Applied Psycholinguistics An introduction of the psychology
of language learning and teaching 1st Edition
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© University of Toronto Press 1985
Toronto Buffalo London
Printed in Canada
Reprinted in 2018
ISBN 0-8020-2526-9
ISBN 978-1-4875-8534-1 (paper)
Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data
Titone, Renzo
Applied psycholinguistics
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-8020-2526-9
I. Language and languages - Study and teaching -
Psychological aspects. 2. Language acquisition.
3. Psycholinguistics. I. Danesi, Marcel 1946--
11. Title.
P53.7.T57 1984 407 C84-099225-4
Contents
PREFACE ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XI
1 THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF LANGUAGE 3
1.0 Introduction 3
1.1 Language 3
I. 1.1 Language as Pattern 4
l. l.2 Language as an Open-Ended System 5
1.1.3 Language Design and Scientific Linguistics 6
1.2 Linguistic Structuralism 8
1.2.1 Paradigm and Syntagm: Two Basic Structural Concepts 8
1.2.2 Structural Phonology 9
1.2.3 Structural Morphology 13
1.2.4 Structural Syntax 15
1.2.5 Structural Semantics 17
1.2.6 The Structural Model of Language Design 18
1.3 Linguistic Transformationalism 19
1.3.1 Deep and Surface Structure: A Fundamental Dichotomy 20
1.3.2 The Base Component 21
1.3.3 The Transformational Component 23
l.3.4 The Phonological Component 25
1.3.5 Some Recent Developments 27
1.4 Language and Communication 28
1.4.1 The Sociology of Verbal Communication 29
1.4.2 The Psychology of Verbal Communication 31
vi Contents
1.5 Linguistics and Language Teaching 33
1.5.l Applied Linguistics and Applied Psycholinguistics 34
1.6 A Pedagogical Summary 35
1.7 Signposts 35
1.8 Suggestions for Further Reading 36
2 THE LANGUAGE-LEARNING PROCESS 37
2.0 Introduction 37
2.1 Verbal Behavior 37
2.1.l A Representational Model of Verbal Behavior 37
2.1 .2 An Informational Model of Verbal Behavior 39
2.1.3 Linguistic Relativity 41
2.2 Neurological and Psychological Components of Language Learning 42
2.2.1 Language and the Brain 43
2.2.2 Language and Perception 46
2.2.3 Language, Memory, and Cognition 49
2.2.4 Language and Personality 50
2.3 Theories of Language Leaming 52
2.3.l Behavioristic Theories 52
2.3.2 Cognitive Theories 57
2.3.3 Humanistic Theories 59
2.4 A Pedagogical Summary 61
2.5 Signposts 62
2.6 Suggestions for Further Reading 63
3 FIRST-LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 64
3.0 Introduction 64
3.1 Patterns of First-Language Acquisition 64
3.1.1 Phonological Development 65
3.1 .2 Grammatical Development 67
3.1.3 Lexical and Semantic Development 72
3.2 Factors Influencing Language Development 75
3.3 Theories of First-Language Acquisition 77
3.3.1 Behavioristic Theories 77
3.3.2 Cognitive Theories 79
3.4 A Pedagogical Summary 81
3.5 Signposts 81
3.6 Suggestions for Further Reading 82
Contents vii
4 SECOND-LANGUAGE LEARNING 83
4.0 Introduction 83
4.1 Neurological and Psychological Aspects of Second-Language Leaming 84
4.1.1 Neurological Aspects 84
4.1.2 Psychological Aspects 86
4.2 Psychopedagogical Aspects of Second-Language Leaming 90
4.2. l The Learning of Structure and Function 90
4.2.2 Errors in Second-Language Learning 93
4.2.3 Translation and Second-Language Learning 98
4.3 Bilingualism and Multilingualism 100
4.4 A Pedagogical Summary 104
4.5 Signposts 105
4.6 Suggestions for Further Reading 105
S THE LANGUAGE-TEACHING PROCESS 107
5.0 Introduction 107
5.1 Language-Teaching Methods 108
5.1.l Inductive Methods 108
5.1.2 Deductive Methods 110
5.1.3 Functional Approaches 112
5.1.4 Affective-Based Methods 115
5.2 Language Teaching and Applied Psycholinguistics 118
5.3 Language-Teaching Models 123
5.4 A Pedagogical Summary 124
5.5 Signposts 126
