type of morphology is found in several
enveloped human viruses, including influenza, measles, and rabies.

Naked Capsids Enveloped Capsids

©McGraw-Hill Education ©Science Source, Source: CDC/Dr. Fred Murphy
 Icosahedral Capsid Structure
Icosahedral These capsids form an icosahedron (eye″-koh-suh-hee′-drun)—a three-
Capsids dimensional, 20-sided figure with 12 evenly spaced corners. The arrangements of
the capsomeres vary from one virus to another. Some viruses construct the
capsid from a single type of capsomere, while others may contain several types
of capsomeres. There are major variations in the number of capsomeres; for
example, a poliovirus has 32, and an adenovirus has 252 capsomeres.
Naked Adenovirus is an example of a naked icosahedral virus. In the photo you can
clearly see the spikes, some of which have broken off.
Enveloped Two very common viruses, hepatitis B virus and the herpes simplex virus, possess
enveloped icosahedrons.

Naked Capsids Enveloped Capsids

©McGraw-Hill Education ©Dr. Linda M. Stannard, University of Cape Town/Science Source, ©Dr. Linda M. Stannard, University of Cape Town/Science Source (hep B virus); ©Eye of Science/Science Source
 Complex Capsid Structure
Complex Complex capsids, only found in the viruses that infect bacteria, may have
Capsids multiple types of proteins and take shapes that are not symmetrical. They are
never enveloped. The one pictured on the right is a T4 bacteriophage.

©McGraw-Hill Education ©AmiImages/Science Source

 Nucleic Acids: At the Core of a Virus
Genome: the sum total of the genetic
information carried by an organism
Viruses contain DNA or RNA, but not both
The number of viral genes is quite small
compared with that of a cell:
• Four genes in hepatitis B virus
• Hundreds of genes in some herpesviruses
• Possess only the genes needed to invade host cells
and redirect their activity
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Variety in Viral Nucleic Acid
DNA viruses: Single-stranded (ss) or double-stranded
(ds; linear or circular)
RNA viruses: can be double-stranded, but more often
single-stranded:
• Positive-sense RNA: ready for immediate translation
• Negative-sense RNA: must be converted before
translation can occur
• Segmented: individual genes exist on separate pieces of
RNA
• Retroviruses: carry their own enzymes to create DNA out
of their RNA
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Viral Nucleic Acid
Virus Name Disease It Causes
DNA Viruses Examples
Double-stranded DNA Variola virus Smallpox
Herpes simplex II Genital herpes
Single-stranded DNA Parvovirus Erythema infectiosum
(skin condition)
RNA Viruses–Examples
Single-stranded (+) sense Poliovirus Poliomyelitis
Single-stranded (−) sense Influenza virus Influenza
Double-stranded RNA Rotavirus Gastroenteritis
Single-stranded RNA + HIV AIDS
reverse transcriptase

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Other Substances in the
Virus Particle
Enzymes for specific operations within their host cell:
• Polymerases that synthesize DNA and RNA
• Replicases that copy RNA
• Reverse transcriptase synthesizes DNA from RNA
Completely lack the genes for synthesis of metabolic
enzymes
Some viruses carry away substances from their host cell:
• Arenaviruses pack along host ribosomes
• Retroviruses borrow the host’s tRNA molecules

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (2)
Which of the following is not a type of viral
nucleic acid?
A. Single-stranded DNA
B. Double-stranded RNA
C. Double-stranded DNA
D. Segmented RNA
E. All of the types listed are found in viruses.

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Modes of Viral Multiplication
Viruses are minute parasites that seize control of
the synthetic and genetic machinery of cells
The nature of the viral replication cycle dictates:
• The way the virus is transmitted
• What it does to the host
• Responses of immune defenses
• Human measures to control viral infection

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Multiplication Cycles
in Animal Viruses
General phases of the animal viral replication cycle:
• Adsorption
• Penetration
• Uncoating
• Synthesis
• Assembly
• Release
The length of the replication cycle varies from 8
hours in polioviruses to 36 hours in herpesviruses

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Adsorption
A virus can invade its host cell only through making
an exact fit with a specific host molecule
Host range: the limited range of cells that a virus
can infect:
• Hepatitis B: liver cells of humans
• Poliovirus: intestinal and nerve cells of primates
• Rabies: various cells of all mammals
 Cells that lack compatible virus receptors are
resistant to adsorption and invasion by that virus
Tropisms: specificities of viruses for certain tissues
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Viral Attachment Process

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Penetration and Uncoating
The flexible cell membrane of the host is
penetrated by the whole virus or its nucleic acid
Penetration through endocytosis happens when an
entire virus is engulfed by the cell and enclosed in a
vacuole or vesicle
Direct fusion of the viral envelope with the host
cell membrane:
• Envelope merges directly with the cell membrane,
liberating the nucleocapsid into the cell’s interior

