U.S. Department of Transportation Publication No.

FHWA NHI-05-039
Federal Highway Administration December 2005

NHI Course No. 132078_______________________________

Micropile Design and Construction
Reference Manual
NEW BRIDGE STRUCTURE
EXISTING
FOOTING & PILES

NEW MICROPILES
EXISTING BRIDGE
BRIDGE ABUTMENT PIER W/PILE
SUPPORTED
A FOOTING

NEW FOOTING
EXTENSION
SECTION A – A

EXISTING DRIVEN
NEW MICROPILE PIPE PILES (TYP)
FOUNDATION SUPPORT
(TYP) NEW MICROPILES

FOUNDATION SUPPORT SEISMIC RETROFIT OF BRIDGES

SURCHARGE
ORIGINAL CONCRETE CAP
GRADE

CONCRETE CAP
ROAD SURFACE CASE 2 RETICULATED
FINISHED GRADE MICROPILE WALL
WALL FACING

SLIDE PLANE

FINAL GRADE
CASE 1
NON RETICULATED
MICROPILE STRUCTURE

SLOPE STABILIZATION EARTH RETENTION

National Highway Institute

 NOTICE

The contents of this report reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible for
the facts and the accuracy of the data presented herein. The contents do not
necessarily reflect policy of the Department of Transportation. This report does not
constitute a standard, specification, or regulation. The United States Government
does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturer's names
appear herein only because they are considered essential to the objective of this
document.
 Technical Report Documentation Page
1. REPORT NO. 2. GOVERNMENT 3. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NO.
FHWA-NHI-05-039 ACCESSION NO.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. REPORT DATE

Micropile Design and Construction December 2005
(Reference Manual for NHI Course 132078) 6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
Paul J. Sabatinia P.E., Ph.D.; Burak Tanyua
a
Ph.D.; Tom Armourb P.E.; Paul Groneckb b
GeoSyntec Consultants, Chicago, IL
DBM Contractors Inc. Federal Way, WA
P.E.; and James Keeleyb P.E.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. WORK UNIT NO.
Ryan R. Berg & Associates, Inc. 11. CONTRACT OR GRANT NO.
2190 Leyland Alcove
Woodbury, MN 55125 DTFH61-03-T-63043
IN COOPERATION AND ASSOCIATION WITH:
ADSC – The International Association of
Foundation Drilling
14180 Dallas Parkway, Suite 510
Dallas, TX 75254
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS 13. TYPE OF REPORT & PERIOD COVERED
National Highway Institute
Federal Highway Administration 14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
U.S. Department of Transportation
Washington, D.C.
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
FHWA COTR – Larry Jones
FHWA Technical Consultants: Jerry A. DiMaggio, P.E. and Barry Siel, P.E.
This manual is an updated and revised version of FHWA SA-97-070 prepared by DBM Contractors
Inc. and authored by T. Armour, P. Groneck, J. Keeley and S. Sharma; June 2000.

16. ABSTRACT The use of micropiles has grown significantly since their conception in the
1950s, and in particular since the mid-1980s. Micropiles have been used mainly as foundation
support elements to resist static and seismic loads, and to a lesser extent, as in-situ
reinforcements to provide stabilization of slopes and excavations. Many of these applications
are for transportation structures. This manual is intended to be a “practitioner-oriented”
document containing sufficient information on the geotechnical and structural design of
micropiles for foundation support and for slope stabilization. Information is also provided on
inspection and load testing procedures, cost data, and contracting methods to facilitate the safe
and cost-effective use of micropiles on transportation projects. Two detailed design examples
and a generic commentary guideline specification for micropiles is included in the manual.
17. KEY WORDS Micropiles, structural 18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT

foundation, load testing, slope stabilization No restrictions.

19. SECURITY CLASSIF. 20. SECURITY CLASSIF. 21. NO. OF PAGES 22. PRICE
Unclassified Unclassified 436
 SI CONVERSION FACTORS
APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS FROM SI UNITS
When You
Symbol Multiply By To Find Symbol
Know
LENGTH
mm millimeters 0.039 inches in
m meters 3.28 feet ft
m meters 1.09 yards yd
km kilometers 0.621 miles mi
AREA
mm2 square millimeters 0.0016 square inches in2
m2 square meters 10.764 square feet ft2
m2 square meters 1.195 square yards yd2
ha hectares 2.47 acres ac
km2 square kilometers 0.386 square miles mi2
VOLUME
ml millimeters 0.034 fluid ounces fl oz
l liters 0.264 gallons gal
m3 cubic meters 35.71 cubic feet ft3
m3 cubic meters 1.307 cubic yards yd3
MASS
g grams 0.035 ounces oz
kg kilograms 2.202 pounds lb
tonnes tonnes 1.103 tons tons
TEMPERATURE
EC Celsius 1.8 C + 32 Fahrenheit EF
WEIGHT DENSITY
kilonewton / cubic
kN/m3 6.36 poundforce / cubic foot pcf
meter
FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS
N newtons 0.225 poundforce lbf
kN kilonewtons 225 poundforce lbf
kPa kilopascals 0.145 poundforce / square inch psi
kPa kilopascals 20.9 poundforce / square foot psf
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF MANUAL........................................................................ 1 – 1
1.2 MICROPILE DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION ....................................................... 1 – 4
1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND .................................................................................... 1 – 5
1.4 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 1 – 8

CHAPTER 2 MICROPILE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

2.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 2 – 1
2.2 DESIGN APPLICATION CLASSIFICATION ............................................................. 2 – 1
2.3 CONSTRUCTION TYPE CLASSIFICATION.............................................................. 2 – 6
2.4 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 2 – 8

CHAPTER 3 MICROPILE APPLICATIONS IN TRANSPORTATION PROJECTS

3.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 3 – 1
3.2 FEASIBILITY OF MICROPILES.................................................................................. 3 – 1
3.2.1 Overview............................................................................................................ 3 – 1
3.2.2 Physical Considerations ..................................................................................... 3 – 3
3.2.3 Subsurface Conditions ....................................................................................... 3 – 4
3.2.4 Environmental Conditions ................................................................................. 3 – 4
3.2.5 Existing Structure Adaptation............................................................................ 3 – 6
3.2.6 Micropile Limitations ........................................................................................ 3 – 6
3.2.7 Economics of Micropiles ................................................................................... 3 – 6
3.3 STRUCTURAL SUPPORT ............................................................................................ 3 – 7
3.3.1 Overview............................................................................................................ 3 – 7
3.3.2 New Foundations ............................................................................................... 3 – 7
3.3.3 Underpinning of Existing Foundations.............................................................. 3 – 9
3.3.4 Seismic Retrofit ............................................................................................... 3 – 12
3.4 IN-SITU REINFORCEMENT ...................................................................................... 3 – 14
3.5 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 3 – 20

CHAPTER 4 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS

4.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 4 – 1
4.2 DRILLING ...................................................................................................................... 4 – 1
4.2.1 Overview............................................................................................................ 4 – 1
4.2.2 Drill Rigs............................................................................................................ 4 – 3
4.2.3 Drilling Techniques ........................................................................................... 4 – 6
4.2.4 Overburden Drilling Techniques ....................................................................... 4 – 9
4.2.5 Open-Hole Drilling Techniques....................................................................... 4 – 13
4.3 GROUTING .................................................................................................................. 4 – 14
4.3.1 General............................................................................................................. 4 – 14
4.3.2 Grout Equipment ............................................................................................. 4 – 16
4.3.3 Grout Mixing ................................................................................................... 4 – 19
4.3.4 Grout Placement Techniques ........................................................................... 4 – 19

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 4.3.4.1 Gravity Fill Techniques (Type A Micropiles)................................. 4 – 19
4.3.4.2 Pressure Grouting Through the Casing (Type B Micropiles) ......... 4 – 20
4.3.4.3 Postgrouting (Type C and D Micropiles) ........................................ 4 – 21
4.3.5 Top-Off (Secondary) Grouting ........................................................................ 4 – 26
4.4 REINFORCING STEEL ............................................................................................... 4 – 26
4.4.1 General............................................................................................................. 4 – 26
4.4.2 Placement of Reinforcement............................................................................ 4 – 26
4.4.3 Reinforcement Types ....................................................................................... 4 – 26
4.5 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 4 – 35

CHAPTER 5 DESIGN OF MICROPILES FOR STRUCTURE FOUNDATIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 5 – 1
5.2 STEP 1: EVALUATE FEASIBILITY OF MICROPILES ............................................ 5 – 3
5.3 STEP 2: REVIEW AVAILABLE INFORMATION & GEOTECHNICAL DATA ..... 5 – 5
5.4 STEP 3: DEVELOP APPLICABLE LOADING COMBINATIONS ........................... 5 – 7
5.5 STEP 4: PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF MICROPILES................................................ 5 – 8
5.5.1 Selection of Micropile Spacing.......................................................................... 5 – 8
5.5.2 Selection of Micropile Length ........................................................................... 5 – 8
5.5.3 Selection of Micropile Cross Section ................................................................ 5 – 9
5.5.4 Selection of Micropile Type ............................................................................ 5 – 10
5.6 STEP 5: STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF MICROPILE CASED LENGTH .................. 5 – 10
5.7 STEP 6: STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF MICROPILE UNCASED LENGTH ............ 5 – 17
5.8 STEP 7: REVISE MICROPILE DESIGN ................................................................... 5 – 18
5.9 STEP 8: EVALUATE GEOTECHNICAL CAPACITY OF MICROPILE................. 5 – 18
5.9.1 Establish Stratum for Bond Zone..................................................................... 5 – 18
5.9.2 Select Ultimate Bond Stress and Calculate Bond Length................................ 5 – 19
5.9.3 Evaluate Micropile Group Compression Capacity .......................................... 5 – 22
5.9.4 Evaluate Micropile Group Uplift Capacity...................................................... 5 – 27
5.10 STEP 9. ESTIMATE MICROPILE GROUP SETTLEMENT .................................. 5 – 29
5.10.1 General........................................................................................................... 5 – 29
5.10.2 Micropile Group Settlement .......................................................................... 5 – 29
5.10.3 Micropile Elastic Movement.......................................................................... 5 – 36
5.11 STEP 10. DESIGN MICROPILE CONNECTION AT PILE CAP........................... 5 – 38
5.12 STEP 11. DEVELOP LOAD TESTING PROGRAM ............................................... 5 – 44
5.13 STEP 12. PREPARE DRAWINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS ................................. 5 – 45
5.14 CORROSION PROTECTION .................................................................................... 5 – 45
5.14.1 Background .................................................................................................... 5 – 45
5.14.2 Evaluation of Soil Corrosion Potential .......................................................... 5 – 46
5.14.3 Corrosion Protection Systems........................................................................ 5 – 46
5.14.3.1 Methods for Corrosion Protection of Reinforcing Steel ............... 5 – 46
5.14.3.2 Methods for Corrosion Protection of Steel Casing ....................... 5 – 48
5.14.3.3 Corrosion Protection Requirements for Micropiles ...................... 5 – 50
5.15 PLUNGE LENGTH..................................................................................................... 5 – 51
5.16 END BEARING MICROPILE .................................................................................... 5 – 52
5.17 DOWNDRAG.............................................................................................................. 5 – 53
5.18 DESIGN OF MICROPILES FOR LATERAL LOADING ........................................ 5 – 54
5.18.1 General........................................................................................................... 5 – 54

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 5.18.2 Analysis Steps for Single Laterally Loaded Micropile.................................. 5 – 54
5.18.3 Evaluation of Micropile Lateral Load Capacity at Threaded Casing Joints.. 5 – 60
5.19 LATERAL RESISTANCE OF MICROPILE GROUPS ............................................ 5 – 61
5.19.1 General........................................................................................................... 5 – 61
5.19.2 Step By Step Design Procedure for Laterally Loaded Pile Groups ............... 5 – 62
5.19.3 Soil-Structure Interaction Analyses for Micropile Groups............................ 5 – 66
5.19.4 Battered Micropiles........................................................................................ 5 – 66
5.20 BUCKLING CONSIDERATIONS FOR MICROPILES ........................................... 5 – 67
5.21.1 General........................................................................................................... 5 – 67
5.21.2 Micropile Surrounded by Very Weak or Liquefiable Soil............................. 5 – 67
5.20.3 Micropiles Installed Through Voids .............................................................. 5 – 72
5.21 SEISMIC CONSIDERATIONS.................................................................................. 5 – 73
5.21.1 General........................................................................................................... 5 – 73
5.21.2 Use of Battered Micropiles in Highly Seismic Regions ................................ 5 – 75
5.21.3 Load Sharing with Existing Foundations....................................................... 5 – 76
5.21.4 Pile Uplift Capacity........................................................................................ 5 – 77
5.21.5 Liquefaction ................................................................................................... 5 – 77
5.22 REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 5 – 79

