S2 Chemistry

materials

do not write
on these sheets 1
2
3
 MATERIALS
Any substance can be described as a SOLID, LIQUID or a GAS.
These are called the THREE STATES OF MATTER.

1. Solids
Imagine you are building a house and you make a list of all
the things you need:
Fraser wants to
bricks, wood, glass, pipes, roof tiles hammer a nail into a
piece of wood. He
All these have something in common. They are hard and uses a hammer or a
stone because they
keep their shape. They are called solids. are both hard solids.

1. Copy and complete the table below in your jotter.

2. Draw any solid and write a description about it.

4
Liquids
If you want to wash a kitchen floor or a car
there a several substances you could use
water, disinfectant, washing-up liquid,
bleach Heather wants to clean mud
from a path. She uses a hose
and sprays it with water.
Water is a liquid. Liquids
All these have something in common. They are spread out to cover a surface.

runny and wet and flow wherever they can.

They are called liquids.
They take up the shape of the container into
which they are poured.

1. Copy and complete the table below in your jotter.

2. Draw any liquid and write a description about it.

5
Gases
We all have to breathe to stay alive.
We breathe in many substances

Frank has a puncture. To find

nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide the hole, he pumps the tube
full of air to blow it up.
Air is a gas. Gases spread out
These substances are called gases. They spread out to to fill all the space they are
given.
fill all the spaces they can find. Gases fill the contain-
ers in which they are kept. Many gases, like those
found in air, are invisible.

When a gas tap is left on in the lab, the whole class can soon smell gas.
This is because the gas fills the whole room.
If you left the water tap on, only the floor would get wet. Liquids spread out to
cover a surface only, but a gas can go anywhere.

1. Copy and complete the table below in your jotter.

2. Write a description about any gas you choose.

6
2. Particles
All substances are made from particles.
The way in which these particles are:
Arranged
How they move
How close they are to their neighbours
explains why they behave the way they do.
Solids
Solids have a fixed shape and
cannot flow.
Particles are only able to vibrate about a
fixed position.
“solid”

They cannot move from place to place.

Bonds between particles are strong and

so keep the particles stuck together.

Liquids
Liquids flow and take the shape of their
container.

When water is poured into a glass, the

particles of water are still close together but
can move over each other. They keep on
moving over each other as the water takes “liquid”

the shape of the glass.

The bonds between the particles are strong

but weak enough to let them move around
each other.

Gases
Gases flow to fill their container and to take its
shape.
This is because there are no bonds between the
particles and so they can move in all
directions.
“gas”

When a bunsen burner is turned on, particles of

gas are free to move anywhere inside the tubing.
The pressure forces them through the tubing
and into the bunsen.
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Particles:
Activity 2.1
1. Cut out all of the nine diagrams from handout 1
2. Draw a table with three headings in your jotter :
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS & GASES.
3. Place the diagrams under the correct heading.
Get your teacher to check your answers before sticking them in.

Activity 2.2
1. Now cut out all the 20 boxes from handout 2
2. On the same table, place these boxes under the correct heading.
3. Get your teacher to check your answers before sticking them in.

QUESTIONS: Explain:
1. How ice is different from water.
2. Why you can walk on a frozen pond.
3. Why water is runny.
4. Why a car tyre goes flat if a nail makes a hole in it. 8
5. Why a balloon gets bigger as you blow more air into it.
handout 1

handout 1

9
handout 2
Particles Are Particles Are Particles moving Will always keep
free free fast in all its shape

To move To move directions

Will always keep Will always keep Will not Particles are
its shape its shape
flow vibrating

Will not Will keep the Particles moving Will keep the
same volume about changing same volume
flow
places

Takes the shape Takes the shape Particles moving Can flow
of its container of its container about changing
easily
places

Can flow Particles fixed Particles unable Will keep the

in a regular
easily to move over same volume
pattern
each other

handout 2
Particles Are Particles Are Particles moving Will always keep
free free fast in all its shape

To move To move directions

Will always keep Will always keep Will not Particles are
its shape its shape
flow vibrating

Will not Will keep the Particles moving Will keep the
same volume about changing same volume
flow
places

Takes the shape Takes the shape Particles moving Can flow
of its container of its container about changing
easily
places

Can flow Particles fixed Particles unable Will keep the

in a regular
easily to move over same volume
pattern
each other

10
3. changes of state
Substances can be changed from one state into
another state by Heating or Cooling.