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Penetration by Animal Viruses

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Synthesis: Replication and
Protein Production
DNA viruses:
• Enter the host cell’s nucleus and are replicated and
assembled there
RNA viruses:
• Replicated and assembled in the cytoplasm
Retroviruses turn their RNA genomes into DNA

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Life Cycle of dsDNA Viruses
Early phase:
• Viral DNA enters the nucleus, where genes are transcribed into
a messenger RNA
• RNA transcript moves into the cytoplasm to be translated into
viral proteins (enzymes) needed to replicate the viral DNA
• The host cell’s DNA polymerase is involved in this phase
Late phase:
• Parts of the viral genome are transcribed and translated into
proteins required to form the capsid and other structures
• New viral genomes and capsids are assembled
• Mature viruses are released by budding or cell disintegration
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Assembly and Release
Assembly: virus is put together using “parts”
manufactured during the synthesis process
Release: the number of viruses released by
infected cells is variable, controlled by:
• Size of the virus
• Health of the host cell
Poxvirus-infected cell: 3,000 to 4,000 virions
Poliovirus-infected cell: 100,000 virions
Immense potential for rapid viral proliferation
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Maturation and Release of
Enveloped Viruses

©McGraw-Hill Education ©Chris Bjornberg/Science Source (b)

 Life Cycle of Animal Viruses (1)

1. Adsorption
• The virus encounters a susceptible host cell and adsorbs specifically
to receptor sites on the cell membrane
• The membrane receptors that viruses attach to are usually proteins
that the cell requires for its normal function
• Glycoprotein spikes on the envelope (or on the capsid of naked
viruses) bind to the cell membrane receptors
2. Penetration and Uncoating
• In this example, the entire virus is engulfed (endocytosed) by the cell
and enclosed in a vacuole or vesicle
• When enzymes in the vacuole dissolve the envelope and capsid, the
virus is said to be uncoated, a process that releases the viral nucleic
acid into the cytoplasm

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Life Cycle of Animal Viruses (2)

3. Synthesis: Replication and Protein Production

• Viral nucleic acid begins to synthesize the building blocks for new
viruses
• First, the + ssRNA, which is ready to serve as mRNA, starts being
translated into viral proteins, especially those useful for further viral
replication
• The + strand is then replicated into −ssRNA becoming the template
for the creation of many new + ssRNAs, used as the viral genomes for
new viruses
• Additional + ssRNAs are synthesized and used for late-stage mRNAs
• Some viruses come equipped with the necessary enzymes for
synthesis of viral components; others utilize those of the host
• Proteins for the capsid, spikes, and viral enzymes are synthesized on
the host’s ribosomes using its amino acids
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Life Cycle of Animal Viruses (3)

4. Assembly
• Mature virus particles are constructed from the growing pool of parts
• Capsid is first laid down as an empty shell that will serve as a receptacle for
the nucleic acid strand
• Viral spikes are inserted into the host’s cell membrane so they can be picked
up as the virus buds off with its envelope

5. Release
• Assembled viruses leave their host in one of two ways:
• Nonenveloped and complex viruses that reach maturation in the cell nucleus or cytoplasm are
released when the cell lyses or rupture
• Enveloped viruses are liberated by budding from the membranes of the cytoplasm, nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum, or vesicles

• During this process, the nucleocapsid binds to the membrane, which curves
completely around it and forms a small pouch
• Pinching off the pouch releases the virus with its envelope

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Damage to the Host Cell
Cytopathic effects (CPEs): virus-induced damage to the
cell that alters its microscopic appearance
Types of CPEs include:
• Gross changes in shape and size
• Development of intracellular changes
• Inclusion bodies: compacted masses of viruses or
damaged cell organelles in the nucleus and cytoplasm
• Syncytia: fusion of multiple damaged host cells into
single large cells containing multiple nuclei (giant cells)
Accumulated damage from a virus infection kills most
host cells
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Cytopathic Changes

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education Source: CDC (a); Courtesy Massimo Battaglia, INeMM CNR, Rome Italy (b)
 Persistent Infections
Some cells maintain a carrier relationship: cell harbors
the virus and is not immediately lysed:
• Can last from a few weeks to the remainder of the host’s life
• Can remain latent in the cytoplasm
Provirus:
• Viral DNA incorporated into the DNA of the host
• Measles virus
Chronic latent state:
• Periodically become activated under the influence of various
stimuli
• Herpes simplex and herpes zoster viruses
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Viruses and Cancer (1)

Experts estimate that 13% of cancers are caused

by viruses
Transformation: the effect of oncogenic, or
cancer-causing viruses:
• Some viruses carry genes that directly cause cancer
• Other viruses produce proteins that induce a loss of
growth regulation, leading to cancer

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Viruses and Cancer (2)

Transformed cells:
• Increased rate of growth
• Changes in their chromosomes
• Changes in cell’s surface molecules
• Capacity to divide indefinitely

