Computer Networks 1

Networking has always helped people achieve better results and make the best use of resources.

For example, if you need a book that is unavailable in your area, a friend from another part of the city can buy it for you.

The next day, he gives you the book, and you pay him back—both of you benefit.

This is how human networking works, and the same idea applies to computers.

Just like people connect to help each other, computers connect to share information and resources.

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system where two or more independent computing devices
(like laptops, smartphones, or printers) are connected to exchange data or share resources.
The connection can be made using cables or WiFi.

A computer network is a collection of interconnected autonomous computing devices so as to exchange

information or share resources.

Benefits of Computer Networks

1. Resource Sharing – Devices in a network can share storage, software, printers, and more.
2. Better Communication – Computers and devices can easily share data with each other.
3. Cost Reduction – Sharing resources helps reduce costs, as not every device needs its own separate
resources.

Components of a Computer Network

Simply connecting two computers with a cable does not create a network.
A proper computer network requires several components working together.

1. Hosts or Nodes
• Hosts (or nodes) are the computers and devices connected to a network to share resources.
• Examples: PCs, laptops, smartphones, smart TVs, and printers connected to a network.

2. Server
• A server is a computer that manages and provides services to other computers in the network.
• It helps in sharing data, resources, and communication among devices.
• There are two types of servers:
dedicated (only used for server tasks) and non-dedicated (used for other tasks as well).

3. Clients
• A client is a computer that requests services from a server.
• The server responds by providing the requested service, such as accessing a file or a website.
4. Network Hardware
These are the physical devices required to set up a network.
• NIC (Network Interface Card):
• A small hardware component attached to a computer for network connection.
• Each NIC has a unique MAC address (6-byte or 48-bit unique ID).
• Also called Network Interface Unit (NIU) or Terminal Access Point (TAP).
• Hub, Switch, Router:
• These devices help connect multiple computers in a network.
• Hub: Sends data to all devices in a network.
• Switch: Sends data only to the intended device, making it more efficient.
• Router: Connects different networks (e.g., home network to the internet).

5. Communication Channel
The medium through which data travels in a network.
• Wired Communication Channels (Uses physical cables):
• Examples: Twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables, fiber-optic cables.
• Wireless Communication Channels (Uses invisible signals like radio waves):
• Examples: Microwaves, radio waves, satellites, infrared waves, laser.

6. Software
Software plays a key role in making networking work properly.
• Protocols:
• Predefined rules that allow computers to communicate.
• Example: TCP/IP (used for the internet), HTTP (used for websites).
• Network Operating System (NOS):
• A special operating system designed for handling network tasks.
• Example: Windows Server, Linux Ubuntu Server.

7. Network Services
These are applications that provide various functions over a network.
• DNS (Domain Name System): Converts website names (like google.com) into IP addresses.
• File Sharing: Allows multiple users to access shared files.
• VoIP (Voice over IP): Enables voice calls over the internet (e.g., WhatsApp calls).
Types of Computer Networks
A computer network is a group of computers that are connected to share information and resources.
Networks can be small (few computers in an office) or very large (millions of computers across the world).
They differ in size, complexity, and how far they spread.

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

• A LAN is a small network covering a limited area, such as an office, school, or factory (up to 1 km).
• Purpose: Helps users share resources like data, printers, software, and the internet.
• Connection: Usually uses cables to link computers, but WiFi can also be used.
• Security: LANs are secure since they don’t connect to external networks.
• Speed: Very fast because of the short distance between devices.
Example: A school computer lab where all computers are connected to a single network.

2. Wide Area Network (WAN)

• A WAN is a network that connects computers across large distances—multiple cities, countries, or
even continents.
• Purpose: Allows fast and low-cost sharing of information between faraway locations.
• Connection: Can be made using fiber optic cables, satellites, or even telephone lines.
• A WAN can be made up of multiple LANs connected together.
• The internet is the biggest example of a WAN.
Example: A bank with branches in different cities, all connected to the same system.

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) [Less Common Today]

• A MAN is a network covering a large city (up to 30-40 km).
• Used mainly by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) for broadband connections.
• However, this term is not widely used today, as WANs have replaced MANs.
Example: The city-wide broadband internet provided by ISPs.

4. Personal Area Network (PAN)

• A PAN is a small network for personal devices within 10 meters (a single person’s use).
• Purpose: Helps connect devices like smartphones, laptops, and printers wirelessly.
• Connection: Uses technologies like WiFi, Bluetooth, or infrared.
• Uses: Sharing files, emails, music, photos, and internet access between personal devices.
Example: Connecting a smartphone to a laptop using Bluetooth to transfer files.

LAN WAN
1. It is spread over a small area. It is spread over a very large area.
2. It usually costs less to set it up. It costs higher to set it up.
3. It is usually a single network. It is usually a network of many networks.
4. LANs facilitate information sharing, WANs facilitate information sharing and
enhanced communication and resource enhanced communication primarily.
sharing.
Types of Networks by Component Roles
Computer networks can also be classified based on the role that computers play in the network.
There are two main types: Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks , Client-Server Networks

1. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks

• In a P2P network, all computers are equal—there is no dedicated server.
• Each computer can act as both a client (requesting resources) and a server (providing resources).
• These networks are best suited for small setups (up to 10 computers).

Key Features of P2P Networks:

1. No dedicated server – Any computer can share or request files.
2. Cost-effective – No need to buy expensive server hardware.
3. Slower performance – Since one computer does multiple tasks, it may slow down.
4. Less secure – No central security control, so data sharing is riskier.
Example: A small office where employees share files directly between their computers.

2. Client-Server Networks
• In a client-server network, there is a dedicated server that manages all requests from client
computers.
• This server does not function as a workstation—it is purely for managing network tasks.
• These networks are used in large organizations where centralized control is needed.

Key Features of Client-Server Networks:

1. Dedicated server – A computer is reserved just to handle network requests.
2. Faster performance – Since servers handle network tasks, workstations don’t slow down.
3. More secure – Centralized security and data management.
4. Scalable – Can handle hundreds or thousands of computers.
Example: A university network where students access files stored on a central server.

Types of Dedicated Servers in Client-Server Networks:

1. File Server – Stores and manages shared files.
2. Print Server – Manages printing requests from multiple computers.
3. Web Server – Hosts websites and serves web pages.

Conclusion
• P2P networks are good for small setups where users share files directly.
• Client-server networks are best for large setups where centralized control and security are needed.
 Client-server Network P2P Network

Security The server controls security of the network. No central control over security.

Management The server manages the network. No central control over the network. Anyone
Needs a dedicated team of people to can set up.
manage the server.

Dependency Clients are dependent on the server. Clients are not dependent on a central server.

Performance The server can be upgraded to be made If machines on the network are slow they will
more powerful to cope with high demand. slow down other machines.

Backups Data is all backed up on the main server. Each computer has to be backed up.
Data can easily be deleted by users.

Evolution of Networking
1. ARPANET (1969) – The First Network
• ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency NETwork) was the first-ever computer network.
• It was developed in 1969 by the U.S. Department of Defense to connect computers at universities and
defense organizations.
• The goal was to allow computers in different locations to communicate and share data.
• This was the foundation of today’s Internet.
Key Point: ARPANET was the first network in history.

2. NSFnet (1980s) – The Next Step

• In the 1980s, another federal agency, the National Science Foundation (NSF), created a new, more
advanced network called NSFnet.
• NSFnet was more powerful than ARPANET and allowed academic researchers to connect and share
information.
• However, it was restricted to academic use—private businesses were not allowed to use it.
Key Point: NSFnet improved networking but was limited to research and academics.

3. The Birth of the Internet

• Since NSFnet did not allow private businesses, many companies created their own networks.
• Later, these private networks were interconnected with ARPANET and NSFnet.
• The process of linking multiple networks together was called Internetworking.
• This interconnection led to the creation of the Internet.
Key Point: The Internet was formed by linking ARPANET, NSFnet, and private
networks.Conclusion

The development of ARPANET marked the beginning of networking.

NSFnet improved it further, and the Internet was born when multiple networks were linked together.
The Internet
The Internet is a worldwide system of connected computers. It started from a small network called
ARPAnet (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) and grew into a huge network that connects
computers and smaller networks all over the world.
Many different companies run different parts of the Internet, but they are all connected at certain points
called peering points.
Thanks to common Internet rules, called standards, people on one network can communicate with those on
another.

What is the Internet?

The Internet is like a giant web of smaller networks.
It allows computers to share information with each other.
To do this, all computers must follow a common set of rules, called protocols.
The Internet mainly uses a set of rules called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) to
send and receive data.

How Does the Internet Work?

Most computers are not directly connected to the Internet.
Instead, they are linked to smaller networks, which then connect to the Internet backbone through special
connection points called gateways.

