EDO UNIVERSITY IYAMHO

Department of Computer Engineering

Communication Principles (Module 2)
ANGLE MODULATION
If the information signal is used to vary the carrier frequency, the resulting process is known as
Frequency Modulation. If however, the information is used to vary the Phase, then, we have
Phase Modulation. Since both frequency and phase are parameters of the carrier angle, then the
term ANGLE MODULATION covers both.

FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

In frequency modulation, the modulating signal is used to vary the frequency of the carrier. Let
the change in the carrier frequency be kVm(t), where k is constant known as frequency deviation
constant. This implies that the instantaneous carrier frequency is given by
f i=f c + k V m (t)
and V m ( t )=Emax cos ωm t
Therefore, f i=f c + k E max cos ωm t -------------------(A)
Where k E max=Peak frequency deviationdenoted by ∆ f
Equation (A) now becomes
f i=f c + ∆ fCos ωm t
Equation of a frequency modulation (FM) is obtained as follows:
Let the un-modulated carrier be given as
e c =Ec Max cos(ωc t+∅ ) ---------------------------------------(1)
Where ω c =2 π f c
Equation (1) can be rewritten in more general form as;
e c =cos θ (t) -----------------------------------------(2)
Where E Max =1
dθ(t )
The instantaneous angular frequency could be defined as ω i=2 π f i=
dt
Integrating both sides leads to:
θ ( t )=∫ ω c dt=∫ 2 π f i dt
 θ ( t )=∫ 2 π ( f c +∆ fCos ω c t ) dt

θ ( t )=∫ 2 π f c dt +∫ 2 π ∆ fCos ωm t dt

¿ 2 π f c t +2 π ∆ f c ∫ cos ω c t dt
sin ωc t
¿ 2 π f c t +2 π ∆ f
ωm
∆f
θ(t)=ω c t + sin ωm t
fm
Putting the above expression θ(t) in equation (2), it becomes a sinusoidal modulated signal.
Therefore, it will be e and not ec, then:

(
e=cos ω c t +
∆f
fm )
sin ωm t --------------------------------------(3)

∆f
Where =Modulated Index
fm
Equation (3) gives the expression of a frequency modulated waveform.
Note: e c =cos ( ωc t+mf sin ωm t )
∆f
Where =mf
fm
Advantage of Frequency Modulation (FM)
1) Increase signal to noise ratio without increase transmitter power
2) Certain forms of interferences are easier suppressed at the receiver end
3) This can take place at a low level power stage at the transmitter end

FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF AN FM WAVEFORM

Recalling the Bessel function of expansion;
cos ( mfSin ω m t )=J 0 ( mf ) +2 J 2 ( mf ) cos 2 ω m t +2 J 4 ( mf ) cos 4 ω m t+2 J 6 ( mf ) cos 6 ωm t+−−−−¿

sin ( mfSin ωm t )=2 J 1 ( mf ) sin ω m t +2 J 3 ( mf ) sin 3 ωm t+2 J 5 ( mf ) sin 5 ω m t +−−−¿

Since the form of the FM wave is given as
e fm=cos ( ω c t+ mfSin ω m t )
This can be expanded to obtain
e fm=cos ωc t cos ( mfSin ω m t )−sin ωc t sin ( mf sin ωc t )
 e fm=cos ωc t [ J 0 ( mf )+ 2 J 2 ( mf ) cos 2 ωm t+2 J 4 ( mf ) cos 4 ωm t+ … ]−sin ωc t [ 2 J 1 ( mf ) sin ωm t+2 J 3 ( mf ) sin 3 ω m t +… ]
Collecting the terms together produces
e fm=J 0 ( mf ) cos ω c t−J 1 ( mf ) [ cos ( ωc −ωm ) t −cos ( ωc +ω m ) t ] + J 2 ( mf ) [ cos ( ω c −2 ωm ) t+ cos ( ω c + 2 ωm ) t ]−J 3 ( mf ) [ cos

J0 (mf)

J1 (mf) J1 (mf)

J2 (mf) J2 (mf)

ωc - 2ωm ωc - ωm ωc ωc + ωm ωc + 2ωm

From this result, J0(mf) is the amplitude of the carrier and Jn(mf) is the amplitude of the side
bands at ω c ± n ω m where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ……….