Oncoviruses: mammalian viruses capable of initiating

tumors

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Viral Induction of Cancer

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Examples of Human Cancer Viruses
– Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) – the causative agent of Burkitt’s
lymphoma
– Human papillomavirus (HPV) strains (e.g., HPV-8)
associated with cervical cancer. Nearly 100% of cervical
cancer is associated with HPV infection.
– Hepatitis B and C viruses (HBV/HCV) – HBV is associated
with 80% of hepatic cancer.
– Herpesvirus 8 – associated with Kaposi’s sarcoma
– Human T cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV) – associated
with leukemia

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Teratogenic Viruses

• Cytomegalovirus (CMV); many neurological defects

• Herpes simplex virus (HSV I/II); disseminated
infections can result in CN damage, blindness and
sometimes death.
• Rubella virus; “rubella syndrome” can result in
multiple organ system damage
• TORCH series – blood tests that assess antibody production of
Toxoplasma,(protozoan), Hepatitis B, chicken pox (varicella),
rubella viruses, as well as CMV and HSV. Does not rule out all
infections.

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Viruses That Infect Bacteria
Bacteriophage: “bacteria eating”:
• Most contain double-stranded DNA, but some RNA
types exist as well
• Every bacterial species is parasitized by various
specific bacteriophages
• The bacteria they infect are often more pathogenic
for humans

©McGraw-Hill Education
 T-Even Bacteriophage
Infect E. coli
Structure:
• Icosahedral capsid
containing DNA
• Central tube
surrounded by a sheath
• Collar
• Base plate
• Tail pins
• Fibers
Jump to long description
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Events in the Lytic Cycle of
T-even Bacteriophages (1)

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Events in the Lytic Cycle of
T-even Bacteriophages (2)

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Lysogeny:
The Silent Virus Infection
Temperate phages:
• Undergo adsorption and penetration
• Do not undergo replication or release immediately
Viral DNA enters an inactive prophage state:
• Inserted into bacterial chromosome
• Copied during normal bacterial cell division
• Lysogeny: a condition in which the host chromosome
carries bacteriophage DNA
Induction: prophage in a lysogenic cell becomes
activated and progresses directly into viral
replication and the lytic cycle
©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Role of Lysogeny
in Human Disease
Occasionally, phage genes in the bacterial
chromosome cause the production of toxins or
enzymes that the bacterium would not
otherwise have
Lysogenic conversion: when a bacterium
acquires a new trait from its temperate phage:
• Corynebacterium diphtheriae - diphtheria toxin
• Vibrio cholerae - cholera toxin
• Clostridium botulinum - botulinum toxin
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (3)
Put the phases of the life cycle of animal viruses
in the correct order.
A. Assembly
B. Penetration
C. Release
D. Adsorption
E. Synthesis
F. Uncoating
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Techniques in Cultivating and
Identifying Animal Viruses
Viruses require living cells as their “medium”:
• In vivo: laboratory-bred animals and embryonic bird
tissues
• In vitro: cell or tissue culture methods

Primary purposes of viral cultivation:

• Isolate and identify viruses in clinical specimens
• Prepare viruses for vaccines
• Do detailed research on viral structure, multiplication
cycles, genetics, and effects on host cells
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Using Live Animal Inoculation
 Specially bred strains of white mice, rats,
hamsters, guinea pigs, and rabbits are the
usual choices for viral cultivation
 Occasionally, invertebrates such as insects or
nonhuman primates are used
Because viruses exhibit host specificity, certain
animals can propagate viruses more readily than
others

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Using Bird Embryos
Bird eggs containing embryos:
• Intact and self-supporting unit
• Sterile environment
• Contain their own nourishment
Chicken, duck, and turkey eggs are the most
common choices for inoculation
Viruses are injected through the eggshell by
drilling a small hole or making a small window
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Using Cell (Tissue)
Culture Techniques
Isolated animal cells are grown in vitro in cell or
tissue culture rather than in an animal or egg
Cell culture, or tissue culture:
• Grown in sterile chambers with special media that
contain the correct nutrients for cells to survive
• Cells form a monolayer, or single, confluent sheet of
cells that supports viral multiplication
• Allows for the close inspection of culture for signs of
infection

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Detection of Viral Growth
in Culture
Observation of degeneration and lysis of
infected cells
Plaques: areas where virus-infected cells have
been destroyed show up as clear, well-defined
patches in the cell sheet:
• Visible manifestation of cytopathic effects (CPEs)

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Normal and Infected Cell Culture

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education Source: Bakonyi T, Lussy H, Weissenböck H, Hornyák A, Nowotny N. Emerging Infectious Diseases, Vol. 11, No. 2, Feb. 2005.
 Detection of Bacteriophages
This same technique is used to detect and count
bacteriophages:
• Plaques develop when the viruses released by an
infected host cell radiate out to adjacent host cells
• New cells become infected, die and release more
viruses, and the process continues
• Plaque manifests as a macroscopic, round, clear
space that corresponds to areas of dead cells

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (4)
Which of the following is not an in vivo method
of culturing animal viruses?
A. Embryonated chicken eggs
B. Guinea pigs
C. Dog kidney cell culture
D. White mice
E. All of the choices are in vivo methods.