Important Terms
1. Gateway
A gateway is a device that connects different types of networks so they can communicate with each other.

2. Backbone
The backbone is like the main highway of the Internet.
It is the central structure that connects different networks, just like:
• The trunk of a tree connects all its branches
• The spine of a human body connects different body parts
This backbone ensures that information can travel across different networks smoothly.
How the Internet Works
The Internet works by breaking information into small parts and sending them to the destination,
where they are reassembled into the original message.
Here’s how it happens step by step:

1. Breaking the Message into Packets

• When a file, document, or message is sent from one computer to another,
it is divided into small parts called packets.
• Each packet contains some data.

2. Assigning Numbers to Packets

• Every packet is given a serial number (for example, 1, 2, 3, etc.).

3. Sending Packets to the Destination

• All these packets are sent to the destination computer’s address.

4. Packets Arrive in a Random Order

• The destination computer does not receive the packets in order.
• For example, packet 10 might arrive before packet 1.
• If any packet is damaged or lost, it is requested again.

5. Reassembling the Packets

• The destination computer puts all packets back in order using their serial numbers.
• This restores the original message, file, or document.

How the Internet Makes This Possible

The Internet functions smoothly because all computers follow the same set of rules for communication,
called protocols.

What is the Protocol Used by the Internet?

The Internet follows a communication protocol called TCP/IP.

1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

• Breaks the file or message into packets at the sender’s computer.
• Reassembles the packets in the correct order at the receiver’s computer.

2. IP (Internet Protocol)
• Handles the address of the destination computer.
• Routes (sends) each packet to the correct destination.
Together, TCP/IP ensures that data reaches the correct place and is properly organized.
The Future of the Internet: InterSpace
What is InterSpace?
InterSpace is a software program that allows multiple users to communicate online using:
• Real-time audio, video, and text chat
• Dynamic 3D environments

Why is InterSpace Important?

• It is considered the future of the Internet.
• It allows people to connect in a more advanced way than today’s Internet.

How is InterSpace Different from the Internet?

• The Internet connects networks to transmit data.
• InterSpace connects spaces to manipulate information in multiple ways.
In simple words,
InterSpace is a vision of how the Internet will evolve, making online communication richer and more
interactive.

Switching Techniques
Switching techniques are methods used to transmit data across networks. They help in establishing
communication between two computers.
There are three types of switching techniques:
1. Circuit Switching
2. Message Switching
3. Packet Switching

1. Circuit Switching
What is Circuit Switching?
• In this technique, a complete physical connection is first established between the sender and receiver
before data is sent.
• Once the connection is made, data flows continuously between the two computers.

Example
• A local telephone network is an example of circuit switching.
• When you make a phone call, the telephone system creates a direct copper path between your phone
and the receiver’s phone.

Key Feature
• The most important part of circuit switching is that it sets up an end-to-end connection before
sending data.
2. Message Switching
What is Message Switching?
• In this technique, the sender’s computer sends the message to a switching office first.
• The switching office stores the message in its memory and waits for a free link to the next switching
office.
• Once a free link is available, the message is sent to the next office.
• This process continues until the message reaches the receiver’s computer.

Why is it Called Store and Forward?

• The message is first stored in a switching office and then forwarded one step at a time.

Key Feature
• There is no direct connection between the sender and receiver. Instead, the message is passed
through different switching offices.

3. Packet Switching
What is Packet Switching?
• In packet switching, data is divided into small fixed-size packets before being sent.
• These packets travel separately through the network and may take different routes.
• At the receiver’s end, all the packets are reassembled in the correct order.

How is it Different from Message Switching?

• In message switching, a full message is sent at once, but in packet switching, data is divided into small
packets.
• In message switching, data is stored on a disk, but in packet switching, it is stored in the main
memory.
• Since main memory is faster than a disk, packet switching improves network performance by
reducing access time.

Key Feature
• Packet switching is faster and more efficient than message switching because smaller packets are
easier to manage.
Data Communication Terminologies
Data communication is the process of transferring information from one place to another. Here are some
important terms related to data communication.

1. Data Channel
A data channel is the medium used to carry data from one point to another.
It can be a wired connection like fiber optics or copper cables, or a wireless connection like Wi-Fi or radio
waves.

2. Baud
Baud is a unit that measures how much information a communication channel can carry.
It is similar to bps (bits per second), which is another unit for measuring data transfer speed.

3. Bits Per Second (bps)

bps (bits per second) measures the speed at which data is transferred.
It is commonly used to indicate the speed of the Internet, modems, and phone lines.
There is a difference between bits and bytes:
• "b" (small letter) stands for bits per second (bps).
• "B" (capital letter) stands for bytes per second (Bps).
A rate of 1,000 bits per second is called kbps (kilobits per second).
Similarly, 1,000 bytes per second is written as Kbps (Kilobytes per second).
The small "k" in kbps stands for kilo (1,000), while the capital "K" in Kbps refers to Kilobytes.
For higher speeds, the following units are used:
• mbps (megabits per second) means 1,000,000 bits per second.
• Mbps (Megabytes per second) means 1,000,000 bytes per second.

4. Bandwidth
Bandwidth refers to the capacity of a communication channel.
It determines how much data can be transmitted in a given time.
A higher bandwidth allows more data to be sent or received per second.
In digital systems, bandwidth is measured in bps (bits per second).
For example, a modem that works at 57,600 bps has twice the bandwidth of a modem that works at 28,800
bps.
In analog systems, bandwidth is measured by the difference between the highest and lowest frequency of a
signal.
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz), which represents cycles per second.
A typical voice signal has a bandwidth of about 3 kHz (kilohertz), while an analog TV video signal has a
bandwidth of about 6 MHz (megahertz), which is 2,000 times wider than a voice signal.
Frequency measurements follow this order:
• 1 kHz (kilohertz) = 1,000 cycles per second
• 1 MHz (megahertz) = 1,000 kHz or 1 million cycles per second
• 1 GHz (gigahertz) = 1,000 MHz or 1 billion cycles per second
• 1 THz (terahertz) = 1,000 GHz or 1 trillion cycles per second

5. Data Transfer Rates

Data transfer rate represents the amount of data transferred per second by a communication channel,
computing device, or storage device.
Data rates are measured in bits per second (bps), bytes per second (Bps), or baud.
When measuring data transfer speed, prefixes like kilo (k), mega (M), giga (G), and tera (T) are based on
powers of 1,000. For example:
• 1 kbps = 1,000 bits per second
• 1 Mbps = 1,000 kbps = 1,000,000 bits per second
• 1 Gbps = 1,000 Mbps = 1,000,000,000 bits per second
• 1 Tbps = 1,000 Gbps = 1,000,000,000,000 bits per second
However, in storage capacity, these prefixes are based on powers of 1,024 instead of 1,000. For example:
• 1 KB (Kilobyte) = 1,024 bytes
• 1 MB (Megabyte) = 1,024 KB
• 1 GB (Gigabyte) = 1,024 MB
• 1 TB (Terabyte) = 1,024 GB
This difference between network speed and storage size is important to understand.
Transmission Media
Transmission media, also known as communication channels, refer to the physical or wireless paths used to
transfer data between computers and devices in a network.
These media can be classified into two categories: guided media and unguided media.
• Guided media involve physical cables, such as twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and fiber optic
cables.
• Unguided media use wireless transmission, such as radio waves, microwaves, and satellite
communication.

Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cable is one of the most commonly used cables in data communication.
It consists of two identical wires twisted together in a double helix shape.
The twisting of the wires helps in reducing crosstalk, which is the unwanted transfer of signals between wires,
leading to network errors.

Characteristics of Twisted Pair Cable

• The wires always come in pairs.
• Each pair of wires is twisted around each other to reduce interference.

Advantages of Twisted Pair Cable

1. Simple and easy to install – It does not require complex setup.
2. Flexible – It can be bent and adjusted easily.
3. Lightweight – It is not heavy, making it easy to handle.
4. Easy to connect – It can be quickly attached to devices.
5. Inexpensive – It is one of the cheapest types of network cables.

Disadvantages of Twisted Pair Cable

1. Limited transmission distance – Due to high attenuation (loss of signal strength), it cannot carry data
over long distances without repeaters.
2. Low bandwidth – It does not support high-speed broadband applications.
3. Limited data transfer speed – It supports a maximum speed of 1 Mbps without conditioning and 10
Mbps with conditioning.
Twisted pair cables are commonly used in telephone lines and local area networks (LANs), but due to their
limitations, they are often replaced by fiber optic cables in high-speed networks.
Types of Twisted Pair Cables
Twisted pair cables are widely used for network communication. They are classified into two types:
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

UTP cables are the most commonly used twisted pair cables. They do not have extra shielding around the
wires, making them cheaper, lighter, and easier to install. However, they are more susceptible to
interference and crosstalk from external signals.