1. HEATING: Solid to Liquid

The more energy particles have, the more they can move around.
Particles in solid chocolate or ice or gold do not have much energy.
This is why they are hard.

The particles in water or runny chocolate or molten gold have more energy to
move about.

We must supply energy to change ice into water or chocolate into a sticky
mess. We have to give the particles enough energy so that they can slide about.

Heating a solid gives the particles more energy causing them to move
faster. This extra energy weakens the bonds between the particles
causing the solid to melt.

heat
melting 1
melting 2
melting 3

Chocolate melts at about 35oC.

Pure ice melts into We say that chocolate has Wax in
water at 0oC. a higher melting point than ice. candles
This is the melting melt at
point of water. 50oC

Metals, like aluminium and iron, If the temperature

have to be very hot to melt.
They have very high melting around a solid is
points.
Aluminium melts at 600oC
higher
Iron melts at 1,500oC
Tungsten melts at 3,400oC !
than its melting point,
then the solid will
melt.
Explain in terms of energy what is
happening in the diagram shown left.

Icebergs getting
smaller 11
changes of state
2.HEATING: Liquid to Gas
The particles in water or molten gold have more energy to move about.

If even more energy is supplied to these liquids, the particles have enough
energy to move much faster. They can break the bonds between their
neighbours and fly away. They have turned into a gas.

heat
boiling 1
boiling 2

A liquid evaporates when it turns into a gas.

3. COOLING: Gas to Liquid

Particles in a gas have so much energy that they move about very quickly in-
deed.
When we cool something we take heat away from it.

When the gas is cooled down, the energy of the particles decreases.
This causes the particles to move much more slowly.

cool

condensing 1
condensing 2

A gas condenses when it turns into a liquid.

Explain in terms of energy

what is happening in the two
diagrams shown left.

Hair dries Bus windows mist

up in winter 12
changes of state
4. COOLING: Liquid to Solid
Particles in a liquid have enough energy to move about by sliding
over each other.

When the liquid is cooled, the energy of the particles decreases.

Particles now move much more slowly.

They are now fixed in position.

New bonds form between particles and the liquid

turns into a solid.
“freezing”

cool

A liquid freezes when it turns into a solid.

bill nye
“phases of
matter”

Explain in terms of energy

what is happening in the
diagram shown left.

Icicles forming
on trees

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changes of state: solid to liquid
Activity 3.1
1. Put on your safety goggles.
2. Put a few crystals of the solid into the
test tube.
3. Put this test tube into a beaker of
water.
4. Heat the water with the bunsen
burner but don’t let it boil.
5. Watch carefully to see what happens
to the solid.
6. Write an account of your experiment
using the headings Aim, Method & Results.

changes of state: liquid to gas

Activity 3.2
1. Put on your safety goggles.
2. Half fill a beaker with water and put it on
the tripod stand.
3. Light the Bunsen burner and heat the water
but don’t let it boil.
Turn off the bunsen.
4. Put FIVE drops of the liquid into the test
tube. Place a cotton wool plug onto the tube.
5. Put the test tube into the hot water.
6. Watch carefully what happens to the liquid.
7. Write an account of your experiment
using the headings Aim, Method & Results.

Questions
1. What happened when the a) solid and b) the liquid were heated up?
2. Give everyday examples of each of these changes of state.
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changes of state: gas to liquid
Activity 3.3 1. Make sure you keep your test tube from
the last experiment.
2. Put some ice into a different beaker.
3. Put your test tube containing the gas
into the ice and stir it around.
4. Watch carefully what happens inside
the test tube
5. Write an account of your experiment
using the headings Aim, Method &
Results.

Questions
1. What happened when the gas was cooled down?
2. Give an example of this change of state.

4. changes of state: The Water Cycle

Water is the only substance that can be found naturally on the
Earth as a liquid, a solid (ice) or a gas (water vapour).