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Prions
Composed primarily of protein (no nucleic acid)
Exact mode of infection is still being investigated
Deposited as long protein fibrils in the brain
tissue of humans and animals:
• Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: afflicts the central nervous
system and causes degeneration and death
• Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (“mad cow
disease”)
• Shy-Drager syndrome or multiple system atrophy
resembles Parkinson’s disease
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Satellite Viruses
Dependent on other viruses for replication
Adeno-associated virus (AAV):
• Originally thought that it could only replicate in cells
infected with the adenovirus
• Can also infect cells that are infected with other
viruses
Delta agent:
• Naked circle of RNA
• Expressed only in the presence of the hepatitis B virus
• Worsens the severity of liver damage
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Viroids
Virus-like agents that parasitize plants
About one-tenth the size of an average virus
Composed of naked strands of RNA, lacking a
capsid or any other type of coating
Significant pathogens in economically important
plants: tomatoes, potatoes, cucumbers, citrus
trees, chrysanthemums

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (5)
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and Bovine spongiform
encephalopathy are caused by prions. Which of
the following best describes a prion?
A. Viral particle
B. Naked DNA
C. Infectious protein
D. Small bacterium
E. Naked RNA

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Viruses and Human Health
Common causes of acute infections:
• Colds, hepatitis, chickenpox, influenza, herpes, warts
Prominent viral infections worldwide:
• Dengue fever, Rift Valley fever, yellow fever
Infections with high mortality rates:
• Rabies, AIDS, Ebola
Infections that cause long-term disability:
• Polio, neonatal rubella
Possible connection to chronic diseases:
• Type 1 diabetes, MS, Alzheimer’s, obesity
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Treatment of Animal Viral Infections
o Antibiotics designed to treat bacterial infections
have no effect on viruses
o Difficult to find drugs that will affect viruses without
damaging host cells
o Almost all antiviral drugs licensed so far have been
designed to target one of the steps in the viral life
cycle:
• Integrase inhibitor class of HIV drugs interrupts the ability of
HIV genetic information to incorporate into the host cell DNA
Easier to develop vaccines to prevent viral diseases

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (6)
Antibiotics are an effective method for treating
viral infections.
A. True
B. False

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Microbiology
FUNDAMENTALS
A Clinical Approach

Third Edition

Marjorie Kelly Cowan

&
Heidi Smith
with
Jennifer Lusk
BSN RN CCRN

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Chapter 6

Microbial Nutrition and

Growth

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Microbial Nutrition
Essential nutrient: any substance that must be
provided to an organism
Macronutrients: required in relatively large
quantities and play principal roles in cell structure
and metabolism:
• Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Micronutrients: present in much smaller amounts
and are involved in enzyme function and
maintenance of protein structure:
• Also known as trace elements
• Examples: manganese, zinc, nickel
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Categorizing Nutrients According to
Their Carbon Content
Inorganic nutrients:
• An atom or simple molecule that contains a combination of
atoms other than C and H
• Found in the earth’s crust, bodies of water, and the
atmosphere
• Metals and their salts (magnesium sulfate, ferric nitrate,
sodium phosphate)
• Gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide) and water
Organic nutrients:
• Contain carbon and hydrogen atoms and are usually the
products of living things
• Simple organic molecules such as methane
• Large polymers (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids)
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Chemical Analysis of the Microbial
Cytoplasm
Water—70% of all components
Proteins
Organic compounds—97% of dry cell weight
Elements CHONPS—96% of dry cell weight
Most chemical elements available to the cell as
compounds and not as pure elements
Only a few types of nutrients needed to
synthesize over 5,000 different compounds
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Chemical Composition of E. coli
Organic Compounds % Dry Weight Elements % Dry Weight
Proteins 50 Carbon (C) 50
Nucleic Acids–RNA 20 Oxygen (O) 20
Nucleic Acids–DNA 3 Nitrogen (N) 14

Carbohydrates 10 Hydrogen (H) 8

Phosphorus (P) 3
Lipids 10
Sulfur (S) 1
Miscellaneous 4
Potassium (K) 1
Sodium (Na) 1
Inorganic Compounds % Dry Weight Calcium (Ca) 0.5
Water (–) Magnesium (Mg) 0.5
All others 3 Chlorine (Cl) 0.5
Iron (Fe) 0.2
Trace metals 0.3