Categories of UTP Cables

UTP cables come in different categories, each offering a specific speed and bandwidth.
• CAT1: Used for voice communication (telephone lines); does not support data transmission.
• CAT2: Supports up to 4 MHz bandwidth and 4 Mbps data speed.
• CAT3: Supports up to 16 MHz bandwidth and 10 Mbps data speed.
• CAT4: Supports up to 20 MHz bandwidth and 16 Mbps data speed.
• CAT5: Supports up to 100 MHz bandwidth and 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps) data speed.
• CAT6: Supports up to 250 MHz bandwidth and 10 Gbps (10,000 Mbps) data speed.
• CAT7: Supports up to 600 MHz bandwidth and 10 Gbps data speed.
• CAT8: Supports up to 2 GHz (2000 MHz) bandwidth and 40 Gbps data speed.

Limitations of UTP Cables

• The maximum cable length for UTP cables is 100 meters.
• They are more affected by electromagnetic interference compared to shielded cables.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

STP cables have an extra layer of shielding around the twisted pairs. This shielding protects against external
electromagnetic interference and crosstalk, making them more reliable for data transmission in high-
interference environments.

Advantages of STP Over UTP

• Better protection from interference due to shielding.
• Less crosstalk, meaning clearer signals and fewer network errors.

Limitations of STP Cables

• More expensive than UTP cables.
• Heavier and harder to install due to the extra shielding.
• Requires proper grounding at both ends for effective performance.
• Like UTP cables, the maximum segment length is 100 meters.
STP cables are commonly used in environments with high interference, such as industrial areas or places with
a lot of electrical equipment. However, due to their higher cost, they are less popular than UTP cables for
general networking.
Coaxial Cable
A coaxial cable consists of a solid wire core (which carries the signal), surrounded by one or more layers of
shielding made of foil or wire.
These layers are separated by a plastic insulator.
The shield helps to reduce interference and provides grounding.
Coaxial cables have better electrical properties than twisted pair cables, making them suitable for high-speed
communication.
Although not as common as twisted pair cables, they are widely used for television signals (CATV), building
security systems, and even shared cable networks for data transmission.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

1. Better data transmission – Performs better than twisted pair cables.
2. Supports shared networks – Can be used for multiple users in a network.
3. Broadband transmission – Can carry multiple channels at the same time (e.g., cable TV).
4. Higher bandwidth – Supports data speeds of up to 400 Mbps.

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

1. More expensive than twisted pair cables.
2. Not compatible with twisted pair cables, requiring special adapters.

Types of Coaxial Cables

1. Thicknet
• Thicker than thinnet.
• Can connect network nodes up to 500 meters apart.

2. Thinnet
• Thinner than thicknet.
• Can connect network nodes up to 185 meters apart.
Coaxial cables are mainly used in cable TV, security systems, and high-speed networks, but their use in
networking is declining due to the rise of fiber optics and wireless communication.
Optical Fibers
Optical fibers are thin strands of glass or plastic that carry light signals from one end to another.
The light is produced by Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Laser Diodes (LDs), and data is transmitted using
frequency modulation.
Optical fibers provide very high bandwidth, supporting speeds from 20 Mbps to 150 Mbps with LEDs and
even higher with LDs.

Structure of Optical Fiber

An optical fiber cable has three main parts:
1. Core – The glass or plastic part where the light travels.
2. Cladding – A layer that surrounds the core and reflects light back inside.
3. Protective Coating – Protects the fiber from damage and environmental conditions.

Advantages of Optical Fibers

1. No interference – Immune to electrical and magnetic interference (noise).
2. Ideal for tough environments – Works well in industrial areas.
3. High security – Difficult to tap or intercept the signal.
4. Very high transmission capacity – Can handle large amounts of data.
5. Supports broadband transmission – Can transmit data, TV signals, and sound simultaneously.

Disadvantages of Optical Fibers

1. Fragile – Needs careful handling and installation.
2. Difficult to connect – Joining two fibers or connecting a light source is complex.
3. Impossible to tap – Signals cannot be intercepted without physically cutting the fiber.
4. Signal issues – Light can arrive at the receiver out of phase, causing errors.
5. Connection losses – Loss of signal strength is common.
6. Hard to repair – Soldering fiber optic cables is difficult.
7. Expensive – Costlier than other cables.
Despite these challenges, optical fibers are essential for high-speed data transmission and are widely used in
communication networks.

Types of Fiber Optic Cables

1. Single-Mode Fiber
• Supports long distances (up to 5 km).
• Has a bandwidth of up to 10 Gbps.
2. Multi-Mode Fiber
• Supports shorter distances (up to 1 km).
• Has a higher bandwidth (up to 100 Gbps) than single-mode fiber.
Single-mode fiber is used for long-distance communication, while multi-mode fiber is preferred for high-
speed data transmission over shorter distances.
Guided Media Comparison
Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable
• Types: UTP (Unshielded) & • Thinnet: • Single Mode:
STP (Shielded) • Max Length: 185m • Max Length: Up to 5
• UTP: • Speed: 10 Mbps km
• Max Length: 100m • Ease: Easy to • Speed: 10 Gbps
• Speed: Up to 40 Gbps install • Ease: Very hard to
• Ease: Easy to install • Cost: Cheap install
• Cost: Cheapest • Interference: • Cost: Expensive
• Interference: High Moderate • Interference: None
• STP: • Thicknet: • Multimode:
• Max Length: 100m • Max Length: 500m • Max Length: Up to 1
• Speed: Up to 500 • Speed: 10 Mbps km
Mbps • Ease: Hard to • Speed: 100 Gbps
• Ease: Moderate install • Ease: Very hard to
• Cost: Moderate • Cost: Moderate install
• Interference: • Interference: Low • Cost: Expensive
Moderate • Interference: None

Microwave (Terrestrial Microwave)

• Uses signals instead of cables for long-distance communication.
• Requires transmitter, receiver, and antennas.
• Works on line-of-sight (clear path between antennas).
• With a 100m high tower, range can reach 100 km.

Advantages:
1. Cheaper than laying cables and maintaining repeaters.
2. No need for land rights (unlike underground cables).
3. Works well in difficult terrains (mountains, remote areas).
4. Can communicate over oceans.

Disadvantages:
1. Less secure than wired communication.
2. Signal interference due to multi-path propagation.
3. Weather affects signals (rain, storms).
4. Limited bandwidth available for use.
5. High cost for setup and maintenance.
Radio Wave Transmission
• Uses radio frequencies to send information (audio, video, data).
• Works with a transmitter (sends signal) and a receiver (receives and decodes signal).
• Antennas are used to send and capture signals.

Advantages:
1. Mobile – Works without fixed cables.
2. Cheaper than laying underground cables.
3. No need for land acquisition rights (unlike cables).
4. Works well in difficult terrains (hills, forests, remote areas).

Disadvantages:
1. Insecure – Signals can be intercepted.
2. Weather-dependent – Rain and storms affect signals.
3. Limited security – Communication can be easily disrupted.

Satellite Communication
• A special type of microwave communication using satellites as relay stations.
• Used for voice, fax, data, video, internet services.
• Works as a backup when wired networks fail (e.g., disasters).

How It Works:
1. Earth station sends signals to a satellite.
2. The satellite amplifies and retransmits signals.
3. Another earth station receives the signals.
4. This allows global communication in one step.

Advantages:
1. Covers a large area – Good for remote places.
2. Best alternative to expensive undersea cables.
3. Useful for intercontinental communication (long-distance calls, TV, internet).
4. Ideal for sparsely populated areas with no wired networks.

Disadvantages:
1. Limited antenna size on satellites reduces efficiency.
2. Overcrowded bandwidths due to low antenna gains.
3. High cost – Satellites are expensive to launch and insure.
4. Atmospheric losses above 30 GHz affect signals.
Other Unguided Media
Apart from microwaves, radio waves, and satellites, there are three other popular wireless communication
methods: Infrared, Laser, and Bluetooth.

1. Infrared
• Uses infrared light to transmit data.
• Commonly used in TV remotes, wireless speakers, and garage doors.
• Works within a room by bouncing off surfaces but cannot pass through walls.
• Used in handheld devices like PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants).
• Considered secure since it doesn’t spread beyond a room.

2. Laser
• Requires a direct line of sight between sender and receiver.
• Faster than microwaves but also unidirectional (one-way).
• Used for point-to-point communication, such as between buildings.
• Disadvantage: Affected by weather conditions like fog and rain.

3. Bluetooth
• Short-range wireless communication (up to 10 meters or 30 feet).
• Uses low-power radio waves (2.400 GHz – 2.483.5 GHz).
• Connects Bluetooth-enabled devices like smartphones, computers, and headphones.
• Widely used for file sharing, wireless accessories, and IoT devices.
Network Topologies
What is Network Topology?
• Topology refers to the pattern of interconnection between nodes (devices) in a network.
• The choice of topology affects the type of media used and the way data is transmitted.