Water moves around the environment in a recycling process known

as the Water Cycle.

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changes of state: The Water Cycle
Activity 4.1

1. Collect handout 3
2. Fill in the blanks from 1 to 9.
3. Stick your handout into your jotter.

Activity 4.2
1. Cut out all of the 20 labelled statements from handout 4
2. Write out four headings in your jotter as shown below:
MELTING, EVAPORATING, FREEZING & CONDENSATION.
3. Place the labels under the correct heading.
Get your teacher to check your answers before sticking them in.

Questions
Explain why:
1. It takes longer for towels to dry outside
than towels that are held in front of a fire.
2. You feel cold standing about after you
have been swimming.
3. Boiling potatoes have been burnt below

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handout 3

2.

water
cycle 3.
1.solid

4.

handout 3

2.

water
cycle 3.
1.solid

4. 17
handout 4
ice cubes ice lolly paint dew on the
disappearing dripping drying morning grass

water on kitchen pond becomes juice forming

“tippex” covering
tiles next to a kettle
up mistakes a skating rink a “slush puppy”

windows mist up puddles clothes

after a shower fog disappearing drying

snow preparing water blow drying hailstones

forming to make tea your hair forming

on a cold day frosty windows

” runny” nail varnish
we see in the morning
ice cream hardening
our breath

handout 4
ice cubes ice lolly paint dew on the

disappearing dripping drying morning grass

water on kitchen pond becomes juice forming

“tippex” covering
tiles next to a kettle
up mistakes a skating rink a “slush puppy”

windows mist up puddles clothes

after a shower fog disappearing drying

snow preparing water blow drying hailstones

forming to make tea your hair forming

on a cold day
” runny” nail varnish frosty windows
we see in the morning
ice cream hardening
our breath

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changes of state: The Water Cycle.
Warm damp air is full of water vapour.
The air stays clear as long as the water is all vapour.
However, the higher you go the cooler it gets.
The vapour condenses into a fine mist of water droplets held up
(suspended) by the air - better known as clouds.

“water
cycle”

1. Winds carry the warm damp air upwards.

2. The droplets are swept up by the climbing air.
3. They collide and bump into each other.
4. They combine to make bigger drops.
5. Eventually they get so big and heavy they start to fall
as rain or snow.
6. Rain water runs over the land and collects in lakes or
rivers, which take it back to the sea.
8. The cycle starts all over again.

Activity 4.2 Use the information given above

to fill in the boxes on handout 5

bill nye
“the water
cycle”

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The Water Cycle

insert
handout 5
here

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5. solutions: no lumps
Tap water doesn’t taste of anything, but sea water and
swimming pool water taste awful. That’s because there is stuff
in the water.

Sea water is salty. You can taste the salt in the water.
Swimming pools have chlorine in the water which kills germs
and nips your eyes.

You can’t see chlorine in the pool. You can’t see salt in the sea.
Both the chlorine and the salt mix completely in the water
to make solutions.

Fizzy drinks are also solutions.

It looks just like a single liquid,
without any lumps in it.
It is mostly water with sugar,
flavourings, colouring and gas in it.
When you pour it out some of the
“dissolving”

bubbles of gas escape out of the

solution.

You make a solution by dissolving one thing in another.

As you stir a teaspoonful of sugar into a glass of
water, the sugar seems to get less and less.

Looking through a magnifying glass you will see the

little lumps of sugar go soft at the edges and get
smaller and smaller.
“fountain
experiment”

When the lumps have disappeared you have a sugar solution.

It just looks like pure water.
A liquid (water) has dissolved the solid (sugar).
The substance that dissolves is called the solute.
The liquid which dissolves it is called the solvent.

Questions
a) What is a a) solute b) solvent c) solution?
b) Which of these are solutions?
Sea water, fresh water, “Irn Bru”, sugar, mercury, lemonade, oil.
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solutions: water as a solvent
For a solid to be dissolved easily, we need the correct
solvent.
Dirty clothes are washed in hot water as the solvent for
the dirt, dissolving it which is then “washed away”.
(Soap powder is added to help the water dissolve the dirt).