SPECTRAL OF FM WAVEFORM FOR VARIOUS MODULATION INDEXES

For mf = 1 0.77

0.44 0.44

0.11 0.11
0.11 0.11

fc - 3fm fc - 2fm fc - f m fc fc + f m fc +2 fm fc + 3fm

0.73
For mf = 2
0.58 0.58

0.35 0.35
0.13 0.13
0.04 0.04 0.01
0.01
In each case, the spectral lines are spaced by the frequency of the modulating signal f m and the
bandwidth (BW) is given by
BW =2 n f m
Where n = the order of the sideband frequency.
If the order of the sideband frequency is greater (mf + 1), then the amplitude becomes negligible
compared to the un-modulated carrier amplitude. Therefore, the bandwidth can now be modified
to
BW =2 ( mf + 1 ) f m
∆f
But mf =
fm

¿2( ∆f
fm )
+1 f m

BW =2(∆ f + f m )

Table 1: Comparison of fm and BW in FM

∆f fm BW=2(∆f + fm)
150KHz 0.01KHz 2(150+0.001) = 300.02 KHz
150KHz 0.1 KHz 2(150+0.1) = 300.2 KHz
150 KHz 1 KHz 2(150+1) = 302 KHz

In FM, it has a factor of 100 increases for fm. that is a ratio of 1:100 while BW variation is
insignificant. But in AM, the table below illustrate the ratio.
Table 2: Comparison of fm and BW in AM
∆f fm BW = 2fm
150KHz 0.01KHz 2(0.01) = 0.02 KHz
150KHz 0.1 KHz 2(0.1) = 0.2 KHz
150 KHz 1 KHz 2(1) = 2 KHz
Ratio 1:100 Ratio 1:100

From table above, AM varies with the same factor of 1:100 as the frequency. While for FM, it is
insignificant. This is why FM is known as the constant Bandwidth system

POWER OF AN F.M WAVEFORM

We know that V n=J n V c

Where Jn = Voltage amplitude of Bessel function value

Vn = Voltage amplitude of r.m.s of Side Band (SB)
2
Vn
And Pn=
R

But PT =Po +2 P1+ 2 P2 +2 P3 +¿…….

2 2 2 2
Vc V1 V2 V3
¿ +2 +2 +2 +…
R R R R

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
J0 Vc J1 Vc J2 Vc J3 Vc
¿ +2 +2 +2 +…
R R R R
22
Vc
¿
R
[J 0
2
+ 2 ( J 1 + J 2 + J 3 +… )
2 2 2
]

[
PT =Pc J 0 + 2 ( J 1 + J 2 + J 3 +… )
2 2 2 2
]
Problem 1.
A 30 watts un-modulated carrier is frequency modulated with a sinusoidal signal such that the
peak frequency deviation (∆f) is 12 KHz. The frequency of the modulating signal is 3KHz.
Determine the output power.

∆ f 12 KHz
mf = = =4
f m 3 KHz

But Pc =30 Watts

Using the relation
[
PT =Pc J 0 + 2 ( J 1 + J 2 + J 3 +J 4 + J 5 + J 6 + J 7
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
)]
PT =Pc ¿

¿ 30 ×0.9952
¿ 29.856
PT =29.86 Watts

Problem 2.
 In an F.M radio signal, a frequency deviation (∆f) of 90 KHz is used and the maximum audio
transmitted signal is 15 KHz. Use the Bessel function table to sketch the spectral amplitude
spectrum of the resulting F.M waveform for the case of a 15 KHz modulating signal. Determine
also the percentage of power contained in
(i) A 60 KHz bandwidth about the carrier
(ii) A 180 KHz bandwidth about the carrier

∆ f 90 KHz
mf = = =6
f m 15 KHz

From Bessel Table

J 0 ( 6 ) =0.15 2
[ J 0 (6) ] =0.0225
J 1 ( 6 )=−0.28 [ J 0 (6) ] =0.0784
2

J 2 ( 6 )=−0.24 2
[ J 0 (6) ] =0.0576
J 3 ( 6 )=0.11 [ J 0 (6) ] =0.0121
2

J 4 ( 6 )=0.36 2
[ J 0 (6) ] =0.1296
J 5 ( 6 )=0.36 [ J 0 (6) ] =0.1296
2

J 6 ( 6 ) =0.25 2
[ J 0 (6) ] =0.0625
J 7 ( 6 )=0.13 [ J 0 (6) ] =0.0169
2

Making the sketch, we have

0.15
For mf = 6
0.28 0.28

0.24 0.24
0.11 0.11
0.36 0.36 0.36
0.36

fc -5fm fc - 4fm fc - 3fm fc - 2fm fc - f m fc fc + f m fc +2 fm fc + 3fm fc + 4fm fc + 5fm

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM SHOWING HOW F.M WAVE IS ACHIEVED