Factors to Consider When Choosing a Topology

1. Cost:
• Should be affordable and easy to install.
• Using common media and minimizing distances can reduce costs.
2. Flexibility:
• Should allow easy reconfiguration (adding or moving devices).
• Important for offices where furniture and walls may change.
3. Reliability:
• Failures can be in individual devices or the entire network.
• A good topology helps identify and isolate faults to keep the network running.

Major Network Topologies

1. Star Topology – All devices connect to a central hub or switch.
2. Bus Topology – Devices are connected along a single cable.
3. Tree Topology – A combination of star and bus topologies.
4. Ring Topology – Devices form a closed loop (data moves in one direction).
5. Mesh Topology – Each device is connected to multiple devices.
6. Fully Connected Topology – Every device is connected to every other device.

Point-to-Point (P-P) Link

• A direct connection between two devices.
• Each device has one transmitter and one receiver.
• Data can travel on separate wires (faster) or the same wire (using special techniques).
Star Topology

What is Star Topology?

• A central node connects all other devices in the network.
• Each device has a single path to the central node.
• Commonly used in data networks and voice communication systems (e.g., IBM 370 installations).

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Easy to Maintain & Repair
• Concentration points (where connections meet) make service and reconfiguration easy.

2. Isolated Connection Failures

• If one device’s connection fails, only that device is affected, and the rest of the network keeps
working.

3. Centralized Control & Easy Problem Diagnosis

• The central node directly connects to all devices, making it easy to detect and fix issues.

4. Simple Data Transmission

• Only the central node handles communication, so data transmission is well-organized and easy to
manage.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Requires Long Cables
• Each device needs a separate cable to connect to the central node.
• This increases cost, installation difficulty, and maintenance efforts.

2. Difficult to Expand
• Adding a new device requires a new cable running all the way to the central node, making expansion
complicated.

3. Central Node Failure = Network Failure

• If the central node stops working, the entire network shuts down.
• This makes the central node very important, and extra backup systems may be needed.

Where is Star Topology Used?

• Used in networks where the main control and data processing happen at a central location.
• Common in offices, data centers, and communication systems.
Bus (Linear) Topology
What is Bus Topology?
• Uses a single cable (bus) to connect all devices in the network.
• Devices send data along the bus, and all devices receive the transmission.
• Terminators at both ends absorb signals to prevent interference.
• Used in traditional data networks, where a host communicates with multiple terminals.

How Data is Transmitted?

Data is sent in small blocks called packets. Each packet contains data + a destination address.
The device with the matching address copies the data.

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. Uses Less Cable & Simple Setup
• Since all devices share a single cable, the installation is cheaper.
• The wiring layout is simple and easy to maintain.

2. Reliable Design
• Straightforward architecture makes the network stable and efficient.

3. Easy to Expand
• New devices can be added anywhere along the cable.
• More segments can be added using repeaters (devices that boost signals).

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Difficult to Find Faults
• Since there is no central control, locating network problems is harder.

2. Fault Isolation is Challenging

• In star topology, faulty devices are easily disconnected.
• In a bus topology, if a device fails, it may affect the whole network.

3. Issues with Repeaters

• When expanding with repeaters, the network may need reconfiguration.

4. Requires Smart Devices

• Devices must decide who can send data to avoid collisions.

Where is Bus Topology Used?

• Suitable for small networks with fewer devices.
• Used in older data networks where a single communication line is enough.
Tree Topology
Tree topology is a mix of bus and star topologies and is used for networks with a hierarchical data flow.
The network looks like an upside-down tree, with a main root that branches out.

How It Works
• Data transmission works like in a bus topology.
• Terminators at the end of the network absorb signals.

Advantages
• Uses point-to-point wiring for segments.
• Supported by many hardware and software vendors.
• Flexible and scalable (can expand easily).

Disadvantages
• Limited segment length (depends on cable type).
• If the backbone cable breaks, the whole network fails.
• More complex to configure and wire than other topologies.

Other Types of Network Topologies

(i) Ring (Circular) Topology
• Each node connects to exactly two neighbors in a circular pattern.
• Data moves in one direction until it returns to the sender, who removes it.

(ii) Mesh Topology

• Each node connects to multiple nodes, ensuring alternative routes if a node fails.
• Extension of Point-to-Point (P-P) networks.

(iii) Fully Connected Topology

• Every node is directly connected to every other node.
• Ensures maximum reliability but is expensive.
Factors to Consider When Choosing a Topology
1. Importance of Work
• Critical networks (e.g., military) require fully connected topology to prevent failures.

2. Cost
• Bus topology is the cheapest.
• Fully connected topology is the most expensive.

3. Cable Length
• Bus topology uses less cable, making it cost-effective.

4. Future Expansion
• Star topology is best for easy network growth.

5. Communication Media
• Some locations (e.g., hilly areas) cannot use bus topology due to cable limitations.
• Star topology is commonly used in schools with unshielded twisted pair cables.
Identifying Devices in a Computer Network
To communicate in a large network like the Internet, every computer needs a unique identity. This is done
using two types of addresses:
• IP Address – Helps data reach the correct network.
• MAC Address – Ensures data reaches the correct device within the network.

1. IP Address (Internet Protocol Address)

• A logical address that helps computers find each other across networks using the TCP/IP protocol.
• Can change when a device connects to a different network or reboots.
• Two versions:

IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)

• 32-bit address (4 bytes).
• Written in dotted decimal format (e.g., 123.101.16.90).
• Supports about 4.3 billion unique addresses.

IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)

• 128-bit address (16 bytes).
• Uses hexadecimal format (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334).
• Provides much more unique addresses than IPv4.

2. MAC Address (Media Access Control Address)

• A physical address assigned to a computer’s Network Interface Card (NIC).
• Fixed and does not change, even if the device connects to a different network.
• Assigned by the NIC manufacturer and is globally unique.

MAC Address Format

• 48-bit address (6 bytes), written as hexadecimal pairs separated by colons (e.g., 10:85:03:63:2E:FC).
• First 3 bytes (24 bits) – Manufacturer ID (Organizational Unique Identifier or OUI, assigned by IEEE).
• Last 3 bytes (24 bits) – Device’s unique card number (assigned by the manufacturer).
Computer Network- II
The modern era is driven by technology and communication. This is possible because of network devices,
protocols, and related technologies. This chapter discusses the most commonly used network devices,
network protocols, and communication technologies.

Network Devices
To make a computer network work smoothly, specialized devices are needed along with computers and
cables. Here are the key network devices:

Modem
A modem connects a computer to the internet by converting digital data into analog signals and vice versa.
This process is called Modulation/Demodulation:
• Modulation – Converts digital data into analog signals for transmission.
• Demodulation – Converts received analog signals back into digital data.

Types of Modems:
1. Internal Modems – Fixed inside a computer.
2. External Modems – Connected externally like other peripherals.

Modulation Techniques:
1. AM (Amplitude Modulation) – Data is sent by changing the signal's amplitude.
2. FM (Frequency Modulation) – Data is sent by changing the signal's frequency.
3. PM (Phase Modulation) – Data is sent by changing the signal's phase.

RJ-45 Connector
RJ-45 (Registered Jack-45) is an 8-wire connector used in Ethernet LANs to connect computers. It looks
similar to an RJ-11 telephone connector but is wider.

Ethernet LAN Features:

• Developed by Xerox, DEC, and Intel.
• Uses bus or star topology.
• Supports speeds up to 10 Mbps.

NIC (Network Interface Card)

A Network Interface Card (NIC) allows a computer to connect to a network and communicate with other
devices.

Features of NIC:
• Every NIC has a unique node address.
• Also called Terminal Access Point (TAP) or Network Interface Unit (NIU).
• The manufacturer assigns a unique MAC Address (48-bit) to each NIC.
MAC Address: This is the Media Access Control Address, a unique physical address assigned to each NIC.
Ethernet Card
An Ethernet Card is a type of NIC specifically designed for Ethernet networks.

Ethernet Features:
• Developed by Xerox, DEC, and Intel.
• Uses bus or star topology.
• Supports speeds up to 10 Gbps.

Types of Ethernet Card Connections:

1. BNC Connector – For coaxial cables.
2. RJ-45 Connector – For twisted-pair cables.

Conclusion
Network devices like modems, NICs, and Ethernet cards play a crucial role in communication. RJ-45
connectors help in Ethernet connections, while MAC addresses ensure unique identification. Understanding
these devices is essential for working with networks.

Hub
A hub is a hardware device that connects multiple computers in a network. It helps in communication
between different devices in a Local Area Network (LAN).

How a Hub Works

• A hub has multiple ports, allowing many devices to connect.
• It sends incoming data to all connected devices. However, only the intended device accepts the
message, while others ignore it.
• It is sometimes called a concentrator, as it provides a central connection point for cables from
computers, servers, and other devices.