However, hundreds of solids (and liquids) will not

dissolve in water.
e.g. plastic, metals, inks, cotton wool, etc.

This experiment lets you find out which substances

dissolve in water.

A list of stuff (solutes)

dissolved in bottled water

Activity 5.1
1. Put about 3cm of water in a test tube.
2. Add a very small amount of substance into
the test tube.
3. Shake the tube from side to side
4. Look carefully. Has the substance dissolved?
Have any other changes taken place?
5. Copy & complete the table below.
Put your results in it.
6. Write an account of your experiment
using the headings Aim, Method & Results.

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solutions: solvents other than water
Certain solids do not dissolve in water.
A different solvent is needed to dissolve them.
So how is grass, blood or coffee stains removed from
clothes if warm water will not dissolve them?
This is when a different solvent, other than water, is used.
This experiment lets you find out which solvents can
dissolve nail-varnish.

Activity 5.2
1. Collect a slide with streaks
of nail-varnish on it.
2. Put only one drop of a solvent onto
the cotton bud.
3. Try to remove the nail-varnish streak
using the bud.
4. Count how many strokes it took to
dissolve the streak.
cotton bud
5. Copy & complete the table below.
Put your results in it.

6. Write an account of your experiment

using the headings Aim, Method & Results.

solvent used number of strokes to remove it

Questions
a) How did you make this a ‘fair’ experiment?
b) Which of your solvents would make good “nail-varnish removers”?
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6. solutions: crystals
A crystal is a solid whose particles are arranged in a 3-D repeating pattern.
Computer processors are made from pure silicon crystals
Keys are mostly iron crystals. Gold wedding rings are crystals.
Accurate clocks have vibrating quartz crystals in them.
Diamonds, rubies, sapphires and emeralds are very expensive and beautiful
crystals. But they can also be found in your kitchen in the form of sugar and salt!
Liquid crystals, can act as both as a liquid and as a crystal.
They are ordered like a solid crystal in two directions, but not in a
third. This allows them to flow like a liquid. They are used to create
a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) in calculators and flat-screen TVs.

Crystals can be grown by making a type

of solution called a saturated solution.

If you put lots of sugar in your tea it’ll taste really

sweet.
We say it is a concentrated solution.
There is a lot of solute dissolved.
concentrated
solution

If you add even more sugar it will stop dissolving.

No more solute can dissolve.
We now have a saturated solution. saturated

We need a saturated solution if we are to make crystals. solution

Copper sulfate crystals are easy crystals to grow.

Activity 6.1 Here's how you can grow copper sulfate crystals yourself.

step one: making the saturated solution

1. Put 50cm3 of water into a beaker.
2. Add one spatulaful of copper sulfate.
Stir until all the solute is dissolved.
3. Repeat Step 2 until no more will dissolve.
4. Transfer the beaker to a tripod stand and heat up
the contents using a Bunsen. Stop heating just
before it boils.
5. Add another spatulaful of copper sulfate
and stir until all is dissolved.
6. Repeat Step 5 until no more will dissolve.
You have now made a saturated solution.
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solutions: crystals

Activity 6.2
step two: crystallisation

1. Now tie a ‘seed’ crystal to a piece of thread.

2. Hang the thread with the crystal dipping into
the middle of your saturated solution as shown.
3. Leave it until the next day.
4.Write an account of your experiment
using the headings Aim, Method & Results.

Draw the size and shape of the crystal produced.

(Use a coloured pencil)

Making crystals, known as crystallisation, is very important to a chemist.

It is used to make substances very pure.
The more you crystallise a substance (recrystallise) the purer it becomes.
Sugar cane and medicines such as penicillin, aspirin and insulin all have to
be recrystallised.

Gold is made up
of billions of gold
atoms stuck together

Sodium chloride (salt) crystal

made up of billions of sodiums
and chlorides stuck together

1. Read Page 84 Starting Science Book 2 & answer Questions 1 to 4.

2. Read Page 85 about “Crystallisation” & answer questions 1 to 5.
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 7. mixtures
Mixtures contain different substances jumbled
up together.
Mixtures can be separated again by methods
such as sieving, filtering, evaporating etc.