Already, we have stated that frequency modulation is the variation of the frequency of the carrier
signal in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. Such that when
the amplitude of the modulating signal is positive, the carrier frequency Fc is decreased. The
waveform of a frequency modulated wave is of the form shown below.
 PHASE MODULATION
In phase modulation, the modulating signal is forced to vary in proportion with the phase of the
carrier signal. The unmodulated carrier will be
e c =cos (ω c t+ φc ) ---------------------(1)

the carrier phase φ c is usually substituted by φ (t) is usually substituted by φ (t) such that

φ ( t )=φc + k V m (t)

Since φ c is a constant which does not affect modulation, then

φ ( t )=k V m (t)

¿ k E max cos ω m t

k E max=¿ peak phase deviation and is usually designated as ∆ φ (phase modulation index).
Therefore,
φ ( t )=∆ φ cos ω m t ----------------------(2)

Substitute (2) into (1), we have

e p=cos ( ω c t+ ∆ φCos ω m t ) -----------------(3)

Equation (3) is the required equation of a phase modulation (PM) waveform

SPECTRUM OF A MODULATED SIGNAL

By comparing the equation of PM waveform and that of FM waveform, it becomes obvious that
the spectrum for a PM signal will be the same as that of an FM signal

DETECTION OF FM SIGNAL
Using the direct method, FM signal is transformed into AM signal. It is enough to pass the FM
signal through a differentiator to obtain AM signal and this signal is then passed through
envelope detector as shown in diagram below.

FM Signal AM Information Signal

AM Signal
Differentiator Envelope
Detector

PHASE LOCKED LOOP (PLL)

 FM Signal Information Signal

Phase Detector Low Pass Filter

Voltage Control
Oscillator
(VCO)

The Block Diagram of PLL-FM Demodulator

A phase Locked Loop (PLL) induces to demodulate the FM signal. Its’s principle components
include phase detector (or phase comparator), Voltage Control Oscillator (VCO) and Low Pass
Filter (LPF). The figure above shows a typical PLL circuit. The VCO is designed in such that it
will oscillate at the carrier frequency. The phase detector has two inputs, the FM signal and the
VCO frequency. The output of the phase detector is zero. This phase detector will ideally have
output pulses whose width are proportional to difference in phase between the VCO and the FM
signal when two signals are in the same frequency. No output exist as the FM signal begins to
deviate. However, an output pulse with the width proportional to the error between the VCO and
the FM signal generated.
These pulses are integrated by the LPF to produce a d.c error voltage proportional to
different frequency between the FM and the VCO signal. This d.c control voltage therefore
follows the deviation and is proportional to the original modulating audio signal.

COMPARISON OR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AM AND FM SIGNALS

S/N AM FM
AM signals have modulated or varied amplitude, FM has Constant amplitude
1)
constant frequency and phase but varied frequency
FM requires more complex
AM signal is realised and detected by a simple circuit
2) circuit for its realisation and
such as diode and transistor circuits
detection
3) AM is narrow band FM is wide band

ADVANTAGES OF FM AND AM

1) Because of the wide band, FM is used for stereophonic sound production

2) FM is less affected by noise due to constant amplitude
3) Selective fading that affects AM does not affect FM because of their range of frequencies
of operation. FM operates in the upper Very High Frequencies (VHF) and Ultra High
 Frequencies (UHF). AM operates in the Medium Frequencies (MF) and High
Frequencies (HF).
4) AM is useful where bandwidth swing is required
5) The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is much higher in FM than in AM. This facility makes
FM reception a good deal which makes it more immune to noise than AM reception.

DISADVANGES OF FM

1) FM transmitters and receivers are more complex to design particularly the modulation
and demodulation circuits. Therefore, they tend to be more expensive than AM.
2) Since the reception is limited to line-of-sight, the area of reception for FM is much
smaller than for AM. This limits the advantage of FM to very small broadcast.

DIGITAL MODULATION
In digital modulation, a finite set of discrete values are used to represent the information. These
discrete values called digital data signal may arise in one or two ways; they may originate in
digital form i.e 0 or 1 or they may be sampled data form from a continuous signal, as in Pulse
Modulation but with sample quantized to the nearest value within the finite set of numbers. An
example of digital modulation is the Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).

PULSE MODULATION

Pulse Modulation is another form of analog modulation which utilizes an analog modulating
signal (Vm(t) = VmSin ωmt) to modulate a train of carrier pulses. Here, a low frequency analog
information signal is sampled at various points e.g PAM.
Pulse modulation is a technique in which the signal is transmitted with the information by pulses.
This is divided into Analog Pulse Modulation and Digital Pulse Modulation.
Analog pulse modulation is classified as
1) Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
2) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
3) Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
Digital modulation is classified as
1) Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
2) Delta Modulation (DM)

COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES by Dr. Ikharo Abdullahi Braimoh is

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