CHAPTER 6 DESIGN OF MICROPILES FOR SOIL SLOPE STABILIZATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 6 – 1
6.2 STEP 1: IDENTIFY PROJECT SPECIFIC CONSTRAINTS AND EVALUATE
MICROPILE FEASIBILITY....................................................................................... 6 – 3
6.3 STEP 2: IDENTIFY PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS......................................... 6 – 6
6.4 STEP 3: REVIEW AVAILABLE INFORMATION & GEOTECHNICAL DATA ..... 6 – 7
6.5 STEP 4: EVALUATE FACTOR OF SAFETY OF EXISTING SLOPE ...................... 6 – 9
6.6 DESIGN CONCEPTS FOR MICROPILES USED FOR SLOPE STABILIZATION 6 – 11
6.6.1 Overview.......................................................................................................... 6 – 11
6.6.2 Evaluating the Additional Force Required to Obtain Target Factor of Safety 6 – 12
6.6.2.1 Micropile Location Within Slope Cross Section .............................. 6 – 12
6.6.2.2 Methods to Model Resisting Force from a Micropile....................... 6 – 16
6.6.2.3 Evaluating Slope Stability Away From Micropile............................ 6 – 19
6.6.3 Load Transfer in Micropiles ............................................................................ 6 – 21
6.6.4 Bending Momemt and Shear Capacity of Single Vertical Micropile ............. 6 – 25
6.6.4.1 Evaluation of Bending Moment Capacity of Single Vertical
Micropile ............................................................................................. 6 – 25
6.6.4.2 Evaluation of Shear Capacity of Single Vertical Micropile ............. 6 – 25
6.6.5 Shear Capacity of Battered Micropile Group .................................................. 6 – 30
6.6.6 Spacing Required to Provide Required Force to Stabilize the Slope.............. 6 – 33
6.6.7 Potential for Soil Flow Between Micropiles.................................................... 6 – 35
6.7 DESIGN EXAMPLES FOR SLOPE STABILIZATION WITH MICROPILES......... 6 – 37
6.7.1 STEP 4: Evaluate Factor of Safety of Existing Slope..................................... 6 – 39
6.7.2 STEP 5: Evaluate Additional Force Required to Obtain Target Factor of
Safety ............................................................................................................. 6 – 41
6.7.3 STEP 6: Select Micropile Cross Section ........................................................ 6 – 43
6.7.4 STEP 7: Estimate Length of Micropile........................................................... 6 – 44
6.7.5 STEP 8: Evaluate Bending Capacity of Single Vertical Micropile .............. 6 – 45

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 6.7.6 STEP 9: Evaluate Shear Capacity of Single Vertical Micropile ................... 6 – 47
6.7.7 STEP 10: Evaluate Shear Capacity of Battered Micropile Group.................. 6 – 51
6.7.8 STEP 11: Calculate Spacing Required to Provide Force to Stabilize the
Slope................................................................................................................ 6 – 52
6.7.9 STEP 12: Check Potential Soil Flow between Micropiles ............................. 6 – 53
6.7.10 STEP 13: Perform Structural Design of Concrete Cap Beam ...................... 6 – 54
6.8 SHEAR CAPACITY OF MICROPILES FOR ANALYSIS ....................................... 6 – 58
6.9 CASE HISTORIES ....................................................................................................... 6 – 59
6.9.1 Stabilization of Blue Trail Landslide Using Micropiles, Wyoming ................ 6 – 59
6.9.2 Stabilization of Sum-271 Landslide Using Micropiles, Ohio ........................ 6 – 62
6.9.3 Stabilization of Littleville Landslide using Micropiles, Alabama ................... 6 – 66
6.10 REFERENCES............................................................................................................ 6 – 67

CHAPTER 7 PILE LOAD TESTING

7.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 7 – 1
7.2 OVERVIEW OF MICROPILE LOAD TESTING .......................................................... 7 – 1
7.3 LOAD TESTING EQUIPMENT ..................................................................................... 7 – 3
7.3.1 General............................................................................................................... 7 – 3
7.3.2 Load Testing Equipment.................................................................................... 7 – 3
7.4 MICROPILE LOAD TESTING PROCEDURES.......................................................... 7 – 11
7.4.1 Verification Tests............................................................................................. 7 – 11
7.4.1.1 General ............................................................................................ 7 – 11
7.4.1.2 Procedures for Verification Test ..................................................... 7 – 11
7.4.1.3 Recording of Verification Test Data ............................................... 7 – 12
7.4.2 Proof Testing.................................................................................................... 7 – 15
7.4.2.1 General ............................................................................................ 7 – 15
7.4.2.2 Proof Test Procedures and Recording and Analysis of Proof Test
Data ............................................................................................ 7 – 15
7.4.3 Micropile Acceptance Criteria......................................................................... 7 – 15
7.4.3.1 Acceptance of Verification Test...................................................... 7 – 15
7.4.3.2 Acceptance of Proof Test ................................................................ 7 – 18
7.4.3.3 Consequences of Failure ................................................................. 7 – 18
7.5 MICROPILE LOAD TEST REPORT ........................................................................... 7 – 19
7.6 EVALUATION OF PROJECT LOAD TESTING REQUIREMENTS ........................ 7 – 20
7.6.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 7 – 20
7.6.2 Load Testing Program for Verification Tests .................................................. 7 – 20
7.6.3 Load Testing Program for Proof Tests............................................................. 7 – 21
7.6.4 Test Load Magnitude ....................................................................................... 7 – 22
7.6.5 Method of Load Application............................................................................ 7 – 23
7.7 OTHER LOAD TESTING TECHNIQUES................................................................... 7 – 23
7.7.1 General............................................................................................................. 7 – 23
7.7.2 Dynamic Load Testing..................................................................................... 7 – 24
7.7.3 Statnamic Load Testing ................................................................................... 7 – 26
7.8 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 7 – 28

CHAPTER 8 CONSTRUCTION INSPECTION/QUALITY CONTROL

8.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 8 – 1

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 8.2 INSPECTION ROLES UNDER CERTAIN CONTRACT APPROACHES ................. 8 – 1
8.3 PRE-PROJECT PREPARATION................................................................................... 8 – 2
8.4 INSPECTION OF MICROPILE MATERIALS ............................................................. 8 – 5
8.4.1 General............................................................................................................... 8 – 5
8.4.2 Storing and Handling of Cement ....................................................................... 8 – 5
8.4.3 Storing and Handling of Reinforcing Steel........................................................ 8 – 6
8.5 INSPECTION OF CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES..................................................... 8 – 8
8.5.1 Inspection of Drilling Activities ........................................................................ 8 – 8
8.5.2 Inspection of Reinforcement Installation Activities .......................................... 8 – 9
8.5.3 Inspection of Grouting Activities..................................................................... 8 – 10
8.6 REQUIRED PROJECT DOCUMENTATION............................................................. 8 – 12
8.6.1 Micropile Load Testing.................................................................................... 8 – 12
8.6.2 Production Micropiles...................................................................................... 8 – 13
8.6.3 Grouting Records for Production Micropiles .................................................. 8 – 13
8.7 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 8 – 18

CHAPTER 9 CONTRACTING METHODS

9.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 9 – 1
9.2 CONTRACTOR QUALIFICATION.............................................................................. 9 – 1
9.3 METHOD CONTRACTING APPROACH.................................................................... 9 – 2
9.3.1 Standard Design ................................................................................................. 9 – 4
9.3.2 Alternate Micropile Design................................................................................ 9 – 5
9.3.3 Cost Reduction Incentive Proposal (Value Engineering) .................................. 9 – 5
9.4 PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS........................................................................... 9 – 6
9.5 DESIGN/BUILD APPROACH....................................................................................... 9 – 7
9.5.1 General............................................................................................................... 9 – 7
9.3.2 Postbid Design ................................................................................................... 9 – 7
9.5.3 Prebid Design..................................................................................................... 9 – 8
9.6 CONTRACT PLANS...................................................................................................... 9 – 9

CHAPTER 10 COST ESTIMATING

10.1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................... 10 – 1
10.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MICROPILE COSTS ............................................ 10 – 1
10.2.1 Overview........................................................................................................ 10 – 1
10.2.2 Micropile Material Costs ............................................................................... 10 – 1
10.2.3 Equipment Cost.............................................................................................. 10 – 3
10.2.4 Labor Cost...................................................................................................... 10 – 4
10.2.5 Load Testing Costs ........................................................................................ 10 – 4
10.3 MICROPILE COST ANALYSIS ............................................................................... 10 – 5
10.3.1 Overview........................................................................................................ 10 – 5
10.3.2 Effects of Project-Specific Constraints on Cost............................................. 10 – 6
10.3.3 Micropile Cost Estimate Examples................................................................ 10 – 6
10.3.3.1 Sample Problem No. 1 (Bridge Abutment Support).......................... 10 – 6
10.3.3.2 Sample Problem No. 2 (Seismic Retrofit) ......................................... 10 – 8
10.4 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT FOR MICROPILES ....................................... 10 – 8

FHWA NHI-05-039
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

APPENDIX A – DESIGN CONCEPT OF CASE 2 MICROPILE NETWORKS FOR

SLOPE STABILIZATION

APPENDIX B – LPILE ANALYSIS RESULTS FOR SLOPE STABILIZATION

PROBLEM

APPENDIX C – MICROPILE GUIDE CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATION

APPENDIX D – SAMPLE PROBLEM NO.1,

BRIDGE FOUNDATION ABUTMENT SUPPORT

APPENDIX E – SAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 2, LATERALLY LOADED MICROPILE

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1. Details of Micropile Classification Based on Type of Grouting ........................ 2 – 9

Table 3-1. Relationship Between Micropile Application, Design Behavior,

and Construction Type ............................................................................... 3 – 3

Table 4-1. Overburden Drilling Methods ......................................................................... 4 – 10

Table 4-2. Dimensions, Yield, and Ultimate Strengths for Standard Reinforcing Bars ... 4 – 27
Table 4-3. Dimensions and Yield Strength for DSI Threadbar ........................................ 4 – 29
Table 4-4. Dimensions and Yield Strength of Common Hollow Injection Bars ............... 4 – 31
Table 4-5. Dimensions and Yield Strength of Common Micropile Pipe Types & Sizes.... 4 – 33

Table 5-1. Design Steps for Micropiles Used for Structural Foundations ........................... 5 – 2
Table 5-2. Guidelines for Minimum Number of Investigation Points and Depth of
Investigation. ................................................................................................. 5 – 6
Table 5-3. Summary of Typical bond (Grout-to-Ground Bond) Values for
Micropile Design......................................................................................... 5 – 21
Table 5-4. Efficiency Factors for Micropile Groups in Cohesive Soils............................ 5 – 23
Table 5-5. Criteria for Assessing Ground Corrosion Potential ........................................... 5 – 46
Table 5-6. Corrosion Protection Requirements for Micropiles........................................... 5 – 50
Table 5-7 Values of ε50 for Intact Clays.............................................................................. 5 – 55
Table 5-8 Values of ε50 for Stiff Clays................................................................................ 5 – 56
Table 5-9 Soil –modulus Parameter (k) for Sands. ............................................................. 5 – 56
Table 5-10 Soil –modulus Parameter (k) for Clays............................................................. 5 – 56
Table 5-11 Guidance on Level of Fixity for Micropile-Footing Connections.................... 5 – 58
Table 5-12 Elastic Constants of Various Soils Based on Soil Type ................................... 5 – 69
Table 5-13 Elastic Constants of Various Soils Based on SPT N Value.............................. 5 – 70

Table 6-1. Design Steps for Micropiles for Slope Stabilization .......................................... 6 – 3
Table 6-2. Mult Values for Design Example....................................................................... 6 – 47
Table 6-3. Hult(Ψds) for Various Batter Angles .................................................................... 6 – 52
Table 6-4. Comparison of Actual Loads to Design Loads for
Blue Trail Landslide Project. ........................................................................ 6 – 62

Table 7-1. Verification Test Load Schedule ....................................................................... 7 – 13

Table 7-2. Proof Test Load Schedule.................................................................................. 7 – 16
Table 7-3. Recommendations on Minimum Number of Test Micropiles for
Proof Testing ............................................................................................ 7 – 22

Table 8-1. Example Micropile Installation Log ............................................................... 8 – 14

Table 8-2. Example Completed Micropile Installation Log ............................................ 8 – 15

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Table 10-1. Typical Breakdown of Micropile Unit Costs................................................... 10 – 2
Table 10-2. Material Costs of Steel Casings used for Micropiles....................................... 10 – 2
Table 10-3. Material Costs of Steel Reinforcing Bars used for Micropiles........................ 10 – 3
Table 10-4. Effects of Project-Specific Factors on Micropile Cost .................................... 10 – 5
Table 10-5. Sample Problem No. 1 – Cost Analysis (Bridge Abutment Support) ........... 10 – 7
Table 10-6. Sample Problem No. 2 – Cost Analysis (Seismic Retrofit) ........................... 10 – 9
Table 10-7. Micropile Measurement and Payment Units ............................................... 10 – 10