©McGraw-Hill Education
 What Microbes Eat
Heterotroph: an organism that must obtain its
carbon in an organic form
Autotroph: an organism that uses inorganic CO2
as its carbon source:
• Has the capacity to convert CO2 into organic
compounds
• Not nutritionally dependent on other living things
Phototroph: microbe that photosynthesizes
Chemotroph: microbe that gets its energy from
chemical compounds
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Nutritional Categories of Microbes by
Energy and Carbon Source
Category Energy Source Carbon Example
Source
Autotroph Photoautotroph Sunlight CO2 Photosynthetic organisms, such as
algae, plants, cyanobacteria

Chemoautotroph: Organic compounds CO2 Methanogens

Chemoorganic autotrophs
Chemoautotroph: Inorganic compounds CO2 Thiobacillus, “rock-eating”
Chemolithoautotrophs (minerals) bacteria
Heterotroph Photoheterotroph Sunlight Organic Purple and green photosynthetic
bacteria
Chemoheterotroph Metabolic conversion of Organic Protozoa, fungi, many bacteria,
the nutrients from animals
other organisms
Chemoheterotroph: Metabolizing the Organic Fungi, bacteria (decomposers)
Saprobe organic matter of dead
organisms
Chemoheterotroph: Utilizing the tissues, Organic Various parasites and pathogens;
Parasite fluids of a live host can be bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
animals

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Autotrophs and
Their Energy Sources
Photoautotrophs:
• Photosynthetic
• Produce organic molecules using CO2 that can be
used by themselves and by heterotrophs
Chemoautotrophs:
• Chemo-organic autotrophs: use organic compounds
for energy and inorganic compounds as a carbon
source
• Lithoautotrophs: rely totally on inorganic minerals
and require neither sunlight nor organic nutrients
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Heterotrophs and
Their Energy Sources (1)

Chemoheterotrophs:
• Derive both carbon and energy from organic compounds
• Process these molecules through cellular respiration or
fermentation
Saprobes:
• Free-living organisms that feed on organic detritus from
dead organisms
• Decomposers of plant litter, animal matter, and dead
microbes
• Recycle organic nutrients
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Heterotrophs and
Their Energy Sources (2)

Parasites:
• Derive nutrients from the cells or tissues of a living host
• Pathogens: cause damage to tissues or even death
• Range from viruses to helminths
• Ectoparasites: live on the body
• Endoparasites: live in the organs and tissues
• Intracellular parasites: live within cells
• Obligate parasites: unable to grow outside of a living
host
• Leprosy bacillus and syphilis spirochete
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Other Important Nutrients
Potassium (K): essential to protein synthesis and
membrane function
Sodium (Na): important for certain types of cell transport
Calcium (Ca): stabilizer of cell wall and endospores of
bacteria
Magnesium (Mg): component of chlorophyll and a
stabilizer of membranes and ribosomes
Iron (Fe): important component of the cytochrome
proteins of cell respiration
Zinc (Zn): essential regulatory element for eukaryotic
genetics
©McGraw-Hill Education
 How Microbes Eat:
Transport Mechanisms
 Transport of necessary nutrients occurs
across the cytoplasmic membrane, even in
organisms with cell walls
 The driving force of transport is atomic and
molecular movement
Diffusion: the phenomenon of molecular
movement, in which atoms or molecules move
in a gradient from an area of higher density or
concentration to an area of lower density or
concentration
©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Movement of Water: Osmosis
Osmosis: the diffusion of water through a
selectively, or differentially, permeable membrane:
• Has passageways that allow free diffusion of water, but
block certain other dissolved molecules
• When the membrane is placed between solutions of
differing concentrations of solute and the solute cannot
pass through the membrane, water will diffuse at a
faster rate from the side that has more water to the side
that has less water
• This will continue until the concentration of water is
equalized on both sides of the membrane
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Osmosis

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Cell Responses to Osmosis

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©McGraw-Hill Education
 Transport Processes in Cells
Energy
Examples Description Requirements
Passive Simple A fundamental None. Substances
diffusion property of atoms and move on a gradient
molecules that exist in from higher
a state of random concentration to
motion lower
concentration.
Facilitated Molecule binds to a None. Substances
diffusion specific receptor in move on a gradient
membrane and is from higher
carried to other side. concentration to
Molecule-specific. lower
Goes both directions. concentration.
Rate of transport is
limited by the number
of binding sites on
transport proteins.
Active Carrier- Atoms or molecules Driven by ATP or
mediated are pumped into or the proton motive
active out of the cell by force
transport specialized receptors.
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Active Transport
Active transport:
• The transport of nutrients against the diffusion
gradient or in the same direction as the natural
gradient, but at a rate faster than by diffusion alone
• The presence of specific membrane proteins
(permeases and pumps)
• The expenditure of energy
Examples of substances transported actively:
monosaccharides, amino acids, organic acids,
phosphates, and metal ions
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Endocytosis:
Eating and Drinking by Cells
Endocytosis:
• Cell encloses the substance in its membrane
• Simultaneously forms a vacuole and engulfs the
substance
Phagocytosis:
• Accomplished by amoebas and white blood cells
• Ingest whole cells or large solid matter
Pinocytosis:
• Ingestion of liquids such as oils or molecules in solution