Mixtures can be made up of:

solid in a solid
eg MUESLI
solid in a gas
eg SMOKE
insoluble solid
in a liquid
eg MUDDY WATER

liquid in a liquid
eg MILK (emulsion) liquid in a gas gas in a solid
eg PUMICE STONE
eg CLOUDS

soluble solid gas in a gas

in a liquid
gas in a liquid eg AIR
eg SALT WATER
eg OXYGEN IN
WATER

Write down the substances that make up the following mixtures.

The first one has been done for you

1. Mayonnaise - a liquid in a liquid (oil in water) 2. Chocolate chip cookies

3. Cornflakes in milk 4. Air freshener 5. Dirty snow 6. Smog
7. Brass 8. “Lynx” deoderant 9. Sugary tea 10. Oil slick
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Separation processes
insert
handout 6
here

27
separating mixtures: evaporation
There are about 35 kilograms of salt in every cubic
metre of sea water! Hot desert countries get the
salt by leaving the sea water in shallow pools. The
heat from the baking sun evaporates the water
leaving the salt crystals behind.

Evaporation separates a
soluble solid from a liquid.

Sea water pumped into Sun evaporates water Salt scraped from
shallow pool leaving salt crystals bottom of pool

Activity 7.1
1. Put 50cm3 of water into a beaker.
water
evaporating salt crystals
forming
2. Add one spatulaful of salt. Stir until
all the solute is dissolved very hot
solution
3. Repeat Step 2 until no more will
dissolve. You have now made a
saturated salt solution.
4. Pour the contents of the beaker
into an evaporating basin.
5. Heat the basin until only a small amount
of liquid remains.
6. Turn the Bunsen off.
Wait and watch what happens.
7. Once the basin has cooled down,
collect your salt crystals.

Explain in detail how you could recover

all of the dissolved sugar shown left.

“Oh no! All the sugar’s

28
dissolved in the wet bowl”
 separating mixtures: distillation
The previous experiment enabled us to obtain solid salt from sea water.
However, in many countries, it is much more important to get pure water from
poisonous sea water.

Distillation separates a solvent from a solution.

Humans can live for weeks without
eating food but can only last a few days
without water. All living things have a lot of
water in them. We lose a lot of water by
sweating, breathing and going to the toilet.
Half of this water is replaced by the food
we eat. The rest has to be replaced by the
water we drink.
70% water

Our drinking water comes from the tap. But in parts of the world drinking water is difficult
to find. The planet is covered by 75% of water but this cannot be drunk because there is so
much salt dissolved in it. The set-up below shows how to get pure water from salty seawater.

Activity 7.2 : teacher demonstration

1 When the solution (sea water)
2
is heated, the water
3 evaporates.

2 The hot water vapour (steam)

passes through the delivery
tube.
1
3 It is then cooled down using a
cold wet glass cylinder called
a condenser.

4 The water vapour cools down

and condenses, trickling out.
4
The salt does not evaporate.
It is left behind as a solid in
the flask.

Explain how you could turn

poisonous seawater into fresh “distillation”

drinking water

“Arrgh! Water, water everywhere 29

but not a drop to drink!”
separating mixtures: filtration
Filtration is a separation process in which a mixture is passed
through a filter. One substance passes through this filter
barrier but the other one is blocked.
Filtration sorts by size. Smaller particles go through but
larger particles get trapped.
Examples being a colander separating spaghetti from water
and a coffee filter trapping coffee beans while water passes
through.
Filtration is used to separate an
insoluble solid from a liquid

Activity 7.3
You will make your own insoluble solid. Then you will separate this new solid
from the solution.

1. Measure 20cm3 of potassium iodide

solution into a 100cm3 beaker.
2. Add 20cm3 of lead nitrate solution filter
paper
to the same beaker.
3. Stir this mixture well.
4. Set up the apparatus as shown right. filter

5. Transfer small amounts of the mixture clamp

funnel

into the filter funnel very carefully. stand

6. Repeat Step 5 until the beaker is beaker

empty.
7. Write an account of your experiment
using the headings Aim, Method &
“ filtration”
Results.