5.6 Suggestions for Further Reading 126
6 MEASUREMENT, TESTING, AND RESEARCH 127
6.0 Introduction 127
6.1 Some Elementary Statistical Concepts 127
6.1.1 The Presentation and Organization of Data 128
6.1.2 Central Tendency and Dispersion 133
6.1.3 Statistical Significance and Inference 141
6.1.4 Correlation 148
6.2 Testing 154
6.2.1 Reliability and Validity 154
6.2.2 Types of Tests 155
6.3 Research 161
6.3.1 Controlled Experiments 162
6.3.2 Experimental Design 164
viii Contents
6.4 A Pedagogical Summary 165
6.5 Signposts 166
6.6 Suggestions for Further Reading 166
7 A GLOSSODYNAMIC MODEL OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND
LANGUAGE TEACHING 167
7.0 Introduction 167
7.1 The Glossodynamic Model of Language Learning 168
7.2 A Glossodynamic View of Language Teaching 172
7.3 A Concluding Pedagogical Summary 174
7.4 Suggestions for Further Reading 176
APPENDICES 177
A: The Major Symbols of the IPA 178
B: Lenneberg's Description of Language Development with Respect to Motor
Development 179
C: Summary of the Biological and Maturational Factors in Language
Acquisition 182
D: Values oft 184
E: Values of Fat the p < 0.0 l Confidence Level 185
F: Values of x2 186
G : Summary of Statistical Techniques 187
GLOSSARY 189
REFERENCES 197
INDEX 215
Preface
The learning of a language is a complex neurological and psychological feat. Even
though psychologists and psycholinguists have been' investigating and document-
ing the patterns which characterize verbal learning for some time, their findings
and insights have generally gone unnoticed by the average classroom language
teacher, probably because most of the information on the psychology of verbal
learning is scattered in technical journals and monographs which are both
difficult to locate and difficult to read. Of the many excellent introductory
manuals on applied linguistics and language-teaching methodology, relatively
few focus on the research into the psychology of verbal learning and its relevance
to the pedagogical domain.
The purpose of this book is to provide the language teacher with an up-to-date
survey of the psychological theories and research on the nature of language
learning in the hope that a basic understanding of the psychological mechanisms
involved in this process will allow the teacher to make informed choices vis-a-vis
teaching strategy. This is not a book about how to teach languages; rather it is
about the contribution that a knowledge of psycholinguistic research can make to
the teaching of language.
The book is divided into seven chapters. Chapter l explains some basic
concepts about language design and use and provides a general characterization
of scientific linguistics. The second, third, and fourth chapters focus on the
parameters which make up the language-learning process; Chapter 5 examines
the possible applications of the insights gleaned from psycholinguistic research to
language teaching. Chapter 6 describes some rudimentary techniques in statisti-
cal measurement, testing, and research that are germane to the possibility of
evaluating teaching models and learning behaviors. Chapter 7 proposes a psycho-
linguistically based model of language learning and teaching which derives from
the findings and insights of one of the authors (e.g., Titone 1977a~ Each chapter
x Preface
contains a 'Pedagogical Summary' section which aims to delineate briefly the
main implications of the theories and research for teaching, a 'Signposts' section
which describes concisely new trends and directions in the research area that is
discussed in the chapter and their relevance to language pedagogy, and a 'Sugges-
tions for Further Reading' section. A glossary of technical terms is included at the
end of the book for easy reference.