Types of Hubs
Hubs can be passive or active:
1. Active Hub – Boosts (amplifies) the signal as it moves between devices, similar to a repeater.
2. Passive Hub – Simply forwards the signal without changing it.

Hub in Ethernet Networks

• Ethernet is a LAN technology that uses bus or star topology and supports speeds of up to 10 Gbps.
• Hubs are commonly used in Ethernet networks to connect multiple computers in a wired LAN.
Switch
A switch is a more advanced device than a hub. It helps divide a network into smaller parts (called subnets or
LAN segments) to reduce traffic congestion and improve efficiency.

How a Switch Works

• A switch does not broadcast data to all devices like a hub.
• Instead, it sends data only to the intended device, making it a unicast device (point-to-point
communication).
• A switch segments a network into smaller groups, improving speed and security.

Switch vs. Hub – Example

A switch works like a telephone system with private lines.
• Imagine Amulye Sen at Maurya Hotel calling Ibrahim Soz in another room.
• The hotel’s phone system (switch) connects them directly instead of making the entire hotel listen to
their conversation.
• This allows multiple people to talk at the same time, improving communication.

Advantages of a Switch Over a Hub

• Filters and forwards data efficiently.
• Prevents traffic overload by creating smaller network segments.
• Supports multiple protocols and works with different types of network packets.

Conclusion
• A hub is a simple device that connects multiple computers and broadcasts messages to all devices.
• A switch is smarter and sends data only to the correct destination, reducing congestion and improving
speed.
• In modern networks, switches are preferred over hubs for better performance and security.

Repeater
A repeater is a device that boosts and restores network signals to ensure they reach their destination
without losing quality.

Why Do We Need a Repeater?

• Network cables can carry signals only up to 100 meters before they start weakening.
• A repeater amplifies the signal so it can travel longer distances.
• It is used in long network lines where signals degrade over distance.

Types of Repeaters
1. Amplifier Repeater – Amplifies both the signal and any background noise.
2. Signal Repeater – Cleans and retransmits the signal as if it were fresh from the source.
Bridge
A bridge is a device that connects two networks that use the same communication rules (protocols).

How Does a Bridge Work?

• It learns which devices are on each side of the network.
• It only allows necessary messages to cross from one side to the other.
• Bridges help reduce unnecessary network traffic.

Router
A router is a device that connects different networks and decides the best path for data to travel.

How Does a Router Work?

• A router forwards data between different networks, unlike a bridge which works within similar
networks.
• If a router does not know the destination, it sends the data to another router.
• Uses a routing table to choose the best path for data transmission.
• If a network link fails, the router finds an alternate route to keep data moving.

Types of Routers
1. Wired Router – Connects devices using cables.
2. Wireless Router – Connects devices using WiFi.
3. Modem Router – A single device that functions as both a router and a modem.

Gateway
A gateway is a device that connects different types of networks with different communication protocols.
How Does a Gateway Work?
• It acts as an entry point between networks.
• In companies, a gateway helps connect internal networks to external networks.
• In homes, the Internet Service Provider (ISP) acts as a gateway to connect users to the Internet.

Additional Functions of a Gateway

• Can act as a proxy server, appearing as a server but managing traffic.
• Can work as a firewall, preventing unauthorized access.
• Works alongside routers and switches to direct network traffic.

WiFi Card
A WiFi card is either an internal or external Local Area Network adapter with a built-in wireless radio and
antenna.
Types of WiFi Cards
1. Internal WiFi Card – Installed inside the computer, usually as a PCI-Express card in desktop computers.
2. External WiFi Card – A plug-in device (like a USB WiFi adapter) that adds wireless connectivity to a
computer.
Conclusion
• Repeaters boost signals for long-distance communication.
• Bridges connect similar networks, while routers connect different networks.
• Gateways manage traffic between networks with different protocols.
• WiFi cards enable wireless connectivity in computers.
Each of these devices plays a crucial role in making network communication smooth and efficient.

WiFi Card – Benefits

A WiFi card allows a computer to connect to a wireless network.

Why Use a WiFi Card?

• Helps set up a workstation or home office without worrying about network cables.
• Useful when wired network access is unavailable or inconvenient.

Network Setup Checklists

For Building a Small LAN (Local Area Network)
• Computers with NICs (Network Interface Cards) installed.
• Server for managing data and connections.
• Hub to connect multiple devices.
• Cables for wired connections.
• Networking software to manage the system.

For Connecting Offices in Different Locations

• Computers with NICs installed.
• Servers for storing data.
• Hubs and Switches for efficient data transfer.
• Routers at each location for WAN (Wide Area Network) connections and Internet access.
• Access server for remote users connecting via dial-up.

For Connecting Departments in an Office

• Computers and Servers for data storage and sharing.
• Hubs and Switches to manage network traffic.
• Router for shared Internet access.
• WAN service like ISDN or leased lines for long-distance communication.
• Networking software for smooth operation.
Why and When to Use Network Devices?
Hubs and Switches – Why Are They Needed?
A hub or switch is needed to connect multiple computers in a network.

How Does a Hub Work?

• A hub is a simple device that broadcasts data to all connected computers.
• It does not remember which computer sent the data, so it sends the message to all computers.
• It can only send or receive data at a time (not both).
• Cheap but inefficient as it increases unnecessary network traffic.

How Does a Switch Work?

• A switch is smarter than a hub and sends data only to the target device instead of broadcasting it to
all.
• It uses a MAC address to identify the correct destination.
• Unlike hubs, switches do not share bandwidth among all devices.
• They allow simultaneous sending and receiving of data.
• More expensive but improves network efficiency.

Why Are Repeaters Needed?

• When data travels over long distances, it loses strength.
• A repeater amplifies and restores the signal, ensuring it reaches its destination.
• Wireless repeaters extend WiFi range.

When Should You Use a Repeater?

• When network cable length exceeds 100 meters (e.g., in Fast Ethernet).
• Wireless repeaters are useful when WiFi signals need to cover larger areas.

Where Should the Server Be Placed in a Network?

• The server should be placed where most computers are located.
• 80-20 Rule: 80% of network traffic should stay local, and only 20% should go across different network
sections.
• Example:
• If Building A has 120 computers and Building B has 75, the server should be in Building A to
reduce unnecessary data travel.
Choosing the Right Communication Media
Twisted Pair Cable – When to Use?
• Cheap and easy to install.
• Best for short distances and low-speed data transfer (up to 100 MHz).
• Susceptible to noise and interference.
• If used for:
• Analog transmission → Needs amplifiers every 5-6 km.
• Digital transmission → Needs repeaters every 2-3 km (100m for Fast Ethernet).

Coaxial Cable – When to Use?

• Used for TV signals, cable TV, and long-distance telephone transmission.
• Can carry up to 10,000 voice calls simultaneously.
• If used for:
• Analog transmission → Needs amplifiers every 5-6 km.
• Digital transmission → Needs repeaters every 1 km.

Fiber Optic Cable – When to Use?

• Best for high-speed data transfer (hundreds of Gbps).
• Very secure and has low signal loss.
• Most expensive network cable.
• Repeaters required every 10+ km.

Radio Waves – When to Use?

• Used for long-distance, omnidirectional communication (e.g., mobile networks).
• Can penetrate walls and buildings.
• Potential health hazards.

Microwave – When to Use?

• Used for long-distance, directional communication.
• Cheaper than other wireless methods.
• Requires repeaters every 30 miles due to Earth's curvature.

Satellite – When to Use?

• Used for global communication, TV broadcasting, and long-distance calls.
• Expensive due to satellite and tower costs.
• Affected by weather and interference (e.g., airplanes, rain).

Infrared – When to Use?

• Used for short-range, wireless communication (e.g., TV remotes).
• No license required.
• Cannot pass through walls.
Network Protocols
What is a Protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that define how data is sent and received over a network.

Why Do We Need Protocols?

• They standardize communication between devices.
• They define data formats, error detection, and correction methods.
• Without protocols, communication would be chaotic, like two people talking at the same time without
taking turns.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

HTTP is the protocol used for transferring web pages over the Internet.

Key Features of HTTP:

• Fast and lightweight for browsing websites.
• Used in the World Wide Web (WWW) since 1990.
• Helps in communication between web browsers and web servers.
• Works with other protocols like SMTP (for email) and FTP (for file transfer).

How HTTP Works?

• The browser sends a request to the server.
• The server sends back a response (like a web page, image, or video).
• The process repeats every time a user loads a new webpage.

Limitations of HTTP:
• It is not secure because data is sent without encryption.

HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)

HTTPS is a secure version of HTTP that encrypts data to protect it.