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 - 1. Micropile Construction Sequence using Casing ............................................... 1 – 4
Figure 1 - 2. Classical Arrangement of Root Piles for Underpinning.................................... 1 – 6
Figure 1 - 3. Typical Network of Reticulated Micropiles...................................................... 1 – 7

Figure 2 – 1. CASE 1 Micropiles........................................................................................... 2 – 2

Figure 2 – 2. CASE 2 Micropiles – Reticulated Pile Network .............................................. 2 – 3
Figure 2 – 3. CASE 1 Micropile Arrangements..................................................................... 2 – 4
Figure 2 – 4. CASE 2 Micropile Arrangements..................................................................... 2 – 5
Figure 2 – 5. Micropile Classification Based on Type of Grouting....................................... 2 – 7

Figure 3 – 1. Classification of Micropile Applications.......................................................... 3 – 2

Figure 3 – 2. Low Headroom Micropile Installation ............................................................ 3 – 4
Figure 3 – 3. Protection of an Existing Diaphragm Wall with a Secant Micropile
Screen using Anti-acid Mortar .................................................................... 3 – 5
Figure 3 - 4. Micropiles Used Under New Abutments for Bridge Over Mahoning Creek,
Armstrong County, Pennsylvania ...................................................... 3 – 8
Figure 3 – 5. Micropiles for Foundation Support of Transportation Applications ............. 3 – 10
Figure 3 - 6. Underpinning of West Emerson Street Viaduct, Seattle, Washington .......... 3 – 11
Figure 3 – 7. Underpinning Arrangement for Pocomoke River Bridge, Maryland ............. 3 – 12
Figure 3 - 8. Seismic Retrofit of I-110, North Connector, Los Angeles, California .......... 3 – 13
Figure 3 – 9. Typical Configurations for Inclined Micropile Walls .................................... 3 – 15
Figure 3 – 10. State Road 4023 Micropile Slope Stabilization, Armstrong County,
Pennsylvania.............................................................................................. 3 – 16
Figure 3 – 11. Cross Section Showing Steep Canyon Slope and Temporary Micropile
Shoring ...................................................................................................... 3 – 17

Figure 3 – 12. Wall 600 Permanent Earth Retention, Portland, Oregon.............................. 3 – 18

Figure 3 – 13. Photo of Slope Stabilization at FH-7 Project in Mendocino National Forest,
California................................................................................................... 3 – 18
Figure 3 – 14. Schematic of Slope Stabilization at FH-7 Project in Mendocino National
Forest, California....................................................................................... 3 – 19

Figure 4 – 1. Typical Micropile Construction Sequence Using Casing................................. 4 – 2

Figure 4 - 2. Large Track-mounted Rotary Hydraulic Drill Rig........................................... 4 – 3
Figure 4 - 3. Small Track-mounted Rotary Hydraulic Drill Rig........................................... 4 – 4
Figure 4 - 4. Small Frame-mounted Rotary Hydraulic Drill Rig.......................................... 4 – 5
Figure 4 - 5. Casing with Heavy Duty Casing Crown .......................................................... 4 – 7
Figure 4 - 6. Drill Rigs Equipped (a) with Tricone Roller Bit and (b) for Double Head
Drilling ............................................................................................... 4 – 7
Figure 4 - 7. Rotary Percussive Drilling (a) Drive Head and (b) Drive Head and Shoe ...... 4 – 8
Figure 4 - 8. Rotary Duplex Drilling (a) Drills Rods and (b) Various Casing Shoes ........... 4 – 8
Figure 4 - 9. Overburden Drilling Methods ........................................................................... 4 – 9
Figure 4 - 10. Effect of Water Content on Grout Compressive Strength and Flow
Properties................................................................................................... 4 – 14

FHWA NHI-05-039
Micropile Design & Construction i - xi December 2005
Figure 4 - 11. Various Types of Colloidal Mixers............................................................... 4 – 17
Figure 4 - 12. Various Types of Paddle Mixers................................................................... 4 – 18
Figure 4 - 13. Principle of the Tube à Manchette Method of Postgrouting Injection ......... 4 – 23
Figure 4 - 14. Use of Reinforcement Tube as a Tube á Manchette Postgrouting System ... 4 – 24
Figure 4 - 15. Circulating Loop Arrangement for Pressure Grouting.................................. 4 – 25
Figure 4 - 16. Multiple Bar Reinforcement with Bar Centralizer/Spacer............................ 4 – 28
Figure 4 - 17. Details of Continuously Threaded Dywidag Bar .......................................... 4 – 29
Figure 4 - 18. Details of Composite High-capacity Type 1B Micropiles ............................ 4 – 34

Figure 5 - 1. Detail of a Composite Reinforced Micropile ................................................... 5 – 3

Figure 5 - 2. Example Micropile Detail .............................................................................. 5 – 12
Figure 5 - 3. Block Failure Mode for Micropile Group in Cohesive Soil with Cap in
Contact with Ground ................................................................................. 5 – 24
Figure 5 - 4. End-bearing Resistance of Piles in Layered Soils.......................................... 5 – 26
Figure 5 - 5. Model to Calculate Micropile Group Uplift Capacity in Cohesive Soils ...... 5 – 27
Figure 5 - 6. Model to Calculate Micropile Group Uplift Capacity in Cohesionless Soils 5 – 28
Figure 5 - 7. Equivalent Footing Concept for Uniform Soil................................................ 5 – 30
Figure 5 - 8. Equivalent Footing Concept for Firm Soil Underlying Soft Soil Layer ......... 5 – 31
Figure 5 - 9. Bearing Capacity Index versus Corrected SPT Blowcount ............................ 5 – 35
Figure 5 - 10. Pile to Footing Connection Detail................................................................. 5 – 39
Figure 5 - 11. Pile to Footing Connection Detail................................................................. 5 – 40
Figure 5 - 12. Pile to Footing Connection Detail................................................................. 5 – 41
Figure 5 - 13. Pile to Footing Connection Detail................................................................. 5 – 42
Figure 5 - 14. Pile to New Footing Connection Detail used for Moderate Loads. .............. 5 – 43
Figure 5 - 15. Pile to New Footing Connection Detail used for High Loads....................... 5 – 43
Figure 5 - 16. Pile to Existing Footing Connection Detail................................................... 5 – 44
Figure 5 - 17. GEWI Piles with (a) Grout Protection only; and (b) Double Corrosion
Protection................................................................................................... 5 – 49
Figure 5 - 18. Detail of Load Transfer through the Casing Plunge Length. ........................ 5 – 52
Figure 5 - 19. LPILE Analysis Result for Bending Moment .............................................. 5 – 59
Figure 5 - 20. LPILE Analysis Result for Lateral Micropile Deflection ............................. 5 – 59
Figure 5 - 21. Illustration of P-Multiplier Concept for Lateral Group Analysis.................. 5 – 64
Figure 5 - 22. Load-Deflection & Bending Moment-Deflection for Pile Group Analysis.. 5 – 65
Figure 5 - 23. Limiting Lateral Modulus for Various Micropile Materials ......................... 5 – 70
Figure 5 - 24. Micropile Installed Through Voids in Karstic Terrain; (a) Actual
Configuration, (b) Model Used for Estimation of Structural Capacity ..... 5 – 72
Figure 5 - 25. Three-dimensional soil pile interaction......................................................... 5 – 74
Figure 5 - 26. Plan View of Micropile Foundation.............................................................. 5 – 75
Figure 5 - 27. Lateral Response of Micropile Foundations to Different Flexural
Reinforcement Ratios ................................................................................ 5 – 76

Figure 6 - 1. Micropile System in Approach 1 ..................................................................... 6 – 1

Figure 6 - 2. Micropile System in Approach 2 ..................................................................... 6 – 2
Figure 6 - 3. Concentrated Movements Recorded from Inclinometer at the Slip Surface.... 6 – 6
Figure 6 - 4. Residual Friction Angle for Clayey Soils ...................................................... 6 – 10
Figure 6 - 5. Example Slope Geometry............................................................................... 6 – 13

FHWA NHI-05-039
Micropile Design & Construction i-xii December 2005
Figure 6 - 6. Relationship between Force Required for FS = 1.3 and Location of the
Micropile ................................................................................................... 6 – 14
Figure 6 - 7. Effect of Micropile Placed Too Far Upslope (FSmin < 1.3)............................ 6 – 15
Figure 6 - 8. Effect of Micropile Placed Too Far Downslope (FSmin < 1.3)....................... 6 – 15
Figure 6 - 9. Micropiles with Battered Upslope Leg and Battered Downslope Leg........... 6 – 17
Figure 6 - 10. Single Vertical Micropile Model for Design Analyses................................ 6 – 17
Figure 6 - 11. Relationship Between Hreq and Cohesive Strength for Micropile Analysis
Model ........................................................................................................ 6 – 18
Figure 6 - 12. Slope Stability Analysis Search Limits Away From Micropile Location.... 6 – 19
Figure 6 - 13. Potential Instability Resulting from Future Excavation............................... 6 – 20
Figure 6 - 14. Example Resultant Axial Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for (a)
Downslope and (b) Upslope Micropile ..................................................... 6 – 22
Figure 6 - 15. (a) Micropile Resistance Length Not Sufficient to Prevent Pullout and (b)
Micropile Resistance Length Sufficient to Prevent Pullout ...................... 6 – 24
Figure 6 - 16. An Example Distribution of P-Y Curves with Depth Obtained from Laterally
Loaded Pile Analysis................................................................................. 6 – 27
Figure 6 - 17. Utilizing P-Y Curves Obtained from Laterally Loaded Pile Analysis in (a) Up
Analysis and (b) Down Analysis............................................................... 6 – 28
Figure 6 - 18. Example of Calculated Bending Moment Diagrams for Up and Down
Analyses. ................................................................................................... 6 – 29
Figure 6 - 19 Forces Acting on (a) Vertical and (b) Inclined Micropile Along the Slip
Surface....................................................................................................... 6 – 31
Figure 6 - 20 Relationship between Adjusted Capacity of Individual Micropiles and
Inclination Angle....................................................................................... 6 – 32
Figure 6 - 21 Definition of Inclination Angle When (a) Slip Surface is Horizontal and (b)
Slip Surface is not Horizontal. .................................................................. 6 – 34
Figure 6 - 22 Spacing between Micropiles. ......................................................................... 6 – 35
Figure 6 - 23 Plastically Deforming Soil between Two Adjacent Micropiles..................... 6 – 36
Figure 6 - 24 Slope Geometry and Subsurface Information for the Design Example ......... 6 – 38
Figure 6 - 25 FSmin Determined from Trial Shear Strength Parameters. ............................. 6 – 40
Figure 6 - 26 FSmin of the Slope Based on Modified Shear Strength Parameters................ 6 – 41
Figure 6 - 27 Slope Stability Analysis to Determine Additional Force to Obtain Target
Factor of Safety. ........................................................................................ 6 – 42
Figure 6 - 28 Stability of the (a) Upslope Away from the Micropile and (b) Downslope
Away from the Micropile. ......................................................................... 6 – 43
Figure 6 - 29 Micropile Cross-Section for the Design Example.......................................... 6 – 44
Figure 6 - 30 Single Vertical Micropile Modeled in LPILE................................................ 6 – 46
Figure 6 - 31 Depths Chosen for p-y Curves for Entire Length of the Micropile ............... 6 – 48
Figure 6 - 32 Process to Evaluate Shear Resistance (Q) of Single Vertical Micropile Using
Up and Down Laterally Loaded Pile Analyses ......................................... 6 – 49
Figure 6 - 33 Modeling Soil Layers with Previously Determined p-y Curves .................... 6 – 50
Figure 6 - 34 Interpolation of Hult for Battered Downslope Micropile Leg......................... 6 – 53
Figure 6 - 35 Spreadsheet Calculations Based on Eq. 6-12 to Obtain Hult-soil/pile for the
Example Problem ...................................................................................... 6 – 55
Figure 6 - 36 Equations Used in Each Cell in Figure 6-35 .................................................. 6 – 56
Figure 6 - 37 Graphical Solution for Hult-soil/pile Based on Figure 6-36 ................................ 6 – 57
Figure 6 - 38 Extent of Blue Trail Landslide ....................................................................... 6 – 60