Needless to say, it is not possible to cover all the topics and issues involved in as
vast a field as the psychology of verbal learning. We have had to make choices
about what to treat in detail, what to emphasize, and what to mention only
briefly. Nevertheless, it is our sincere hope that this book will give the language
teacher a 'taste' of the subject and will prove to be both an accessible introduction
to current issues in the field and a convenient reference volume.
RENZO TITONE
MARCEL DANESI
Acknowledgments
We wish to express our sincere appreciation to Dr Albert Valdman of Indiana
University and Dr Henry Schogt of the University of Toronto for having read
over the manuscript. Their valuable commentary has allowed us to improve this
book vastly. We also wish to thank Dr Ron Schoeffel of the University ofToronto
Press for his expert editorial guidance which he gave so generously during the
writing of this book. Needless to say, we alone are responsible for any infelicity
that this book might contain.
APPLIED PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
1
The Scientific Study of Language
A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language
would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to
accomplish this task. (Chomsky 1975:4)
1.0 Introduction
The logical point of departure in any investigation of how language is learned is
the scientific study of language itself. Since the goal of linguistics is to describe
accurately natural language in all its dimensions, a familiarization with some of
its general principles is of obvious importance to the language teacher. As Corder
(1975:5) emphasizes: 'In the case of language teaching it is true to say that we
cannot teach systematically what we cannot describe.'
In this chapter we will discuss some general concepts of language structure
from the standpoint of two main schools oflinguistics: structuralism and transfor-
mationalism. A brief description of speech acts is also included. In general the
term 'speech acts' is used in a technical sense, as will be discussed later. Finally, we
will define the relationship between scientific linguistics and applied linguistics on
one side, and between 'general' psycholinguistics and applied psycholinguistics on
the other.
1.1 Language
It has often been said that language is what makes us unique as a species.
Language allows us to express stimulus-free meanings. This property is not
possessed by animal communication systems which are stimulus-bound, or fixed
to a given situation, even though the well-known work with chimpanzees (see, for
example, Gardner and Gardner 1969 and 1975) has demonstrated that some
4 Applied Psycholinguistics
primates have the ability to learn complex systems. But language in all its
multidimensionality still seems to be unique to the human species.
What is language? There are many definitions of language; no one all-
embracing definition can describe it adequately. However, some of its more
salient characteristics are easily identifiable (see, for example, Brown 1980:5).
Above all else, language is a communication system that allows humans to
express thoughts. This implies that language is not made up of a random
assortment of speech symbols, but rather that the symbols of language form an
interlocking set of relations and patterns. Language consists of a set of conven-
tionalized and arbitrary symbols (vocal and visual). This means that there is no
direct link between speech symbols and the world of objects and ideas which they
represent. Language operates in a speech community and is culturally transmit-
ted; i.e., people acquire language through their culture.
It is also important to note that language and language learning both have
universal characteristics. The research on the universal properties of human
language has shown, in fact, that there are some features which all languages
apparently share (see, for example, Greenberg 1966 and Willis 1972:7). For
example, it has been found that all languages have nominal and verbal phrases.
Moreover, all languages have modifiers which correspond to adjectives and
adverbs. All languages have structures equivalent to transitive and intransitive
statements. All languages have ways of turning verbal phrases into nominal ones
and of forming adjective phrases from other structures. And all languages possess
ways of turning simple declarative sentences into interrogative, negative, and
imperative ones. Many more cases of language univ~rsals have been examined
and documented. The point is that human languages exhibit remarkable
similarities.
I.I.I LANGUAGE AS PATTERN
Although the complex code of language is mastered by age two without instruc-
tion or conscious effort, it is normal to find that people are generally unaware of
its structure or organization. Yet, without structure or pattern verbal communica-
tion would be impossible - a fact that is recognized at least intuitively by all
speakers of a language. Consider, for example, the following anomalous or
'irregular' English sentences (an anomalous form, such as a word or sentence, is
indicated by an asterisk):
I) *Put that ztick away!
2) • John go tomorrow.
3) *Eats the boy the cake.
4) *Tom drank the meat.