Key Features of HTTPS:

• Uses SSL/TLS encryption to secure data.
• Ensures safe transmission of sensitive information like passwords, banking details, and credit card
numbers.
• Websites using HTTPS show a padlock icon in the address bar.

Why is HTTPS Important?

• Prevents hackers from stealing personal data.
• Ensures secure online transactions.
• Used by banks, e-commerce sites, and secure login pages.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
FTP is a standard method for transferring files over the Internet.

What Does FTP Do?

• Allows users to send and receive files between computers.
• Works over the Internet or within an organization’s network.
• Can transfer any type of file (documents, images, videos, etc.).

Advantages of FTP:
1. Useful for businesses – Helps transfer files between different offices or departments.
2. Collaboration tool – Makes it easier for teams in different locations to work together.
3. Popular for file sharing – Used widely for distributing files over the Internet.

How Does FTP Work?

• FTP works as a client-server system.
• You enter a command (e.g., FTP newday.horizon.com), and your computer acts as a client.
• The remote computer acts as a server and responds to commands.
• Users can upload or download files through FTP.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

TCP/IP is the main communication protocol that makes the Internet work.

What is TCP/IP?
• It is a set of rules that allows computers to send and receive data.
• It is made up of two main parts:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – Ensures reliable delivery of data.
• IP (Internet Protocol) – Finds the address of the receiving device.

How TCP/IP Works:

1. Sending Side:
• TCP splits the data into smaller parts called packets.
• It adds numbering and destination addresses to these packets.
• The packets are then sent over the Internet.
2. Transporting Data:
• IP delivers the packets to the correct address.
• Some packets may get lost or delayed (just like real mail).
3. Receiving Side:
• TCP rearranges the packets in the correct order.
• If some packets are missing, TCP requests a re-send.
• Once all packets arrive, TCP rebuilds the original message and delivers it to the application.
Functions of TCP/IP:
• Addressing – Helps identify where data needs to go.
• Mapping – Ensures data reaches the correct destination.
• Acknowledgment – Confirms that all data has been received correctly.

Why is TCP/IP Important?

• It is the foundation of the Internet.
• It ensures reliable and accurate data transfer.
• It is used in emails, web browsing, online messaging, and video calls.

SLIP and PPP (Protocols for Internet Connection Over Dial-Up Lines)

1. What is SLIP?
SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) is an old protocol used to send IP packets over dial-up lines (telephone lines).

Features of SLIP:
• First protocol for sending IP data over dial-up connections.
• Very basic – It only defines how to encapsulate (wrap) IP packets.
• No extra features – It doesn’t support dynamic address assignment, link testing, or using multiple
protocols.
• Outdated – It has been replaced by PPP.

2. What is PPP?
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) is the modern standard for sending IP packets over serial lines (e.g., telephone lines).

How Does PPP Work?

• Establishes a direct connection between two computers over a telephone line.
• Allows communication between different manufacturers’ software (interoperability).
• Supports multiple network protocols, not just IP.
• Can be used between a home computer and an ISP (Internet Service Provider).
• Works with both synchronized and unsynchronized lines.

Example Use of PPP:

A branch office and a central office can establish a PPP connection to send data back and forth over a
network.

4. SLIP/PPP and Internet Connection

SLIP and PPP help computers connect to the Internet over dial-up (telephone lines).
To use SLIP/PPP for Internet access:
1. The home computer connects to the ISP (Internet Service Provider).
2. The computer uses TCP/IP software to communicate over the Internet.
3. The computer gets an IP address so other computers can contact it.
Protocols Used in Email Communication
When you send or receive an email, your computer and the email server communicate using specific
protocols (rules for sending and receiving messages).
These protocols ensure that your emails are delivered and stored correctly.
The main protocols used in email are IMAP, POP3, SMTP, and HTTP.

1. IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)

IMAP is used to access emails from a mail server without downloading them permanently to your computer.

How IMAP Works:

• The emails stay on the server until you delete them.
• Only a small amount of data is downloaded at first, so IMAP works well on slow connections.
• You can read emails, organize them into folders, and delete them directly on the server.
• Great for accessing emails from multiple devices (phone, laptop, etc.).

Example Use:
If you check your email from a phone and later from a computer, IMAP makes sure your emails are
synced across all devices.

2. POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)

POP3 is used to download emails from the server to your computer and store them locally.

How POP3 Works:

• Emails are downloaded and removed from the server (unless you choose to keep a copy).
• After downloading, you can read emails offline without an internet connection.
• Can be risky if your computer crashes, as emails may be lost unless backed up.

✅
Pros and Cons of POP3:

❌
Works well if you want to keep emails stored on your personal device.

❌
Can download spam or viruses if not filtered properly.
If emails are removed from the server, you can’t access them from another device.

3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

SMTP is used only for sending emails.

How SMTP Works:

• When you send an email, SMTP delivers it to the recipient’s mail server.
• It works in combination with IMAP or POP3, which are used for receiving emails.
• SMTP settings depend on your Internet Service Provider (ISP).

Example Use:
If you send an email using Gmail, SMTP is responsible for delivering it to the receiver’s email server.
4. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
HTTP is not an email-specific protocol, but it is used for web-based email services like Gmail, Outlook, and
Yahoo Mail.

How HTTP Works for Email:

• You can send, read, and organize emails using a web browser (without a mail app )
• Emails are stored on the email provider’s server (e.g., Gmail, Yahoo).

You don’t need to download emails—they remain accessible from any device with a browser.

Example Use:
When you log into Gmail from a web browser (like Chrome or Firefox), HTTP is used to access your emails.
Wireless and Mobile Computing Technologies
Wireless and mobile computing allow people to communicate and access the internet without physical wires.
Below are the main technologies and interfaces used for wireless and mobile communication.

1. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)

GSM is a widely used digital mobile communication system that allows users to make calls, send messages,
and use mobile data services.

Features of GSM:
• Developed as a 2G network to replace old analog systems (1G).
• Uses TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) to allow eight calls on the same frequency.
• Supports voice calls, SMS (Short Messaging Service), and data transmission.
• Works in different frequency bands:
• 900 MHz & 1800 MHz in Europe and Asia
• 1900 MHz in the U.S.
• Encrypts calls for security.

What is a SIM Card?

• A Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) is a small chip that stores your phone number, contacts, and
messages.
• It allows your phone to connect to a mobile network.
• SIM cards have 16 KB to 256 KB of memory for storing contacts and data.

2. WLL (Wireless in Local Loop)

WLL is a wireless technology that connects phones to the nearest telephone exchange without using wires.

How WLL Works:

• Normally, a phone is connected to a local exchange using copper wires.
• In areas where installing wires is expensive or difficult, WLL uses radio signals instead.
• Used in rural areas where wired connections are impractical.

3. GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)

GPRS is a wireless data service that allows mobile devices to access the internet, send emails, and transfer
data on 2G and 2.5G networks.

How GPRS Works:

• Data is broken into small packets and sent across the network.
• Uses the unused bandwidth of GSM networks to transfer data.
• GPRS is a packet-switching technology, meaning it sends data only when needed, making it more
efficient than traditional circuit-switching.
4. Mobile Network Generations (1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G)
Mobile networks have improved over time, offering faster speeds and better services.

1G (First Generation - 1980s)

• Analog mobile networks designed only for voice calls.
• Poor security and call quality.

2G (Second Generation - 1990s)

• Digital mobile networks (GSM, CDMA).
• Improved voice quality, better security, and text messaging (SMS).

2.5G (Between 2G and 3G)

• Introduced GPRS, allowing basic internet access on mobile devices.
• First always-on data service.

3G (Third Generation - 2000s)

• Higher data speeds (384 kbps to 2 Mbps).
• Enabled video calls, multimedia messaging, and faster internet browsing.
• Required 2 Mbps for stationary users and 384 kbps for mobile users.

4G (Fourth Generation - 2010s)

• Focused on high-speed internet (over 100 Mbps).
• Based on IP networks, improving efficiency and cost.
• Enabled HD video streaming, online gaming, and video conferencing.
• Uses technologies like WiMAX and LTE (Long-Term Evolution).

5G (Fifth Generation - 2020s & Beyond)

• Up to 100 Gbps speeds (40-100 times faster than 4G).
• Supports Ultra HD & 3D video streaming, IoT (Internet of Things), and smart cities.

5. SMS (Short Message Service)

SMS allows sending short text messages between mobile phones, fax machines, or IP addresses.

How SMS Works:

1. The message is sent to the Short Message Service Center (SMSC).
2. The SMSC checks the recipient's status (active/inactive and location).
3. If the recipient is available, the message is delivered.

6. Chatting (Instant Messaging)

Chatting allows real-time text communication between users.

How Chat Works:

• Similar to a phone call, but with text.
• Messages are sent instantly and appear on the recipient's screen.
• Used in WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, Telegram, etc.
7. Video Conferencing
Video conferencing allows live video and audio communication between multiple participants.