FHWA NHI-05-039
Micropile Design & Construction i - xiii December 2005
Figure 6 - 39 Conceptual Design Drawing of the MSE and NRM Walls for Blue Trail
Landslide Project....................................................................................... 6 – 60
Figure 6 - 40 Typical Section of Micropile and Ground Anchor Wall for Blue Trail
Landslide Project....................................................................................... 6 – 61
Figure 6 - 41 Typical Section of Micropile and Ground Anchor Wall at SUM-271........... 6 – 63
Figure 6 - 42 Comparison of Axial Loads for the SUM-271 Project .................................. 6 – 64
Figure 6 - 43 Comparison of Bending Moments for the SUM-271 Project ........................ 6 – 65
Figure 6 - 44 Typical Section of Micropile and Anchor Wall at Littleville, Alabama........ 6 – 66

Figure 7 - 1. Schematic of Compression Load Test Arrangement........................................ 7 – 4

Figure 7 - 2. Schematic of Tension Load Test Arrangement................................................ 7 – 4
Figure 7 - 3. Schematic of Lateral Load Test Arrangement ................................................. 7 – 5
Figure 7 - 4. Compression Load Test Set-Up ....................................................................... 7 – 5
Figure 7 - 5. Tension Load Test Setup.................................................................................. 7 – 6
Figure 7 - 6. Photograph of Lateral Load Test Set-Up ......................................................... 7 – 7
Figure 7 - 7. Typical Pressure Gauge Calibration Curve...................................................... 7 – 7
Figure 7 - 8. Strain Gauge Locations on Micropiles for SUM-271 Project........................ 7 – 10
Figure 7 - 9. Load Displacement Curve of Verification Tests............................................ 7 – 14
Figure 7 - 10. Plotting Elastic and Residual Movement of Verification Test Data. ............ 7 – 14
Figure 7 - 11. Plotting of Proof Test Data............................................................................ 7 – 17
Figure 7 - 12. Dynamic Test Set-Up for Micropile.............................................................. 7 – 25
Figure 7 - 13. Statnamic Test Set-Up................................................................................... 7 – 27

Figure 8 - 1. QA Inspector Responsibilities for a Typical Micropile Project....................... 8 – 4

Figure 8 - 2. Cement Storage ................................................................................................ 8 – 6
Figure 8 - 3. Storage of Reinforcing Steel ............................................................................ 8 – 7
Figure 8 - 4. Double Corrosion Protected (Encapsulated) Reinforcing Steel ...................... 8 – 8
Figure 8 - 5. Reinforcement Centralizers............................................................................ 8 – 10
Figure 8 - 6. Drill Rig Pressure Gauge................................................................................ 8 – 11
Figure 8 - 7. Grout Cubes for Compressive Strength Testing ............................................ 8 – 16
Figure 8 - 8. Baroid Mud Balance Test............................................................................... 8 – 17

FHWA NHI-05-039
Micropile Design & Construction i-xiv December 2005
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF MANUAL

The use of micropiles has grown significantly since their conception in the 1950s, and in
particular since the mid-1980s. Micropiles have been used mainly as foundation support
elements to resist static and seismic loads, and to a lesser extent, as in-situ reinforcements to
provide stabilization of slopes and excavations. Many of these applications are for
transportation structures.

In 1993, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) sponsored a project to review the
state-of-the-practice of micropiles. The research group for this project included contractors,
consultants, academics, and owners. The document produced from this project, entitled
Drilled and Grouted Micropiles – State-of-the-Practice Review (FHWA, 1997) provided a
comprehensive international review and detailed analysis of available research and
development results, laboratory and field testing data, design methods, construction
methodologies, site observations, and monitored case studies. As part of this study, the
limitations and uncertainties in the state-of-the-practice were evaluated, and further research
needs were assessed. One of the highlighted needs was a manual of design and construction
guidelines intended for use by practicing highway agency geotechnical and structural
engineers.

In response to this need, the FHWA sponsored the development of the manual Micropile
Design and Construction Guidelines, Implementation Manual (FHWA, 2000). Funding and
development of the manual was a cooperative effort between FHWA, U.S. micropile
specialty contractors, and several state DOTs. The manual is intended to be a “practitioner-
oriented” document containing sufficient information on micropile design, construction
specifications, inspection and testing procedures, cost data, and contracting methods to
facilitate the safe and cost-effective use of micropiles on transportation projects.

This manual is a revision to the 2001 Implementation Manual. The major revisions to the
manual include:

Chapter 3:

• Existing case history information has been updated and additional case histories have
been added which specifically address the evaluation of micropile feasibility for
specific projects.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 1 - Introduction

Micropile Design & Construction 1-1 December 2005
Chapter 4:

• A description of sonic drilling techniques has been added.

Chapter 5:

• Information on corrosion protection has been updated to reflect current FHWA

practice regarding assessment of ground conditions and to include recommendations
for levels of corrosion protection provided in the Deep Foundations Institute (DFI)
“Guide to Drafting a Specification for High Capacity Drilled and Grouted Micropiles
for Structural Support” (DFI, 2003).

• A design flowchart for micropiles used for structural support is provided. This
flowchart addresses all appropriate structural and geotechnical strength and service
limit states.

• Guideline information on recommended subsurface investigation (i.e., depth and

spacing of geotechncial borings) has been added.

• The factor of safety for grout-ground bond has been reduced from 2.5 to 2.0 to
reflect current practice. A discussion on the rationale for this modification is
presented.

• Specific information on geotechnical strength limit states including vertical capacity

(compression and uplift) and downdrag is provided for micropiles.

• Evaluation of combined axial compression and bending, and methods to evaluate

potential micropile buckling have been added. Detailed information on lateral
loading of micropiles and methods to evaluate the structural capacity at a threaded
connection are included.

• Structural design considerations for battered micropiles are included.

• Information on micropile group settlement and group lateral movement is included.

• A section on seismic considerations in the design of micropiles for seismic retrofit

applications has been added. Relevant information from the FOREVER (2003)
research project and design information from the current Japanese manual on seismic
design of micropiles (Japanese Public Works Research Institute, 2002) is included.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 1 - Introduction

Micropile Design & Construction 1-2 December 2005
Chapter 6:

• Detailed information on the feasibility of micropiles for slope stabilization projects is

provided including guidance on the assessment of geotechnical parameters required
for analyses. Specific information on the limitations of the design method is
provided.

• Three detailed case histories on the use micropiles for slope stabilization have been
added.

• The design method for micropiles used to stabilize slopes has been modified to
include a step-by-step design approach with information concerning: (1) effect of
micropile location on slope stability; (2) effect of passive resistance in front of
micropile structure; (3) axial load transfer in a micropile used for slope stabilization;
and (4) step-by-step approach to the iterative design involving the analysis of the
portions of the micropiles above a potential slip surface and below a potential slip
surface.

Chapter 7:

• Guidance on the evaluations to be performed to develop a micropile load testing

program for verification and proof testing are provided.

• Information is presented on the use of pile driver analyzing (PDA) techniques and
Statnamic testing as a potential tool for micropile construction quality assurance.

Chapter 8:

• A micropile inspector responsibilities summary checklist and an updated micropile

installation log are provided.

Chapter 10:

• Information on cost estimating is updated and includes specific information on major

cost elements for micropiles including steel materials and labor costs. Information
on load testing costs is also provided. Specific recommendations regarding typical
measurement and payment items for a micropile project is provided.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 1 - Introduction

Micropile Design & Construction 1-3 December 2005
1.2 MICROPILE DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION

A micropile is a small-diameter (typically less than 300 mm (12 in.)), drilled and grouted
non-displacement pile that is typically reinforced. A micropile is constructed by drilling a
borehole, placing steel reinforcement, and grouting the hole as illustrated in Figure 1-1.
Micropiles can withstand relatively significant axial loads and moderate lateral loads, and
may be considered a substitute for conventional driven piles or drilled shafts or as one
component in a composite soil/pile mass, depending upon the design concept employed.
Micropiles are installed by methods that cause minimal disturbance to adjacent structures,
soil, and the environment. They can be installed where access is restrictive and in all soil
types and ground conditions. Micropiles can be installed at any angle below the horizontal
using the same type of equipment used for the installation of ground anchors and for grouting
projects.

ADDITIONAL GROUT

COMPRESSIBLE
STRATUM

BEARING
STRATUM

BEGIN DRILLING COMPLETE REMOVE INNER PLACE REMOVE COMPLETE PILE

&/OR INSTALLATION DRILLING TO DRILL BIT & REINFORCEMENT & TEMPORARY (CASING MAY BE
OF TEMPORARY DEPTH ROD (IF USED) GROUT (BY TREMIE) CASING, INJECT LEFT IN PLACE
CASING FURTHER GROUT THROUGH THE
UNDER COMPRESSIBLE
PRESSURE AS STRATUM)
APPLICABLE

Figure 1-1. Micropile Construction Sequence.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 1 - Introduction

Micropile Design & Construction 1-4 December 2005
Since the installation procedure causes minimal vibration and noise and can be used in
conditions of low headroom, micropiles are often used to underpin existing structures.
Specialized drilling equipment is often required to install the micropiles from within existing
basement or other limited headroom facilities.

Most of the applied load on conventional cast-in-place drilled or non-displacement piles is

structurally resisted by the reinforced concrete; increased structural capacity is achieved by
increased cross-sectional and surface areas. Micropile structural capacities, by comparison,
rely on high-capacity steel elements to resist most or the entire applied load. These steel
elements may occupy as much as one-half of the drillhole cross section. The special drilling
and grouting methods used in micropile installation allow for high grout/ground bond values
along the grout/ground interface. The grout transfers the load through friction from the
reinforcement to the ground in the micropile bond zone in a manner similar to that of ground
anchors. Due to the small pile diameter, any end-bearing contribution in micropiles is
generally neglected. The grout/ground bond strength achieved is influenced primarily by the
ground type and grouting method used, i.e., pressure grouting or gravity feed. The role of the
drilling method is also influential, although less well quantified.

1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Micropiles were conceived in Italy in the early 1950s, in response to the demand for
innovative techniques for underpinning historic buildings and monuments that had sustained
damage with time, and especially during World War II. A reliable underpinning system was
required to support structural loads with minimal movement and for installation in access-
restrictive environments with minimal disturbance to the existing structure. An Italian
specialty contractor called Fondedile, for whom Dr. Fernando Lizzi was the technical
director, developed the palo radice, or root pile, for underpinning applications. The palo
radice is a small-diameter, drilled, cast-in-place, lightly reinforced, grouted pile. The classic
arrangement of pali radice for underpinning is shown in Figure 1-2.

Although steel was in short supply in postwar Europe, labor was inexpensive, abundant, and
often of high mechanical ability. Such conditions encouraged the development of these
lightly reinforced, cast-in-place root pile elements, largely designed and installed by specialty
contractors on a design-build basis. Load testing on these new root piles measured capacities
in excess of 400 kN (90 kips), although the design capacity based on contemporary
conventional bored pile design methodologies suggested capacities of less than 100 kN (23
kips). Direct full-scale load tests were performed at relatively little cost, fostering the

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 1 - Introduction

Micropile Design & Construction 1-5 December 2005
acquisition and publication of a wealth of testing information. No grout/ground bond failures
were recorded during these early tests.

The use of root piles grew in Italy throughout the 1950s. Fondedile introduced the
technology in the United Kingdom in 1962 for the underpinning of several historic structures,
and by 1965, it was being used in Germany on underground urban transportation projects.
For proprietary reasons, the term “micropile” replaced “root pile” at that time.

Initially, the majority of micropile applications were structural underpinning in urban

environments. Starting in 1957, additional engineering demands resulted in the introduction
of systems of reticoli di pali radice (reticulated root piles). Such systems comprise multiple
vertical and inclined micropiles interlocked in a three-dimensional network, creating a
laterally confined soil/pile composite structure (Figure 1-3). Reticulated micropile networks
were used for slope stabilization, reinforcement of quay walls, protection of buried
structures, and other soil and structure support and ground reinforcement applications.

A A

MICROPILE (TYP)

VERTICAL HORIZONTAL
CROSS- SECTION CROSS- SECTION A-A

Figure 1-2. Arrangement of Root Piles (pali radice) for Underpinning.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 1 - Introduction

Micropile Design & Construction 1-6 December 2005
 BIG CRACK IN THE SOFT
LIMESTONE FORMATION

EXISTING MASONRY RC BEAMS

REINFORCED BY
RETICULATED PALI
RADICE

SOFT LIMESTONE

CLAY

RETICULATED RETICULATED PALI RADICE

PALI RADICE FOR THE COLUMN
REINFORCEMENT

TYPICAL COLUMN
PLAN VIEW

Figure 1-3. Typical Network of Reticulated (reticolo di pali radice) Micropiles.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 1 - Introduction

Micropile Design & Construction 1-7 December 2005
Other proprietary micropiles were developed in Switzerland and Germany, and the
technologies were quickly exported overseas by branches or licensees of the originating
contractors. Portions of Asia soon became a major market.