Filtration can be used to also separate a solid from a gas.

Pollen or dust can be removed by using an air filter like the ones
found in cars or a simple mask that covers your nose and mouth.

Explain in detail how you would

solve the two problems shown left.

“Hoi! There’s glass “Ugh! There’s mud

in my soup!” in this drinking water” 30
separating mixtures: chromatography
A prism separates sunlight into many different colours - it forms a rainbow.
Like sunlight, chemical mixtures can also be separated into the parts that
make them up. This process is called paper chromatography.
Chromatography is a superb technique used in:
Forensic science (for identifying samples taken from crime scenes),
Pollution monitoring (for unknown pollutants in air and water samples),
Studying complex mixtures (in food, perfume, oil and drug production)
A big advantage is that only tiny samples and low concentrations are needed.

Chromatography separates dissolved

substances from one another.
Separating dissolved solids
The solids found in mixtures such as food colourings, plant dyes and inks in
coloured pens can be separated. Your task is to find out which colours
make up black ink in a coloured pen.

Activity 7.4
3
1. Measure 10cm of water using a measuring cylinder.
Add the water to a 100cm3 beaker
4. Attach the paper to a
2. Using a pencil, draw a faint wooden splint so that it
line across the paper 2cm from stands up in the beaker.
the bottom of the paper.
5. Carefully put the paper
3. Add a spot of ink to the into the beaker of water.
paper.

6. Allow the water level to move up

the paper.

7. Remove it when the water has moved

up about 3/4 the height of the paper.
“chromatography*”

8. Write an account of your experiment

using the headings Aim, Method & Results.

One of those blue cars has bumped into mine!

It has left a blue streak on my car. Explain in detail
how I could find out which car was to blame .

31
8.global warming: the greenhouse effect AIR
Air is also a mixture of different gases. The main ones are Nitrogen nitrogen
(78%), Oxygen (21 %) and Argon (almost 1 %) and a tiny amount of carbon oxygen
dioxide, CO2.
argon
CO2 is very important to green plants which absorb CO 2 together
with water and energy from sunlight to make their own food. So
do the plants use up all of the CO2? No.
Humans and all other animals breathe out CO2 . It is also
produced in vast quantities when fossil fuels like petrol, diesel,
gas, coal and oil are burned. The destruction of the forests is
another reason. Trees, other plants and algae absorb CO2 , but
nowhere near as fast as it is now being produced, so CO2 levels in
the atmosphere is slowly but steadily increasing.

CO2 in the air keeps the Earth warm. If there was no CO 2 then our planet would be very
cold, about minus 20OC! It acts like a blanket preventing too much heat being lost from
the Earth’s surface. This trapping of heat energy is called the ‘Greenhouse Effect’.
Temperatures around the world are now rising steadily. This may be due to the rise in CO2
levels and is known as ‘Global Warming’.

Global warming doesn’t mean that everywhere would become

hotter. Some places would actually become colder. Some would get
wetter and others drier. Extreme events such as heavy rains and
droughts are expected. The level of the seas will rise because wa-
ter expands as it gets hotter and also because of the ice at the
poles will melt. There may be more hurricanes, typhoons and
cyclones. A single result could help some people but at the same
time be harmful to others. For example fish might
shift to new warmer breeding grounds giving fishing
boats better catches but others poorer ones. Crops
could grow in areas that were once too cold but die
off in lands that are now too hot. bill nye
“melting of
ice-caps”

Questions
1. Why do plants need carbon dioxide?
2. Give some ways that CO2 is put into the atmosphere.
3. Explain why CO2 levels are increasing steadily.
4. What would be the surface temperature of the Earth if no CO2 was present?
5. What is the a) Greenhouse effect and b) Global warming?
6. List ten effects caused by Global warming.
7. Global warming can only be controlled if all the countries of the world agree to
do something about it.
a) Why is this? b) Some countries produce more CO2 than others. Name four
countries that you think are major producers of greenhouse gases such as CO2.
32
Global Warming

insert
handout 7
here

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