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (1)
Which of the following terms describes an
organism that derives its energy and carbon
from organic molecules?
A. Photoautotroph
B. Chemoheterotroph
C. Lithoautotroph
D. Chemoautotroph
E. Photoheterotroph

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Cardinal Temperatures
The range of temperatures for the growth of a given
microbial species:
• Minimum temperature: the lowest temperature that
permits a microbe’s continued growth and metabolism;
below this temperature, its activities stop
• Maximum temperature: the highest temperature at
which growth and metabolism can proceed before
proteins are denatured
• Optimum temperature: an intermediate between the
minimum and the maximum that promotes the fastest
rate of growth and metabolism
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Psychrophiles
Optimum temperature below 15°C
Capable of growth at 0°C
Obligate with respect to cold and cannot grow
above 20°C
 Storage at refrigerator temperature causes
them to grow rather than inhibiting them
Natural habitats of psychrophilic bacteria, fungi,
and algae are lakes, rivers, snowfields, polar ice,
and the deep ocean
Rarely pathogenic
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Psychrotrophs
Grow slowly in the cold but have an optimum
temperature between 15°C and 30°C
Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria
monocytogenes are able to grow at refrigerator
temperatures and cause food-borne illness

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Mesophiles
Majority of medically significant
microorganisms
Grow at intermediate temperatures between
20°C and 40°C
Inhabit animals and plants as well as soil and
water in temperate, subtropical, and tropical
regions
 Human pathogens have optimal
temperatures between 30°C and 40°C
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Thermoduric Microbes
Can survive short exposure to high temperatures
but are normally mesophiles
Common contaminants of heated or pasteurized
foods
Examples are heat-resistant endospore formers
such as Bacillus and Clostridium

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Thermophiles
Grow optimally at temperatures greater than
45°C
Live in soil and water associated with volcanic
activity, compost piles, and in habitats directly
exposed to the sun
Vary in heat requirements with a range of growth
of 45°C to 80°C
Most eukaryotic forms cannot survive above 60°C.
Extreme thermophiles grow between 80°C and
121°C
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Ecological Groups by
Temperature Range

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Gases
The atmospheric gases that influence microbial
growth are O2 and CO2:
• O2 has the greatest impact on microbial growth
• O2 is an important respiratory gas and a powerful
oxidizing agent
Microbes fall into one of three categories:
1. Those that use oxygen and detoxify it
2. Those that can neither use oxygen nor detoxify it
3. Those that do not use oxygen but can detoxify it
©McGraw-Hill Education
 How Microbes Process Oxygen
As oxygen enters cellular reactions, it is
transformed into several toxic products:
• Singlet oxygen (O): an extremely reactive molecule
that can damage and destroy a cell by the oxidation
of membrane lipids
• Superoxide ion (O2–): highly reactive
• Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2): toxic to cells and used as
a disinfectant
• Hydroxyl radical (OH–): also highly reactive
©McGraw-Hill Education
How Microbes Protect Themselves Against
Damage from Oxygen By-products
Most cells have developed enzymes that scavenge and
neutralize reactive oxygen by-products
Two-step process requires two enzymes:

Superoxide ion is converted into hydrogen peroxide by

superoxide dismutase
Hydrogen peroxide is converted into harmless water
and oxygen by catalase
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Oxygen Usage and
Tolerance Patterns in Microbes (1)

Aerobes - can use gaseous oxygen in their

metabolism and possess the enzymes needed to
process toxic oxygen products
• An organism that cannot grow without oxygen is an
obligate aerobe
• Examples: Most fungi, protozoa, and many bacteria,
such as Bacillus species and Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
Microaerophiles - are harmed by normal
atmospheric concentrations of oxygen but require
a small amount of it in metabolism
• Examples: Organisms that live in soil or water or in
mammalian hosts, not directly exposed to atmosphere;
Helicobacteri pylori, Borrelia burgdorferi
©McGraw-Hill Education Source: CDC/Laura Rose & Janice Haney Carr, ©Heather Davies/Science Source
 Oxygen Usage and
Tolerance Patterns in Microbes (2)

Facultative anaerobes - do not

require oxygen for metabolism but
use it when it is present
• Examples: Many gram-negative
intestinal bacteria, staphylococci

©McGraw-Hill Education Source: CDC/Janice Haney Carr

 Oxygen Usage and
Tolerance Patterns in Microbes (3)