Fondedile introduced the use of micropiles in North America in 1973 through a number of
underpinning applications in the New York and Boston areas. The micropile technology did
not grow rapidly in the United States, however, until the mid-1980s. At that time an
abundance of successful published case histories, consistent influence by specialty
contractors, and the growing needs of consultants and owners working in old urban
environments overcame the skepticism and concerns of the traditional East Coast piling
market (Bruce, 1988).

1.4 REFERENCES

Bruce, D. A. (1988), “Developments in Geotechnical Construction Processes for Urban

Engineering”, Civil Engineering Practice, Vol. 3, No. 1, Spring, pp. 49-97.

Deep Foundations Institute (DFI) (2003), “Guide to Drafting a Specification for High
Capacity Drilled and Grouted Micropiles for Structural Support.”

FHWA (1997), “Drilled and Grouted Micropiles, State-of-Practice Review”, Bruce, D. A.

and Juran, I., Reports No. FHWA-RD-96-016, 017, 018, and 019.

FHWA (2000), “Micropile Design and Construction Guidelines Implementation Manual”,

Armour, T., Groneck, P., Keeley, J., and Sharma, S., Report No. FHWA-SA-97-070.

Japanese Public Works Research Institute (2002), “Design and Execution Manual for Seismic
Retrofitting of Existing Pile Foundations with High Capacity Micropiles”, Foundation
Engineering Research Team, Structures Research Group.

FOREVER (2003), “Synthesis of the Results of the National Project on Micropiles”,

International Center for Ground Improvement, Polytechnic University, Juran, I., Jahir
Hasan, Weinstein, G. M, and Sourisseau, L.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 1 - Introduction

Micropile Design & Construction 1-8 December 2005
 CHAPTER 2
MICROPILE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In 1997, the FHWA published a 4-volume report summarizing the state-of-the-practice for
micopiles (FHWA-RD-96-016, –017, -018, and –019; 1997). In that report, a micropile
classification system was developed. This system is based on two criteria: (1) philosophy of
behavior (design); and (2) method of grouting (construction). The philosophy of behavior
dictates the method employed in designing the micropile. The method of grouting defines
the grout/ground bond strength (or side resistance), which generally controls micropile
capacity. The classification system consists of a two-part designation: a number, which
denotes the micropile behavior (design), and a letter, which designates the method of
grouting (construction).

2.2 DESIGN APPLICATION CLASSIFICATION

The design of an individual micropile or a group of micropiles differs greatly from that of a
network of closely-spaced reticulated micropiles. This difference led to the definition of
CASE 1 micropile elements, which are loaded directly and where the micropile
reinforcement resists the majority of the applied load (Figure 2-1). CASE 2 micropile
elements circumscribe and internally reinforce the soil to theoretically make a reinforced soil
composite that resists applied loads (Figure 2-2). This is referred to as a reticulated micropile
network.

CASE 1 micropiles can be used as an alternative to more conventional types of piles since
they are used to transfer structural loads to a deeper, more competent or stable stratum. Such
directly loaded piles, whether for axial (compression or tension) or lateral loading conditions,
are referred to as CASE 1 elements. The load is primarily resisted structurally by the steel
reinforcement and geotechnically by side resistance developed over a “bond zone” of the
individual micropiles. At least 90 percent of all international applications to date, and
virtually all of the projects in North America have involved CASE 1 micropiles. Such
micropiles are designed to act individually, although, they may be installed in groups.
Typical arrangements of CASE 1 micropiles are illustrated in Figure 2-3.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 2 – Micropile Classification System

Micropile Design & Construction 2-1 December 2005
 VERTICAL LATERAL
DRILLED DRILLED
MICROPILES SHAFT MICROPILES SHAFT

COMPRESSIBLE
STRATUM

BEARING
STRATUM

TO SUSTAIN AXIAL LOADS EXTENT OF TO SUSTAIN LATERAL LOADS

SOIL-PILE
INTERACTION

DRILLED
SHAFT
MICROPILES
MOVING SOIL

STABLE SOIL

EXTENT OF
SOIL-PILE
INTERACTION

Figure 2-1. CASE 1 Micropiles.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 2 – Micropile Classification System

Micropile Design & Construction 2-2 December 2005
 STRUCTURE CENTER
OF GRAVITY

RESULTANT CENTER
OF GRAVITY

BLOCK CENTER
OF GRAVITY
TO LOWER CENTER OF
GRAVITY OF SOIL-STRUCTURE
COMPOSITE UNIT TO IMPROVE STABILITY
BLOCK

TO SUPPORT VERTICAL LOAD

AND LATERAL LOADS (IF NEEDED)
CAP BEAM

COMPOSITE
BLOCK

PALI RADICE (ROOT PILE)

RETICULATED STRUCTURE

Figure 2-2. CASE 2 Micropiles – Reticulated Micropile Network.

The remaining micropile applications involve networks of reticulated micropiles as

components of a reinforced soil mass which is used to provide stabilization and support.
These micropiles are referred to as CASE 2 elements. Structural loads are applied to the
entire reinforced soil mass, as compared to individual micropiles (as for CASE 1 micropiles).
CASE 2 micropiles are lightly reinforced because they are not individually loaded. A
conceptual application of a network of reticulated micropiles is illustrated in Figure 2-4.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 2 – Micropile Classification System

Micropile Design & Construction 2-3 December 2005
 NEW BRIDGE STRUCTURE

BRIDGE ABUTMENT

2H:1V
NEW MICROPILE
FOUNDATIONS
SUPPORT (TYP)

FOUNDATION SUPPORT

REINFORCED ROAD
CONCRETE CAP SURFACE

FINISHED GRADE

APPROXIMATE
FAILURE PLANE

CASE 1 NON RETICULATED

MICROPILE STRUCTURE (TYP)

SLOPE STABILIZATION

Figure 2-3. CASE 1 Micropile Arrangements.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 2 – Micropile Classification System

Micropile Design & Construction 2-4 December 2005
 SURCHARGE
ORIGINAL GRADE
CONCRETE
CAP

CASE 2
RETICULATED
MICROPILE WALL
WALL FACING

FINAL GRADE

EARTH RETENTION

Figure 2-4. CASE 2 Micropile Arrangements.

This philosophy of behavior (design) of an individual CASE 1 micropile is the same as that
of a group of CASE 1 micropiles. A group of CASE 1 elements is defined as a closely
spaced (typically parallel) arrangement of micropiles, each of which will be loaded directly.
Design methodologies for individual CASE 1 elements and groups of CASE 1 elements are
discussed in Chapters 5 and 6. The behavior and design approach of a group of CASE 1
elements should not be confused with those of a reticulated network (i.e., CASE 2
micropiles), although their geometries may appear to be similar.

Very few CASE 2 micropile applications have been constructed in the U.S. Given the
current general trend of using high capacity micropiles, the use of CASE 2 micropiles on
FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 2 – Micropile Classification System
Micropile Design & Construction 2-5 December 2005
future U.S. projects appears to be quite limited. Also, the use of CASE 2 micropiles,
especially for public sector projects, will likely be disallowed until such time that an
appropriate database of performance data becomes available for these micropiles to allow for
a technically sound and safe design procedure to be developed.

2.3 CONSTRUCTION TYPE CLASSIFICATION

The method of grouting is typically the most sensitive construction process influencing
grout/ground bond capacity. Grout/ground bond capacity varies directly with the grouting
method. The second part of the micropile classification consists of a letter designation (A
through D) based primarily on the method of placement and pressure under which grouting is
performed during construction. The use of drill casing and reinforcement define sub-
classifications. The classification is shown schematically in Figure 2-5 and is described
subsequently.

• Type A: For Type A micropiles, grout is placed under gravity head only.
Sand-cement mortars or neat cement grouts can be used. The micropile
excavation may be underreamed to increase tensile capacity, although this
technique is not common or used with any other micropile type.

• Type B: Type B indicates that neat cement grout is placed into the hole under
pressure as the temporary drill casing is withdrawn. Injection pressures
typically range from 0.5 to 1 MPa (72 to 145 psi) to avoid hydrofracturing the
surrounding ground or causing excessive grout takes, and to maintain a seal
around the casing during its withdrawal, where possible.

• Type C: Type C indicates a two-step process of grouting including: (1) neat

cement grout is placed under gravity head as with Type A; and (2) prior to
hardening of the primary grout (after approximately 15 to 25 minutes), similar
grout is injected one time via a sleeved grout pipe without the use of a packer
(at the bond zone interface) at a pressure of at least 1 MPa (145 psi). This pile
type appears to be used only in France, and is referred to as IGU (Injection
Globale et Unitaire).

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Micropile Design & Construction 2-6 December 2005
 TYPE A TYPE B TYPE C TYPE D
(GRAVITY) (PRESSURE THROUGH (SINGLE GLOBAL (MULTIPLE REPEAT ABLE
CASING) POSTGROUT) POSTGROUT)

PRESSURE GAGE

PACKER

Figure 2-5. Micropile Classification System Based on Type of Grouting.

• Type D: Type D indicates a two-step process of grouting similar to Type C.

With this method, neat cement grout is placed under gravity head (as with
Types A and C) and may be pressurized (as for Type B). After hardening of
the initially placed grout, additional grout is injected via a sleeved grout pipe
at a pressure of 2 to 8 MPa (290 to 1,160 psi). A packer may be used inside
the sleeved pipe so that specific horizons can be treated several times, if
required. This pile type is used commonly worldwide, and is referred to in
France as the IRS (Injection Répétitive et Sélective).

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Micropile Design & Construction 2-7 December 2005
Table 2-1 provides additional information on Type A, B, C, and D micropiles. Sub-
classifications (e.g., A1, A2, and A3) are included in Table 2-1 to indicate the type of drill
casing and reinforcement used for each method of grouting. These sub-classifications also
represent the type of reinforcement required by design (e.g. reinforcing bar, casing, none).
Therefore, the combined micropile classification system is based on design application (i.e.,
Case 1 or Case 2), micropile type (i.e., Type A, B, C, or D) and grouting method (i.e., 1, 2, or
3). It is emphasized that Table 2-1 is intended to present a classification system based on the
type of micropile construction. It is not intended to be used in contract specifications.

2.4 REFERENCES

FHWA (1997), “Drilled and Grouted Micropiles, State-of-Practice Review”, Bruce, D. A.

and Juran, I., Reports No. FHWA-RD-96-016, 017, 018, and 019.

Pearlman, S. L., and Wolosick, J. R. (1992), “Pin Piles for Bridge Foundations,”
Proceedings, 9th Annual International Bridge Conference, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
June 15-17.

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Micropile Design & Construction 2-8 December 2005
 Table 2-1. Details of Micropile Classification Based on Type of Grouting
(after Pearlman and Wolosick, 1992).

Micropile Type and Sub-

Drill Casing Reinforcement Grout
Grouting Method type

Temporary or None, single bar, cage, tube or Sand/cement mortar or neat

A1 unlined (open hole structural section cement grout tremied to base of
or auger) hole (or casing), no excess
pressure applied
Type A
Permanent, full Drill casing itself
A2
length
Gravity grout only

Permanent, upper Drill casing in upper shaft,

A3 shaft only bar(s) or tube in lower shaft
(may extend full length)

Temporary or Monobar(s) or tube (cages Neat cement grout is first

B1 unlined (open hole rare due to lower structural tremied into drill casing/auger.
Type B or auger) capacity) Excess pressure (up to 1 MPa
(145 psi) typically) is applied to
Pressure - grouted Permanent, partial Drill casing itself additional grout injected during
B2
through the casing or length withdrawal of casing/auger
auger during
withdrawal Permanent, upper Drill casing in upper shaft,
B3 shaft only bar(s) or tube in lower shaft
(may extend full length)

Temporary or Single bars or tube (cages rare Neat cement grout is first
Type C
C1 unlined (open hole due to lower structural tremied into hole (or
or auger) capacity) casing/auger). Between 15 to
Primary grout placed
25 minutes later, similar grout
under gravity head,
C2 Not conducted – injected through tube (or
then one phase of
reinforcing pipe) from head,
secondary “global”
Not conducted – once pressure is greater than 1
pressure grouting C3
MPa (145 psi)

Temporary or Single bars or tube (cages rare Neat cement grout is first
Type D D1 unlined (open hole due to lower structural tremied (Type A) and/or
or auger) capacity) pressurized (Type B) into hole
Primary grout placed or casing/auger. Several hours
under gravity head Possible only if Drill casing itself later, similar grout injected
(Type A) or under regrout tube placed through sleeved pipe (or
D2
pressure (Type B). full-length outside sleeved reinforcement) via
Then one or more casing packers, as many times as
phases of secondary necessary to achieve bond
“global” pressure Permanent, upper Drill casing in upper shaft,
grouting D3 shaft only bar(s) or tube in lower shaft
(may extend full length)

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FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 2 – Micropile Classification System
Micropile Design & Construction 2-10 December 2005
 CHAPTER 3
MICROPILE APPLICATIONS IN TRANSPORTATION
PROJECTS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Micropiles are currently used in two general application areas: (1) structural support; and (2)
in-situ reinforcement (Figure 3-1). Structural support includes new foundations,
underpinning of existing foundations, seismic retrofitting applications and foundation support
for earth retaining structures. In-situ reinforcement is used for slope stabilization and earth
retention; ground strengthening; settlement reduction; and structural stability. Table 3-1
summarizes the typical design behavior and micropile construction type for each application.