Uses of Video Conferencing:

• Online meetings and business discussions.
• Virtual classes and online education.
• Remote medical consultations (telemedicine).

8. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)

VoIP allows voice communication over the internet instead of traditional telephone networks.

How VoIP Works:

• Converts voice into data packets.
• Transmits packets over the internet and converts them back to voice at the other end.
• Example: Skype, Zoom, Google Meet, WhatsApp Calls.

9. Wireless Internet Connections

There are two main ways to connect to the internet without wires:

(i) Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)

Wi-Fi allows devices to connect to the internet without cables.

What You Need for Wi-Fi:

• Broadband internet connection.
• Wireless router (to send internet signals).
• Wi-Fi-enabled device (laptop, phone, tablet).

Wi-Fi Hotspots
• Public places (cafes, airports, hotels) with Wi-Fi access.
• Some are free, while others require payment.

Wireless LAN (WLAN)

• A local area network (LAN) that connects devices using Wi-Fi.
• Used in homes, offices, and schools.

(ii) WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)

WiMAX is a wireless broadband technology that provides internet over long distances.

Features of WiMAX:
• Covers up to 30 miles (50 km) for fixed connections.
• Uses microwave links instead of cables.
• Requires a WiMAX tower to provide wireless internet.
Internetworking Terms and Concepts
This section explains different terms and concepts related to internetworking, starting with the
World Wide Web (WWW).

1. World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a system that allows users to access documents, images, videos, and other
resources over the Internet using a web browser. It works through URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) and the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which enables users to request and view web pages.

Key Features of WWW

1. User-Friendly – Most web resources can be accessed easily using Internet browsers like Google
Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, or Microsoft Edge.
2. Multimedia Support – Web pages can contain text, images, videos, animations, and audio.
3. Hypertext and Hyperlinks – Hypertext documents can include hyperlinks, which allow users to jump
between related web pages quickly.
4. Interactive – Web pages can have input fields like checkboxes, text boxes, and radio buttons for user
interaction.
5. Frames – Web pages can be divided into multiple sections, called frames, which allow different
contents to be displayed in a single view.
Note: WWW is not the same as the Internet. The Internet is the global network that provides
many services, while WWW is just one part of it.

2. Telnet
Telnet is a tool that allows users to connect to a remote computer over the Internet and work on it as if they
were using it physically.

Uses of Telnet
• Logging into remote computers.
• Accessing information stored in online libraries.
• Running commands on a remote system.
To use Telnet, a user enters the IP address or domain name of the remote computer and logs in with valid
credentials.

3. Web Browser and Web Server

The World Wide Web (WWW) works on a client-server model:
• A Web Browser is the program that users use to access web pages (e.g., Google Chrome, Microsoft
Edge, Mozilla Firefox).
• A Web Server is a computer that stores web pages and responds to browser requests.
When you enter a web address (URL) into a browser, it sends a request to the server, which then sends back
the requested web page.
4. Websites, Web Addresses, and Web Pages
• A Website is a collection of related web pages stored on a web server.
• A Web Address (URL) is the unique location of a website on the Internet (e.g.,
http://www.microsoft.com).
• A Web Page is a single document on a website that can contain text, images, videos, and other media.

5. URL (Uniform Resource Locator) and Domain Names

A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the complete address of a resource (web page, image, file, etc.) on the
Internet.

Structure of a URL
A URL consists of three main parts:
1. Protocol – Specifies how data is transferred (e.g., http://, https://, ftp://).
2. Domain Name – The address of the server (e.g., www.google.com).
3. Path – The specific location of the resource on the server (e.g., /images/photo.jpg).

Example URL Breakdown

https://www.example.com/docs/index.html

• https:// → Protocol (Secure HTTP)

• www.example.com → Domain name (website address)
• /docs/index.html → Path to the specific file

Domain Names
A Domain Name is the readable version of an Internet address. Instead of remembering a long IP address like
192.168.1.1, users can simply type google.com.

Domain Name System (DNS) – The Internet’s Phonebook

What is DNS?
• The Domain Name System (DNS) is like a phonebook for the Internet.
• Instead of remembering numbers (IP addresses) like 203.127.54.9, we use easy names like
google.com.
• Example: Instead of 8.8.8.8, you can type google.com in your browser.

Country-Specific Domain Extensions

• Many websites use a two-letter country code to show where they are based.
• Example:
• www.microsoft.co.in → .in means India
• www.clearnet.nz → .nz means New Zealand
DNS Server – How Websites are Found
What is a DNS Server?
• A DNS server is a computer that translates a website name (like facebook.com) into its IP address.
• When you type a website name, your computer sends a request to a DNS server,
which finds the correct IP address and connects you to the website.

DNS Resolution
• The process of finding an IP address from a domain name is called Domain Name Resolution.
• If the first DNS server doesn’t know the IP, it asks another DNS server until the address is found.

Web Pages, Websites, and Web Portals

What is a Web Page?
• A web page is a document stored on the Internet.
• It can contain text, images, videos, and links.

What is a Website?
• A website is a collection of related web pages stored on a web server.

Types of Web Pages

1. Home Page – The first page of a website (like www.google.com).
2. Web Portal – A website that provides links to other websites.
• Example: www.yahoo.com, www.indiatimes.com.
• Web portals often offer email, search engines, shopping, and forums.

Web Hosting – How Websites Work

What is Web Hosting?
• Web hosting allows websites to be stored on a web server and be accessible to users.
• A web host is a company that provides storage space for websites.

Types of Web Hosting

1. Free Hosting – Limited space, often with ads.
2. Shared Hosting – Multiple websites share the same server.
3. Dedicated Hosting – One server is used only for a single website.
Evolution of the Web – Web 1.0, Web 2.0, and Web 3.0

Web 1.0 (Static Web) Web 2.0 (Interactive Web) Web 3.0 (Intelligent Web)
• The first version of the Added interactive features like • Uses AI (Artificial
Internet. social media, blogs, and video Intelligence), Machine
• Websites were static (only sharing. Learning, and Blockchain.
displayed text and images, Allowed users to create and share • Websites become more
no interaction). content. intelligent and customized
Social Media: Facebook, Twitter, MySpace for users.
Video Sharing: YouTube, Flickr • Supports 3D graphics and
Blogging: WordPress, Blogger
virtual reality.
Advantages of Web 2.0
• More user participation Advantages of Web 3.0
(people can comment, like, • Better privacy and security.
and share). • More interactive
• Easy access to information experiences.
and collaboration. • Faster and smarter websites.

Understanding Web Development

This guide explains important web development concepts in an easy way.

1. HTML – The Language of the Web

What is HTML?
• HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is the language used to create web pages.
• It tells browsers how to display text, images, and links.
• HTML also allows adding hyperlinks to connect different pages.

Limitations of HTML
• HTML is not a programming language; it is just used for structuring web pages.
• It does not support advanced interactivity or complex features on its own.

2. XML – A Structured Markup Language

What is XML?
• XML (eXtensible Markup Language) is used to store and organize structured data (headings, tables,
etc.).
• It is different from HTML because it does not have predefined tags.
• Instead, XML allows users to create their own tags based on the data they want to organize.

How is XML Different from HTML?

• HTML has fixed tags and is used for displaying content.
• XML allows custom tags and is used for storing data in a structured way.
3. DHTML – Making Web Pages Dynamic
What is DHTML?
• DHTML (Dynamic HTML) is a combination of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript.
• It is used to make web pages dynamic and interactive.
• A web page can change based on user actions, location, or time of day.

Examples of DHTML
• Hover effects (changing a button’s color when the mouse moves over it).
• Displaying different content based on the user’s location.
• Updating page content without reloading the whole page.

4. Web Scripting – Adding Functionality to Web Pages

What is Web Scripting?
• Web scripting means writing and adding scripts (small programs) to a web page.
• These scripts help in automating tasks, making pages interactive, and processing data.
• Web scripting is done using scripting languages like JavaScript, PHP, ASP, Perl, and JSP.

5. Types of Web Scripting

Client-Side Scripting
• Runs on the user’s browser after the page loads.
• Used for interactions within a webpage (e.g., animations, form validation, games).
• Works faster because it doesn’t need to communicate with a server.
• Examples: JavaScript, VBScript, PHP (for some tasks).

Server-Side Scripting
• Runs on the web server before sending content to the user’s browser.
• Used for secure tasks like password protection, form processing, and database management.
• Works independently of the user’s browser.
• Examples: PHP, ASP, Perl, JSP.

6. Client-Side vs. Server-Side Scripting – A Comparison

• Client-Side Scripting is used for user interaction and runs in the browser.
• Server-Side Scripting is used for processing data and runs on the server.
• Client-Side is faster but less secure (users can see the code).
• Server-Side is slower but more secure (users cannot see the code).
Network Security and Cyber Laws
The internet provides convenience and endless opportunities, but it also comes with security risks.
Network security ensures that only authorized users can access information while preventing cyber threats.