Anaerobes - lack the metabolic enzyme systems for using oxygen in

respiration
• Obligate anaerobes also lack the enzymes
for processing toxic oxygen and die in its
presence
• Examples: Many oral bacteria, intestinal
bacteria
Aerotolerant anaerobes - do not utilize
oxygen but can survive and grow to a
limited extent in its presence
• Not harmed by oxygen, mainly because they possess alternate mechanisms
for breaking down peroxides and superoxide
• Examples: Certain lactobacilli and streptococci, clostridial species

©McGraw-Hill Education Source: CDC/Janice Haney Carr

 Carbon Dioxide
Capnophiles: organisms that grow best at a
higher CO2 tension than is normally present in
the atmosphere
Important in the initial isolation of the following
organisms from clinical specimens:
• Neisseria (gonorrhea, meningitis)
• Brucella (undulant fever)
• Streptococcus pneumoniae

©McGraw-Hill Education
 pH
Defined as the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a
solution:
• Expressed by the pH scale, a series of numbers ranging
from 0 to 14
• 7.0 is the pH of pure water
• As the pH value decreases toward 0, the acidity increases
• As the pH value increases toward 14, the alkalinity
increases
The majority of organisms live or grow in habitats
between pH 6 and 8
©McGraw-Hill Education
 pH Extremes
Acidophiles: organisms that thrive in acidic
environments:
• Euglena mutabilis: grows in acid pools between pH 0 and 1
• Thermoplasma: lives in coal piles at a pH of 1 or 2
• Picrophilus: thrives at a pH of 0.7, but can grow at a pH of 0
• Many molds and yeasts tolerate acid and are common spoilage
agents of pickled foods
Alkalinophiles: organisms that thrive in alkaline
conditions:
• Natronomonas: live in hot pools and soils up to pH 12
• Proteus: can create alkaline conditions to neutralize urine and
colonize and infect the urinary system
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Osmotic Pressure
Osmophiles: live in habitats with high solute
concentration
Halophiles: prefer high concentration of salt”
• Obligate halophiles: Halobacterium and Halococcus grow
optimally at solutions of 25% NaCl but require at least 9%
NaCl
• Facultative halophiles: remarkably resistant to salt, even
though they do not normally reside in high salt environments
• Staphylococcus aureus can grow on NaCl media ranging from
0.1% to 20%

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Radiation
• Phototrophs use visible light rays as an
energy source
• Non-photosynthetic microbes tend to be
damaged by the toxic oxygen products
produced by contact with light
• Some microbial species produce yellow
carotenoid pigments to absorb and dismantle
toxic oxygen
• Ultraviolet and ionizing radiation can be used
in microbial control
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Pressure
Barophiles:
• Exist under pressures that range from a few times to
over 1,000 times the pressure of the atmosphere
• These bacteria are so strictly adapted to high
pressures that they will rupture when exposed to
normal atmospheric pressure

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Other Organisms
In all but the rarest instances, microbes live in
shared habitats:
• Associations between similar or dissimilar types of
microbes
• Associations with multicellular organisms, such as
animals or plants
• Interactions can be beneficial, harmful, or have no
particular effect
• Interactions can be obligatory or nonobligatory to the
members
• Often involve nutritional interactions
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Strong Partnerships: Symbioses
Symbiosis: general term to denote a situation in which
two organisms live together in a close partnership
• Symbionts: members of a symbiosis
Three main types of symbiosis occur:
• Mutualism: organisms live in an obligatory but mutually
beneficial relationship
• Commensalism: the partner called the commensal receives
benefits, while its partner is neither harmed nor benefited
• Parasitism: a relationship in which the host organism
provides the parasitic microbe with nutrients and a habitat;
host suffers from the relationship
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Associations but Not Partnerships (1)

Antagonism: an association between free-living

species that arises when members of a
community compete
• Antibiosis: production of inhibitory compounds such
as antibiotics into the surrounding environment that
inhibit or destroy another microbe in the same habitat
• The first microbe has a competitive advantage by
increasing the space and nutrients available to it.
• Common in the soil where mixed communities
compete for space and food

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Associations but Not Partnerships (2)

Synergism:
• An interrelationship between two organisms that
benefits them but is not necessary for survival
• Together, the participants cooperate to produce a
result that neither could do alone
• Gum disease, dental caries, and some bloodstream
infections involve mixed infections that are
examples of bacteria interacting synergistically

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Biofilms:
The Epitome of Synergy (1)

Mixed communities of bacteria and other

microbes that are attached to a surface and
each other
Formation of a biofilm:
• A “pioneer” colonizer initially attaches to a surface
• Other microbes then attach to those bacteria or a
polymeric sugar or protein substance secreted by
the microbial colonizers
• Attached cells are stimulated to release chemicals as
the cell population grows
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Steps in Biofilm Formation

Jump to long description

©McGraw-Hill Education Courtesy Ellen Swogger and Garth James, Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University
 Biofilms:
The Epitome of Synergy (2)