Selection factors influencing the choice of micropiles for a project application are described
herein. Example micropile applications for structural support and in-situ reinforcement for
transportation projects and other civil engineering projects are described.

3.2 FEASIBILITY OF MICROPILES

3.2.1 Overview

Micropiles have specific advantages compared to more conventional support systems. In

general, micropiles may be feasible under the following project-specific constraints:

• project has restricted access or is located in a remote area;

• required support system needs to be in close pile proximity to existing structures;
• ground and drilling conditions are difficult (e.g., karstic areas, uncontrolled fills,
boulders);
• pile driving would result in soil liquefaction;
• vibration or noise needs to be minimized;
• hazardous or contaminated spoil material will be generated during construction; and
• adaptation of support system to existing structure is required.

Limitations and cost information for micropiles are also presented in this section.

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-1 December 2005
 Review of Applications

In-situ Reinforcement

Slope
Stabilization Ground Settlement Structural
and Strengthening Reduction Stability
Earth Retention

Structural Support

Earth Foundations Underpinning Seismic

Retaining for of Retrofitting
Structure New Existing
Foundations Structures Foundations

Scour Repair/ Arresting/ Upgrading

Protection Replacement Prevention of
of Existing of Foundation
Foundations Movement Capacity

Figure 3-1. Classification of Micropile Applications.

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 Table 3-1. Relationship Between Micropile Application, Design Behavior and
Construction Type (modified after FHWA, 1997).

STRUCTURAL
IN-SITU EARTH REINFORCEMENT
SUPPORT

Underpinning of Existing Slope

Foundations, Ground Settlement Structural
Application Stabilization and
New Foundations, and Strengthening Reduction Stability
Earth Retention
Seismic Retrofitting

Design CASE 1 and CASE 2 with

CASE 1 CASE 2 CASE 2
Behavior CASE 2 minor CASE 1

Type A (bond zones in rock

Construction Type A and Types A and B Type A Type A
or stiff clays)
Type Type B in soil in soil in soil in soil
Type B, C, and D in soil

Frequency Probably 95 percent of total

0 to 5 percent
of Use world applications

3.2.2 Physical Considerations

The drilling and grouting equipment used for micropile installation is relatively small and
can be mobilized in restrictive areas that would prohibit the entry of conventional pile
installation equipment. Figure 3-2 shows micropiles being installed in low headroom
conditions, illustrating the maneuverability of the equipment.

Micropiles can be installed in close proximity to existing walls or foundations, provided that
there is space above for the drill-head and safe work zone or the micropiles are battered to
provide this space. Micropile installation is not as affected by overhead power lines or other
obstructions as are conventional pile installation systems. The equipment can be mobilized
up steep slopes and in remote locations. Also, drilling and grouting procedures associated
with micropile installations do not cause damage to adjacent existing structures or affect
adjacent ground conditions when proper drilling and grouting procedures are utilized.

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-3 December 2005
Figure 3-2. Low Headroom Micropile Installation.

3.2.3 Subsurface Conditions

Micropiles can be installed in areas of particularly difficult, variable, or unpredictable

geologic conditions such as ground with cobbles and boulders, fills with buried utilities and
miscellaneous debris, and irregular lenses of competent and weak materials. Soft clays,
running sands, and high groundwater not conducive to conventional drilled shaft systems
cause minimal impacts to micropile installations. Micropiles are commonly used in karstic
limestone formations.

3.2.4 Environmental Conditions

Micropiles can be installed in hazardous and contaminated soils. Because of their small
diameter, drilling results in less spoil than would be produced by conventional drilled piles.
Also, the flush effluent can be controlled easily at the ground surface through
containerization or the use of lined surface pits. These factors greatly reduce the potential for
surface contamination and handling costs.

Grout mixes can be designed to withstand chemically aggressive groundwater and soils.
Special admixtures can be included in the grout mix design to reduce and avoid deterioration
from acidic and corrosive environments. For example, a micropile “screen” was constructed
from the installation of overlapping (secant) micropiles adjacent to an existing concrete

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-4 December 2005
diaphragm wall of an underground parking garage in Barcelona, Spain (Bachy, 1992). The
existing wall was physically deteriorating due to extremely aggressive ground water (i.e.,
presence of chlorides and sulfates and pH values as low as 1.7) originating from an adjacent
metallurgical plant (Figure 3-3). No trace of acid was detected in samples of the diaphragm
wall collected after construction of the micropile screen.

Micropiles can be installed in environmentally sensitive areas, including areas with fragile
natural settings. The installation equipment is not as large or as heavy as conventional pile
driving or shaft drilling equipment and can be used in swampy areas or other areas of wet or
soft surface soils with minimal impacts to the environment. Portable drilling equipment is
frequently used in areas of restricted access.

2m

STREET

PLANT

CAR PARK

ACID
PH < 2

DIAPHRAGM WALL

MICROPILE
SCREEN
BARRIER

TYPICAL PLAN VIEW

SILTY CLAY

Figure 3-3. Protection of an Existing Diaphragm Wall with a Secant Micropile Screen using
Anti-acid Mortar (after Bachy, 1992).

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Micropile installations cause less noise and vibration than conventional piling techniques,
especially driven piles. The vibration from pile driving is imparted to the soil and can be
transferred through the soil to adjacent structures. The use of micropiles in old urban
environments and industrial/manufacturing areas can prevent this potential damage to
adjacent sensitive structures and equipment.

Micropiles can be installed in areas where there is a contaminated aquifer overlying a bearing
strata. Unlike driven piles that may produce a vertical conduit for contaminate migration,
micropiles can be installed in a manner preventing contamination of lower aquifers.

3.2.5 Existing Structure Adaptation

Micropiles can be added to an existing pile cap, thereby eliminating the need for an increased
footing size. With this approach, the additional compression, tension and moment resistance
associated with increased structural loads can be resisted effectively. Oftentimes adjacent
utilities and/or structures restrict the possibility of enlarging the existing pile caps, thus
eliminating more traditional piling systems. With this approach, design analyses need to
consider the relative stiffness of the micropiles and the existing piles to estimate individual
loads.

3.2.6 Micropile Limitations

Vertical micropiles may be limited in lateral capacity and cost effectiveness. The ability of
micropiles to be installed on an incline, however, significantly enhances their lateral
capacity. Because of their high slenderness ratio (length/diameter), micropiles may not be
acceptable for conventional seismic retrofitting applications in areas where liquefaction may
occur due to concerns of buckling resulting from loss of lateral support.

The use of micropiles for slope stabilization continues to increase. However, it is

recommended that performance data be collected on such projects as experience and detailed
design procedures continue to evolve.

3.2.7 Economics of Micropiles

The lineal cost of micropiles usually exceeds that of conventional piling systems, especially
driven piles. A detailed discussion on micropile costs is provided in Chapter 10.

Cost effectiveness of micropiles depends on many factors. It is important to assess the cost
of using micropiles based on the physical, environmental, and subsurface factors previously
described. For example, for an open site with soft, clean, uniform soils and unrestricted

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-6 December 2005
access, micropiles will likely not be a competitive solution. However, for the delicate
underpinning of an existing bridge pier in a heavily trafficked old industrial or residential
area, micropiles can provide the most cost-effective solution.

Care should be taken to clearly define the true final cost of a solution based on micropiles.
Cost analysis should be based on all related costs for the entire project and not just the unit
cost of the piling system. As with other pile systems, it would be beneficial to consider
micropile costs in terms of $/kN of axial capacity when evaluating deep foundation
alternatives. Micropile costs are associated with:

• right-of-way acquisition;
• right-of-way agreements;
• utility realignment;
• excavation, shoring and backfill requirements;
• footing construction;
• hazardous material handling;
• dewatering;
• erosion control;
• access restrictions;
• ground improvement; and
• owner and neighbor disruption.

3.3 STRUCTURAL SUPPORT

3.3.1 Overview

Micropile applications for structural support include foundations for new structures,
underpinning of existing structures, scour protection, and seismic retrofitting of existing
structures. Many of these applications have been used for transportation projects. In this
section, case histories involving these applications are provided.

3.3.2 New Foundations

Micropiles are applicable in new bridge construction in areas that require deep foundation
alternatives or in difficult ground (cobbles/boulders obstructions) where installation of
conventional piles or drilled shafts is very difficult and/or expensive.

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-7 December 2005
For the I-78 dual highway bridge which crosses the Delaware River between Pennsylvania
and New Jersey (Bruce, 1988b), all of the original bridge piers were founded either on driven
piles or spread footings on rock, with the exception of Pier E-6. At the Pier E-6 location,
bedrock was encountered below the anticipated depth and was found to be karstic.
Micropiles and drilled shafts were proposed as alternative foundations for the project.
Micropiles were chosen as an alternative because of their lower cost and faster installation in
deep karstic regions. However, because micropiles were a fairly new technology in 1988,
micropile load testing was performed during the design phase to evaluate the feasibility of
micropiles for this application. Load test results indicated that micropiles were feasible and
micropiles were therefore used for Pier E-6.

The replacement of a two-span bridge over the Mahoning Creek in Armstrong County,
Pennsylvania (Pearlman and Wolosick, 1992) required a support system to be built for new
abutments (see Figure 3-4). The original stone abutment foundations were constructed in
cofferdams and founded on erodible soils overlying competent sandstone. The alternatives
for the project were anchored caisson walls, ground anchors, and micropiles. Micropiles
were the least expensive alternative for the project. Also, micropiles could be conveniently
drilled through the existing stone footings and founded in the underlying sandstone.

Figure 3–4. Micropiles Used Under New Abutments for Bridge Over Mahoning Creek,
Armstrong County, PA (after Pearlman and Wolosick, 1992).

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The use of micropiles allows new bridge foundations to be constructed in areas of existing
overhead restrictions, while maintaining traffic flow. A major improvement project was
undertaken to replace the deck of the Brooklyn-Queens Expressway in the Borough of
Brooklyn, New York (Bruce and Gemme, 1992). As a part of this project, a new center lane
and several new entry/exit ramps were required. Micropiles were the only alternative for the
new viaduct and the ramp construction because of low headroom restrictions and stringent
vibration restrictions during construction. Due to low headroom conditions, micropile casing
were left full length in the ground. Also, traffic flow was maintained during construction.
Although the site comprised variable fluvioglacial deposits, this did not affect the rapid
installation of the micropiles.

Other micropile applications used for structural support include buildings, earth retaining
structures, and soundwalls. Figure 3-5 shows typical arrangements of micropiles for support
of common transportation-related structures.

3.3.3 Underpinning of Existing Foundations

Micropiles were originally developed for underpinning existing structures. The underpinning
of existing structures may be performed for many purposes, including:

• arresting and preventing structural movement;

• for upgrading load-bearing capacity of existing structures;
• repair and replacement of deteriorating or inadequate foundations;
• to provide scour protection for erosion-sensitive foundations;
• raising previously settled foundations; and
• providing a means to transfer loads to deeper strata.

Micropiles can be installed through and bonded within existing structures providing direct
connection with competent underlying strata without the need for new pile caps, while at the
same time reinforcing the structure internally.

Construction can be executed without reducing the existing foundation capacity. The West
Emerson Street Viaduct project in Seattle, Washington (Figure 3-6) required additional
foundation support to be built at the existing bents. The additional foundation support had to
be designed for both tension and compression loads. The conditions at the site included tight
access and low headroom. Low headroom caissons and micropiles were the alternatives for
the project. Micropiles were chosen to be added on five existing bents because of their
considerable low cost compared to low headroom caissons.

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 NEW BRIDGE STRUCTURE COLUMN (TYP)

BRIDGE
ABUTMENT

MICROPILE MICROPILES
FOUNDATION
SUPPORT (TYP)
SOFT GROUND TUNNEL

A) BRIDGE FOUNDATION SUPPORT B) MICROPILE FOUNDATION SUPPORT

FOR SOFT GROUND TUNNELING
BENEATH EXISTING STRUCTURES

ROADWAY SOUNDWALL

ROADW AY

MICROPILE (TYP)

MICROPILE (TYP)

C) FOUNDATION SUPPORT FOR CAST D) FOUNDATION SUPPORT FOR

IN PLACE REINFORCED CONCRETE HIGHWAY SOUNDWALLS
RETAINING WALS

Figure 3-5. Micropiles for Foundation Support of Transportation Applications.