1. Network Security Concepts

What is Network Security?
• Network security protects information by allowing only authorized users to access resources.
• Security measures like authorization, authentication, biometrics, and firewalls help safeguard data.

2. Protection Methods in Network Security

1. Authorization
• Checks if a user is allowed to access a system.
• Users must provide a legal login ID to gain access.

2. Authentication
• Verifies the user’s identity by checking credentials like passwords.
• Ensures that only genuine users can enter the system.

3. Biometric Systems
• The most secure method of authentication.
• Uses fingerprints, retinal patterns, or facial recognition to verify identity.

4. Firewalls
• A security system that blocks unauthorized access to networks.
• Firewalls can be hardware or software and protect private networks from hackers.
• They filter messages to allow only safe communications.

3. Important Network Security Terms

Cookies
• Small text files stored on your device by websites.
• Help websites remember preferences and improve user experience.

Hackers vs. Crackers

• Hackers: Experts who find security flaws to improve systems.
• Crackers: Malicious users who break into systems for illegal purposes.
4. Cyber Laws in India
What is Cyberlaw?
• Cyberlaw deals with legal issues related to the internet and online activities.
• It ensures that online crimes and disputes can be handled legally.

IT Act, 2000 and IT Amendment Act, 2008

• IT Act, 2000: Enforced in India on October 17, 2000, based on UNCITRAL model law.
• Purpose: Provides legal recognition for electronic transactions and e-commerce.
• IT Amendment Act, 2008: Introduced laws for cyber terrorism, data protection, and online crimes.

5. Cyber Crimes – Types and Punishments

1. Tampering with Computer Documents
• Changing or destroying important files without permission is illegal.

2. Malicious Hacking
• Unauthorized access with the intent to cause damage or steal data.

3. Publishing Obscene Content Online

• Sharing inappropriate or offensive materials in digital form is a punishable offense.

4. Child Pornography
• A serious cybercrime involving illegal content related to minors.

5. Accessing Protected Systems

• Unauthorized access to government or secure networks is illegal.

6. Breach of Privacy
• Stealing or sharing private information without consent is a criminal offense.

6. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)

What is Intellectual Property (IP)?
• Creative works like inventions, books, music, and designs that have value.
• Protected by patents, trademarks, and copyrights.

Importance of IPR
• Protects original creators from unfair use of their work.
• Encourages innovation and creativity in business and technology.
Computer Viruses and Cyber Threats
A computer virus is a harmful program that needs a host (like a file or software) to spread, similar to a real
virus in humans.
Some viruses are harmless pranks, while others can damage computers.

Types of Computer Viruses

1. File Infector Virus: Attaches itself to a program file and spreads when the file is run.
2. Boot Sector Virus: Hides in the first part of a storage disk and infects the computer when the system
starts.
3. Macro Virus: Infects data files like Word documents and spreadsheets.

How Viruses Spread?

• Mostly through email attachments.
• By downloading infected files from the internet.
• Through USB drives or other storage devices.

Characteristics of a Virus
• It can make copies of itself (replicate).
• It needs a host file or program.
• It becomes active only when triggered (e.g., opening an infected file).

Damage Caused by Viruses

• Corrupts file systems (may require reinstalling everything).
• Creates bad sectors on disks, destroying files.
• Fills hard disk space by copying itself.
• Formats disks, deleting all data.
• Alters or destroys data files.
• Freezes the system, making it unresponsive.

Other Cyber Threats

1. Trojan Horses
A Trojan horse is a harmful program disguised as something useful (like a game or app). It runs in the
background, damaging or stealing data.
Example: A Christmas greeting app that secretly deletes files while displaying a Santa animation.

2. Worms
A worm is a self-replicating program that spreads through networks. Unlike viruses, it doesn’t need a host file.
Characteristics:
• Spreads across networked computers.
• Runs independently.
• May carry harmful code.
3. Spam
Spam is unwanted email (junk mail), often containing ads or scams.
How to Avoid Spam?
• Use email filters.
• Avoid signing up for unnecessary websites with your real email ID.

4. Malware (Malicious Software)

Malware is any software designed to harm a system.

Types of Malware:
1. Spyware – Secretly collects user data like passwords and banking details.
2. Adware – Displays annoying ads based on your internet activity.
3. Ransomware – Locks your files and demands money to unlock them.
4. Keyloggers – Records every key you press (used to steal passwords).
Tip: Use a virtual keyboard for sensitive tasks like online banking to avoid keyloggers.

Network Security Threats

1. Snooping: Unauthorized access to private files or emails.
2. Eavesdropping: Secretly listening to conversations or stealing online data.
3. Denial of Service (DoS) Attack: Prevents users from accessing a website or service.
4. Intrusion Attacks: Hackers break into networks to steal or damage data.

Virus Prevention Tips

• Always scan USB drives before using them.
• Scan downloaded files before opening.
• Do not open email attachments from unknown senders.
• Use licensed software instead of pirated ones.
• Write-protect important disks.
• Regularly back up data.
• Use strong passwords to prevent unauthorized access.
• Install and update antivirus software regularly.

Antivirus Software
An antivirus detects and removes viruses, worms, and malware. It monitors your system for suspicious
activity and prevents harm to your computer.

How Antivirus Works?

• Scans files and software for viruses.
• Blocks suspicious programs.
• Removes or quarantines infected files.
COMPUTER NETWORK
A computer network is a collection of interconnected autonomous computing devices so as to exchange
information or share resources.
SERVER
Server A computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software, and hardware resources (e.g., printers,
modems etc.) on the network, is termed as a Server.
LOCAL AREA NETWORK
Small computer networks that are confined to a localised area upto 1 km
(e.g., an office, a building or a factory) are known as Local Area Networks (LANs).
WIDE AREA NETWORK
The networks spread across countries or on a very big geographical area (multiple cities, countries, continents
etc.) are known as WANs (Wide Area Networks).
PERSONAL AREA NETWORK
A personal area network (PAN) is the interconnection of information technology devices within the range of
an individual person, typically within a range of 10 metres.
CLIENT COMPUTER
A Client computer (or a client) is a computer or other device on the network that requests and
utilizes network resources. A Server is a computer on network, dedicated to processing client requests.
INTERNET
The Internet is a world-wide network of computer networks.
GATEWAY
A Gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks.
BACKBONE
A Backbone is central interconnecting structure that connects one or more networks just like the trunk of a
tree or the spine of a human being.
INTERSPACE
InterSpace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users to communicate online with real-
time audio, video and text chat in dynamic 3D environments.
CROSSTALK
The bleeding of a signal from one wire to another can corrupt signal and cause network errors.
This form of signal interference is called Crosstalk.
MODEM
A Modem is a computer peripheral that allows you to connect and communicate with other computers via
telephone lines.
HUB
A hub is networking device having multiple ports that are used for connecting multiple computers or
segments of a LAN together.
REPEATER
A Repeater is a network device that amplifies and restores signals for long-distance transmission.
ROUTER
A Router is a network device that forwards data from one network to another. A router works like a bridge but
can handle different protocols.
GATEWAY
A Gateway is a network device that connects dissimilar networks. It establishes an intelligent con-nection
between a local network and external networks with completely different structures.
PROTOCOL
A Protocol is a formal description of message formats and the rules that two or more machines must follow to
exchange those messages.
POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL
The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link protocol commonly used in establishing a direct connection
between two networking nodes and enabling IP communication over this direct connection.
GSM
GSM (Global system for mobile) is a mobile communication standard that is used to transmit mobile voice and
data services from 2G onwards.
WLL
Wireless in Local Loop (WLL) refers to a technology implementation where the subscriber is connected to the
nearest exchange through a radio link instead of physical copper wires.
GPRS
GPRS is a technology for radio transmission of small packets of data esp. between mobile devices and the
Internet on unused segments of GSM bandwidth.
WEB HOSTING
Web Hosting is a means of hosting web-server application on a computer system through which electronic
content on the Internet is readily available to any web-browser client.
DYNAMIC HTML
DHTML (Dynamic HTML) refers to a combination of web development technologies (HTML, CSS, Javascript)
that is used to create dynamic web pages with or without multimedia content.
FIREWALL
The system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network is called Firewall.
COOKIES
Cookies are messages that a Web server transmits to a Web browser so that the Web server can keep track of
the user's activity on a specific Web site.
HACKERS & CRACKERS
The Crackers are the malicious programmers who break into secure systems whereas Hackers are more
interested in gaining knowledge about computer systems and possibly using this knowledge for
playful pranks.
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
The Intellectual Property may be defined as a product of the intellect that has commercial value, including
copyrighted property such as literary or artistic works, and ideational property.