Mixed communities of bacteria and other

microbes that are attached to a surface and
each other
Formation of a biofilm:
• A “pioneer” colonizer initially attaches to a surface
• Other microbes then attach to those bacteria or a
polymeric sugar or protein substance secreted by
the microbial colonizers
• Attached cells are stimulated to release chemicals as
the cell population grows
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Biofilms:
The Epitome of Synergy (3)

Bacteria in biofilms behave and respond very

differently than planktonic (free-living) bacteria:
• Different genes are activated

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (2)
Which of the following describes an association
between microbes in which one organism is
benefited and one is harmed in some way?
A. Mutualism
B. Synergism
C. Commensalism
D. Parasitism
E. Antagonism

©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Study of Bacterial Growth
Binary fission:
• One cell becomes two
• Parent cell enlarges
• Duplicates its chromosome
• Starts to pull its cell envelope together to the center
of the cell
• Cell wall eventually forms a complete central septum

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Steps in Binary Fission of
Rod-Shaped Bacterium

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©McGraw-Hill Education
 Rate of Population Growth
Generation time or doubling time:
• The time required for a complete fission cycle, from
parent cell to two daughter cells
• Generation: increases the population by a factor of
two
• As long as the environment remains favorable, the
doubling effect can continue at a constant rate

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Length of Generation Time
The length of the generation time is a measure of
the growth rate of an organism:
• Average generation time is 30 to 60 minutes
• Shortest generation times can be 10 to 12 minutes
• Mycobacterium leprae has a generation time of 10 to
30 days
• Environmental bacteria have generation times
measured in months
• Most pathogens have relatively short generation times
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Mathematics of Population Growth

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©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Population Growth Curve
Growth curve: a predicable pattern of a
bacterial population growth in a closed system
can be measured by:
• Placing a tiny number of cells into a sterile liquid
medium
• Incubating the culture over a period of several hours
• Sampling the broth at regular intervals
• Plating each sample onto solid media
• Counting the number of colonies present
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Steps in a Viable Plate Count

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©McGraw-Hill Education
 Stages in the
Normal Growth Curve (1)

The lag phase is a “flat” period of growth due to:

• Newly inoculated cells that require a period of
adjustment, enlargement, and synthesis
• Cells are not yet multiplying at their maximum rate
• Population of cells is so sparse or dilute that
sampling misses them

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Stages in the
Normal Growth Curve (2)

Exponential growth (logarithmic or log) phase:

• Growth curve increases geometrically
• Will continue as long as cells have adequate nutrients
and the environment is favorable
Stationary growth phase:
• Cell birth and cell death rates are equal
• Cell division rate is slowing down
• Caused by depleted nutrients and oxygen, plus excretion
of organic acids and biochemical pollutants into the
growth medium
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Stages in the
Normal Growth Curve (3)

Death phase:
• Cells begin to die at an exponential rate due to the
buildup of wastes
• Speed with which death occurs depends on the resistance
of the species and how toxic the conditions are
• Slower than the exponential growth phase
Viable non-culturable state (VNC):
• Many cells in a culture in the death phase stay alive but
are dormant
• Will not grow on culture medium and are missed in
colony counts
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Growth Curve in Bacterial Culture

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©McGraw-Hill Education
 The Practical Importance
of the Growth Curve
The tendency for populations to exhibit phases of
rapid growth, slow growth, and death has
implications in microbial control, food microbiology,
and culture technology:
 Microbes in the exponential growth phase are more
vulnerable to antimicrobial agents and heat
 Actively growing cells are more vulnerable to conditions
that disrupt cell metabolism and binary fission
 A person actively shedding bacteria in the early and
middle stages of infection is more likely to spread it than
a person in the later stages
©McGraw-Hill Education
 Chemostat

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Analyzing Population Size Without
Culturing: Turbidity (1)

Turbidity/turbidometry:
• A clear nutrient solution becomes turbid, or cloudy,
as microbes grow in it
• The greater the turbidity, the larger the population
size

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Turbidity Measurements as
Indicators of Growth

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©McGraw-Hill Education ©Kathleen Talaro
 Analyzing Population Size
Without Culturing (2)

Counting:
• Direct cell count: measured microscopically
• Coulter counter: electronically scans a fluid as it passes through
a tiny pipette
• Flow cytometer: works similarly to a Coulter counter, but can
measure cell size and differentiate between live and dead cells

Genetic probing:
• Uses real-time PCR to quantify bacteria and other organisms
present in environmental or tissue samples

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Direct Microscopic Count of Bacteria

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©McGraw-Hill Education
 Coulter Counter

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©McGraw-Hill Education
 Flow Cytometer

©McGraw-Hill Education
 Concept Check (3)
Put the steps of the bacterial growth curve in
the correct order.
A. Death phase
B. Lag phase
C. Exponential phase
D. Stationary phase

©McGraw-Hill Education