Structural movements can be caused by a variety of factors, including compressible ground

beneath the existing foundation, dewatering activities, groundwater elevation fluctuations,
deterioration of existing foundations, and adjacent deep excavations and tunneling activities.
Micropiles can mitigate this structural movement by being installed to deeper, more
competent bearing strata, thus providing improved structural support. Increased load-bearing
capacity of an existing foundation may be required for several reasons.

Additional vertical, lateral, or vibratory loads may be applied to the foundation due to
expansion of the existing structure, increased magnitude of applied loads, or the addition of
vibrating machinery.

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-10 December 2005
Figure 3-6. Underpinning of West Emerson Street Viaduct, Seattle, Washington.

The 75-year-old Pocomoke River Bridge in Maryland was rehabilitated when the capacity of
the original wooden piles of the pier foundations was compromised by exposure to river
scour (Bruce et al., 1990). Any alternative foundations system would need to be constructed
in the middle of the river. The improved foundation system for the bridge was required to be
preloaded before connecting to the existing structure to prevent additional settlement of the
sensitive structure. Micropiles and caissons were considered for this project, and micropiles
were selected for the project and installed through the existing foundation. The underpinning
arrangement for the Pocomoke Bridge using micropiles is shown in Figure 3-7.

Another underpinning example is the expansion of the Exton Square Mall in Chester County,
Pennsylvania (Cadden et al., 2001). The mall site is underlain by dolomitic limestone, which
is defined by Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources as a hazardous rock due
to its susceptibility to solutioning and sinkhole development. Deep foundations had to be
used in order to support column loads up to 4,450 kN (1,000 kips). The alternatives
evaluated for the project included drilled shafts, driven piles, and micropiles. Project
constraints included performing the work while most of the stores remained open and
performing all the interior work at night when the mall was closed. Micropiles were chosen
as an alternative because they were judged to be best suited to the tight access, low
headroom, logistical restrictions, irregular rock mass quality, and high individual pile
working loads. Driven piles were not feasible because they would likely become damaged
during installation.

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-11 December 2005
 30.4 m 32 m 30.4 m

MICROPILE (TYP)

WEST ABUTMENT BASCULE BASCULE EAST ABUTMENT

(DRIVEN TIMBER PILES) PIER 3 PIER 4 (DRIVEN TIMBER PILES)

Figure 3-7. Underpining Arrangement for Pocomoke River Bridge, Maryland (after Bruce et
al., 1990).

3.3.4 Seismic Retrofit

Micropiles are being used increasingly for seismic retrofitting of existing highway structures,
especially in California. Micropiles exhibit near equal tension and compression capacities,
therefore optimizing the additional foundation support elements used (Bruce and Chu, 1995).
Micropiles may be economically feasible for bridge foundation retrofits having one or more
of the following constraints:

• restrictions on footing enlargements;

• vibration and noise restrictions;
• low headroom clearances;
• difficult access;
• high axial load demands in both tension and compression;
• difficult drilling/driving conditions; and
• hazardous soil sites.

Micropiles were used as part of a seismic retrofit project for California Department of
Transportation’s earthquake retrofit project at I-110 in Los Angeles (Pearlman et al., 1993).

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-12 December 2005
Micropiles were used at the north connector over-crossing (Figure 3-8). Initially drilled
shafts were chosen for the project; however, difficult drilling conditions, including buried
concrete obstructions and water-bearing flowing sand layers, low overhead conditions, and
limited right-of-way access prohibited the use of drilled shafts. Micropiles were chosen for
the project due to their lower cost and ability to be installed under difficult access conditions.
Micropiles for this project were designed for tension and compression and were connected to
the existing structure.

Figure 3-8. Seismic Retrofit of I-110, North Connector, Los Angeles, California.

Micropiles were used to upgrade existing foundations for a highway bridge along Route 57
near Cairo, Illinois. The seismicity for this area of southern Illinois is controlled by the New
Madrid Seismic Source Zone. Micropiles were designed to withstand lateral and vertical
forces from the design earthquake. The site soils consist of approximately 7.5 m (25 ft) of
silty clay overlying sands. The existing pier and abutment foundations include short, vertical
and batter timber piles deriving resistance from the sandy soils. The installation of a total of
240 micropiles occurred under low headroom conditions (under the bridge deck) and
required excavation around the existing pier foundations. Ten micropiles were installed just

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-13 December 2005
outside the perimeter of each foundation. Reinforcing steel was doweled into the existing
footing and a new pile cap was poured.

Micropiles have also been used for earthquake retrofit of major bridges in the San Francisco
Bay area and New York City.

3.4 IN-SITU REINFORCEMENT

Micropiles are used in two different ways to stabilize slopes. Lizzi (1982) suggests that
micropiles be used as reticulated network systems (CASE 2), which creates a stable,
reinforced-soil, “gravity-retaining wall”. In CASE 2 systems the reinforced soil gravity mass
supplies the essential resisting force, and the micropiles, encompassed by the soil, supply
additional resistance to the tensile and shear forces acting on the “wall”. Alternately,
Pearlman and Wolosick (1992) and Palmerton (1984) suggest that groups of individual
inclined micropiles could be used to stabilize the slope because they serve to connect the
moving zone (above the failure surface) to the stable zone (below the failure surface). These
micropiles provide reinforcement to resist the shearing forces that develop along the failure
surface. Typical configurations of inclined micropile groups for slope stabilization and earth
retention are shown in Figure 3-9.

For rocky, stiff, or dense materials, the shear resistance of the micropiles across the failure
surface, i.e., individual capacity; is critical (CASE 1). For loose materials, the micropiles and
soil are mutually reinforcing and creating a gravity wall, so the individual micropile
capacities are not as significant (CASE 2).

Micropiles were used to stabilize a portion of State Road 4023 in Armstrong County,
Pennsylvania (Bruce, 1988a). A 75-m (250-ft) long section of this road and railroad tracks
located upslope were experiencing damage from slope movements towards an adjacent river.
Rock anchors and tangent drilled shafts extending into rock were the proposed techniques for
in-situ reinforcement. However, alternative bidding was allowed in the project. During
bidding, inclined micropile groups were proposed as an alternative to proposed techniques
and were accepted due to significant cost savings. The resultant savings was approximately
$1 million compared to the lowest bid for the anchored drilled shaft wall design. The wall
included four rows of micropiles extending across the failure plane and into competent rock
(Figure 3-10).

Micropiles were used to provide temporary excavation support for a project involving
improvements to State Highway 82 near Aspen, Colorado (Macklin et al., 2004). In this

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-14 December 2005
mountainous region, construction is hampered by difficult site access and slope instability
risks. This site consists of loose to very dense silty to gravelly sand with cobbles and
boulders, which were deposited as debris flow, sheet wash, and colluvium over dense alluvial
sandy gravel with cobbles. Originally, temporary shoring using combinations of soil nails
and tiebacks was considered for the project. However, in an effort to improve the
construction schedule and phasing, micropiles were selected as an alternative temporary
shoring system. The micropile shoring implemented on this project was essentially a hybrid
between a soldier beam and lagging system and a soil nail stabilization system (Figure 3-11).
Phasing of the project required constructing a number of bridges in a specific sequence. The
micropile shoring system allowed the contractor to transition access road grades where
convenient, depending upon the excavation and access requirements for any phase of the
work.

(a) ROADWAY SLOPE (b) SLOPE ABOVE HIGHWAY

125mm - 230mm 125mm - 230mm

STEEL REINFORCING BAR STEEL PIPE (100 mm

(28 mm TO 63 mm TYP) TO 175 mm O.D. TYP)

GROUT

(c) PILE SECTIONS

Figure 3-9. Typical Configurations for Inclined Micropile Walls.

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 0.3m (MIN)

VARIES 150mm TO 1200mm 1.37m (MIN)

2H:1V
CONCRETE CAP
153mm MUD SLAB
0.91m EXISTING GRADE

140mm DIA

15m±
ROW 1
TOP OF (26E)
ROCK

ROW 2 ROW 4
(16E) (VERT)
ROW 3
(9E)

115mm DIA

Figure 3-10. State Road 4023 Micropile Slope Stabilization, Armstrong County,
Pennsylvania (after Bruce, 1988a).

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The Portland Westside Light-Rail Project in Portland, Oregon is an example of the use of
micropiles to provide permanent earth retention (Ueblacker, 1996). Wall 600 extends from
the east portal of the Westside Light-Rail cut and cover tunnel approximately 183 m (600 ft)
to just beneath the Vista Avenue Bridge. Cut heights along the retaining wall ranged from 4
to 9.5 m (13 to 30 ft). The original design included a counterfort concrete retaining wall
supported on a driven pile foundation. The micropile wall was accepted as a contractor-
proposed value engineering alternate, largely because it was an alternate solution that could
be constructed within the available right-of-way. Micropiles were installed vertically and
inclined (Figure 3-12). Shotcrete was used for a temporary facing with the permanent facing
comprising an architecturally treated cast-in-place concrete.

An early example of slope stabilization using reticulated micropiles was for Forest Highway
7 in Mendocino National Forest, California (Palmerton, 1984). This project was one of the
two reticulated micropiles built in U.S. at the time. The site could have been stabilized using
either cantilever or anchored walls; however, there was an interest in this relatively new
technology and micropiles were therefore selected as part of a demonstration project. The
two-lane road of Forest Highway 7 was constructed across a landslide where slide movement
had occurred as a result of excessive rainfall (Figure 3-13). A 94-m (305-ft) long section of
the road was stabilized using reticulated micropiles (Figure 3-14).

Feasibility evaluation for micropiles is discussed further in Chapter 5 for structural support
applications and Chapter 6 for slope stabilization applications.

Figure 3-11. Cross Section Showing Steep Canyon Slope and Temporary Micropile Shoring
(after Macklin et al., 2004).

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-17 December 2005
 GEOCOMPOSITE DRAIN
EXISTING GRADE

GRADE BEAM STRUCTURAL

FILL

75mm DIA
305mm CIP PERMANENT WATER MAINS
WALL FACING

MICROPILES
100mm MIN TEMP.
SHOTCRETE FACING
ORIGINAL COUNTERFORT
WALL ENVELOPE

TRACK BALLAST

Figure 3-12. Wall 600 Permanent Earth Retention, Portland, Oregon (after Ueblacker,
1996).

Figure 3-13. Photo of Slope Stabilization at FH-7 Project in Mendocino National Forest,
California.

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-18 December 2005
 DOWNHILL
UPSTATION

PILE CAP

GAGE DEPTH 1.22m

PILE BATTER V:H

A,AN,B,BN 10 : 3.4 3.05m 127mm – DIAMETER
C VERT. REINFORCED PILE
D, DN 10 : 2.6
5.50m
E, EN 10 : 1.3
F, FN 10 : 1
G, GN 10 : 1.4
7.93m

ASSUMED
10.37m FAILURE
PLANE
11.89m

13.11m

ABD E F G C GN FN EN DN BN AN

Figure 3-14. Schematic of Slope Stabilization at FH-7 Project in Mendocino National Forest,
California.

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-19 December 2005
3.5 REFERENCES

Bachy (1992), “Interception of Pollution by Impervious Barrier;” Sancho de Avila Car Park,
Barcelona, Spain, Promotional literature, Paris, France.

Bruce, D. A. (1988a), “Developments in Geotechnical Construction Processes for Urban

Engineering”, Civil Engineering Practice, Vol. 3, No. 1, Spring, pp. 49-97.

Bruce, D. A., (1988b), “Aspects of Minipiling Practice in the United States,” Ground
Engineering, Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 20-33.

Bruce, D. A., Pearlman, S. L., and Clark, J. H. (1990), “Foundation Rehabilitation of the
Pocomoke River Bridge, Maryland, Using High Capacity Preloaded Pinpiles,”
Proceedings, 7th Annual International Bridge Conference, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
June 18-20, Paper IBC-90-42, 9 pages.

Bruce, D. A. and Gemme, R., (1992) “Current Practice in Structural Underpinning Using
Pinpiles,” Proceedings, New York Met Section, ASCE Seminar, New York, April 21-22,
46 pages.

Bruce, D. A., and Chu, E. K. (1995), “Micropiles for Seismic Retrofit, Proceedings,”
National Seismic Conference on Bridges and Highways, Sponsored by FHWA and
Caltrans, San Diego, California, December 10-13, 17 pages.

Cadden, A. W., Bruce, D. A., and Ciampitti, L. M. (2001), “Micropiles in Karst: A Case
History of Difficulties and Success”, Foundations and Ground Improvement,
Proceedings of a Specialty Conference, ASCE, June 9-13, Geotechnical Special
Publication, No. 113, pp. 204-215.

FHWA (1997), Drilled and Grouted Micropiles, State-of-Practice Review. Federal Highway
Administration Publication, Report No. FHWA-RD-96-016/019, July 1997, Four
Volumes.

Lizzi, F. (1982), “The Pali Radice (Root Piles),” Symposium on Soil and Rock Improvement
Techniques including Geotextiles, Reinforced Earth and Modern Piling Methods,
Bangkok, December, Paper D1.

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-20 December 2005
Macklin, P. R., Berger, D., Zietlow, W., Herring, W., and Cullen, J. (2004), “Case History:
Micropile Use for Temporary Excavation Support”, Geotechnical Special Publication
“Drilled Shafts, Micropiling, Deep Mixing, Remedial Methods, and Specialty
Foundation Systems”, ASCE Publication, No.: 124, pp: 653-661.

Palmerton, J.B. (1984), “Stabilization of Moving Land Masses By Cast-In-Place Piles,”

USACOE Waterways Experiment Station, Final Report GL-84-4.

Pearlman, S. L., and Wolosick, J. R. (1992), “Pin Piles for Bridge Foundations,”
Proceedings, 9th Annual International Bridge Conference, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
June 15-17.

Pearlman, S.L., Campbell, B.D., and Withiam, J.L. (1992), “Slope Stabilization Using InSitu
Earth Reinforcements” ASCE Specialty Conference on Stability and Performance of
Slopes and Embankments – II, Berkeley, California.

Pearlman, S.L., Wolosick, J.R., and Gronek, P.B. (1993), “Pin Piles for Seismic
Rehabilitation of Bridges,” Proceedings 9th International Bridge Conference, Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania.

Ueblacker, G. (1996), “Portland Westside Lightrail Corridor Project Micropile Retaining

Wall,” Foundation Drilling, November, pp. 8-12.

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Micropile Design & Construction 3-21 December 2005
FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 3 – Micropile Transportation Applications
Micropile Design & Construction 3-22 December 2005
 CHAPTER 4
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize design engineers and construction personnel with
the different techniques and materials utilized in the construction of micropiles. Specifically,
information is provided on: (1) types of drill rigs used for micropile drilling; (2) various
techniques used for overburden and open hole drilling; (3) grout types with methods of
mixing and placing; and (4) types of micropile reinforcement. The construction of a
micropile involves a succession of processes, the most significant of which are drilling,
placing the reinforcement, and grouting. There are a large number of drilling systems
available for both overburden and rock and many are used for micropile construction.

The typical construction sequence for simple Type A and B micropiles (Figure 4-1) includes
drilling the pile shaft to the required tip elevation, placing the steel reinforcement, placing the
initial grout by tremie, and placing additional grout under pressure (for Type B). In general,
the drilling and grouting equipment and techniques used for the micropile construction are
similar to those used for the installation of soil nails, ground anchors, and grout holes.

4.2 DRILLING

4.2.1 Overview

Most drilling methods selected by the specialty contractor for a micropile project are likely to
be acceptable on a particular project, provided they can form a stable hole of the required
dimensions and within the stated tolerances, and without detriment to their surroundings. It
is important not to exclude a particular drilling method because it does not suit a
predetermined concept of how the project should be executed. It is equally important that the
drilling contractor be knowledgeable of the project ground conditions, and the effects of the
drilling method chosen. Drilling within a congested urban site in close proximity of older
buildings or deteriorating foundations has very different constraints than drilling for new
foundations on an open field site.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-1 December 2005
 ADDITIONAL GROUT

COMPRESSIBLE
STRATUM

BEARING
STRATUM

BEGIN DRILLING COMPLETE REMOVE INNER PLACE REMOVE COMPLETE PILE

&/OR INSTALLATION DRILLING TO DRILL BIT & REINFORCEMENT & TEMPORARY (CASING MAY BE
OF TEMPORARY DEPTH ROD (IF USED) GROUT (BY TREMIE) CASING, INJECT LEFT IN PLACE
CASING FURTHER GROUT THROUGH THE
UNDER COMPRESSIBLE
PRESSURE AS STRATUM)
APPLICABLE

Figure 4-1. Typical Micropile Construction Sequence Using Casing.

The act of drilling and forming the pile excavation may disturb the surrounding ground for a
certain time and over a certain distance. The drilling method selected by the contractor
should avoid causing an unacceptable level of disturbance to the site and its facilities, while
providing for installation of a micropile that supports the required capacities in the most cost-
effective manner. Vigorous water flushing can increase drilling rates and increase the
removal of the fine components of mixed soils, enlarging the effective diameter in the bond
zone and aiding in grout penetration and micropile capacity. Conversely, the use of higher
flush flow rates and pressures should be approached with caution, with consideration to the
risks of creating voids and surface settlement, and the risks of hydrofracturing the ground
which could result in ground heave.

Drilling, installation of the reinforcement, and grouting of a particular micropile should be

completed in a series of continuous processes and executed as expeditiously as possible.
Longer durations between completion of drilling and placing of the reinforcement and grout
can be detrimental to the integrity of the surrounding soil. Some materials, such as
overconsolidated clays and clay shales, can deteriorate, relax, or soften as a result of

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-2 December 2005
exposure, resulting in a loss of interfacial bond capacity. In these cases, installation of a
micropile bond zone should be completed within one day to avoid a pile hole remaining open
overnight.

Other site-specific conditions may affect selection of the drilling method and flush type. The
use of water flush may require the supply, handling, and disposal of large quantities of water.
In areas where the water supply may be scarce, a series of ponds or tanks for settlement and
recirculation of the water may be necessary. Requirements for cleanliness or lack of space
for water handling and disposal may dictate the use of air flush or augers for hole drilling.
The presence of hazardous materials in the ground and the need for careful control and
disposal of the soil cuttings may also necessitate the use of augers for micropile installation.

4.2.2 Drill Rigs

Drill rigs typically used for micropile installation are hydraulic rotary (electric or diesel)
power units. They can be track mounted allowing for maneuverability on difficult and
sloped terrain. The size of the track-mounted drills can vary greatly, as seen in Figure 4-2
and 4-3, with the larger drill allowing use of long sections of drill rods and casing in areas
without overhead restrictions and the smaller drill allowing work in lower overhead and
harder-to-reach locations. The drill mast can be mounted on a frame allowing work in
limited-access and low-overhead areas, such as building basements.

Figure 4-2. Large Track-Mounted Rotary Hydraulic Drill Rig.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-3 December 2005
 (a)

(b)

Figure 4-3. Low Headroom Track-Mounted Rotary Hydraulic Drill Rig (a) not Mounted and
(b) Mounted for Drilling.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-4 December 2005
A frame-mounted drill such as the one shown in Figure 4-4 can be connected with long hoses
to a separate hydraulic rotary power unit. This allows placement of the power unit outside
the area of work, thus reducing space requirements, noise in the work area, and problems
with exhaust removal. The drill frame can be moved and supported with a fork lift or moved
by hand with winches and supported by bolting to a concrete floor, and/or bridge footing or
bracing from a ceiling or bridge soffit.

The rotary head that turns the drill string (casing, augers, or rods) can be extremely powerful
on even the smallest of rigs, allowing successful installation in the most difficult ground
conditions. Shortening of the drill mast and the use of short jointed sections of drill string
and micropile reinforcement allows pile installation with less than 3 m (10 ft) of overhead
clearance. For a vertical micropile, the micropile centerline can be located within
approximately 375 mm (15 in.) of the face of an adjacent wall. This distance may need to
increase for micropiles larger than approximately 175 mm (7 in.) in diameter.

Figure 4-4. Small Frame-Mounted Rotary Hydraulic Drill Rig.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-5 December 2005
4.2.3 Drilling Techniques

The drilling method is selected with the objective of causing minimal disturbance or
upheaval to the ground and structure while being the most efficient, economic, and reliable
means of penetration. Micropiles must often be drilled through an overlying weak material
to reach a more competent bearing stratum. Therefore, construction typically requires the use
of overburden drilling techniques to penetrate and support weak and unconsolidated soils and
fills. In addition, unless the bearing stratum is a self-supporting material, such as rock or a
cohesive soil, the drill hole may need temporary support for its full length, e.g. through the
use of temporary casing (Figure 4-5) or suitable drilling fluid. If self-supporting material is
present for the full depth of the micropile, the drillhole can possibly be formed by open hole
techniques, i.e., without the need for temporary hole support by drill casing or hollow stem
auger.

Alternative drilling methods are required to penetrate through an existing structure (Figure 4-
6). Concrete coring techniques may be used to provide an oversized hole in existing slabs
and footings to allow the subsequent drill casing to pass through. In some cases,
conventional rock drilling methods involving rotary percussive techniques can be used to
penetrate existing lightly-reinforced footings and structures. Rotary percussive (Figure 4-7)
or rotary duplex (Figure 4-8) techniques may be used to first penetrate an initial obstruction
layer, such as concrete rubble, with more conventional single-tube advancement drilling used
for completion of the micropile shaft in the soil layers below.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-6 December 2005
Figure 4-5. Casing with Heavy Duty Casing Crown.

(a) (b)

Figure 4-6. Drill Rigs Equipped (a) with Tricone Roller Bit and (b) for Double Head
Drilling.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-7 December 2005
 (a) (b)

Figure 4-7. Rotary Percussive Drilling (a) Drive Head and (b) Drive Bit and Shoe.

(a) (b)

Figure 4-8. Rotary Duplex Drilling (a) Drill Rods and (b) Various Casing Shoes.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-8 December 2005
Water is the most common medium for cleansing and flushing the hole during drilling,
followed by air, drill slurries, and foam. Caution should be exercised while using air flush to
avoid injection of the air into the surrounding ground, causing fracturing and heaving. The
use of bentonite slurries to stabilize and flush holes will impair grout-to-ground bond
capacity by creating a skin of clay at the interface; however, this is not an uncommon choice
in Italian and French practice with Type D piles. Polymer drilling muds have been used
successfully in micropile construction in all types of ground. This slurry type reduces
concern for impairment of the bond capacity, and allows for easier cleanup and disposal
versus bentonite slurry.

4.2.4 Overburden Drilling Techniques

There is a large number of proprietary overburden drilling systems sold by drilling

equipment suppliers worldwide. In addition, specialty contractors often develop their own
variations in response to local conditions and demands. The result is large selection of
systems and methods. However, seven generic methods have been identified which are
common for piles with diameters less than 300 mm (12 in) to depths less than 60 m (200 ft).
The following is a brief discussion of these seven methods. These seven methods are also
summarized in Table 4-1, and simply represented in Figure 4-9.

Figure 4-9. Overburden Drilling Methods (modified after Bruce, 1989).

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-9 December 2005
 Table 4-1. Overburden Drilling Methods (after Bruce, 1989).

Common Diameters
Drilling Method Principle Notes
and Depths
Single-tube
advancement
Casing with “lost point” 50-100 mm to 30 m Obstructions or very dense
1 a) Drive drilling
percussed without flush (2-4 in. to 100 ft) soil problematic.
Casing, with shoe, rotated 100-250 mm to 60 m Needs high torque head and
b) External flush
with strong water flush. (4-10 in. to 200 ft) powerful flush pump.
Simultaneous rotation and Used only in very sensitive
advancement of casing plus soil/site conditions. Needs
100-220 mm to 70 m
2 Rotary duplex internal rod, carrying flush. positive flush return. Needs
(4-8.75 in. to 230 ft)
Rod may have down-the- high torques. (Internal
hole hammer. flushing only)
Useful in obstructed/rocky
Rotary percussive As 2, except casing and rods 89-175 mm to 40 m conditions. Needs powerful
3
concentric duplex percussed as well as rotated. (3.5-7 in. to 130 ft) top rotary percussive
hammer.
Expensive and difficult
system used for difficult
As 2, except eccentric bit on
Rotary percussive 89-200 mm to 60 m overburden. Rod can be
4 rod cuts oversized hole to
eccentric duplex (3.5-8 in. to 200 ft) percussive at top, or may
ease casing advance.
have down-the-hole hammer
above bit.
Powerful, new system for
fast, straight drilling in very
difficult ground. Need
As 2 or 3, except casing and significant hydraulic power.
“Double head” 100-150 mm to 60 m
5 rods may rotate in opposite Casing can be percussed by
duplex (4-6 in. to 200 ft)
directions. top hammer. Rod may be
percussed by top hammer or
may have down-the-hole
hammer above bit.
Obstructions problematic;
Auger rotated to depth to
care must be exercised in
permit subsequent 100-400 mm to 30 m
6 Hollow-stem auger cohesionless soils. Prevents
introduction of grout and/or (4-16 in. to 100 ft)
application of higher grout
reinforcement through stem.
pressures.

Casing is excited by a 100 to 300 mm to 100 No or minimal flush needed.

7 Sonic variable frequency, variable m Full length sample of soil
amplitude, sonic head (4-12 in. to 330 ft) recovered for each hole.

Note: Drive drilling, being purely a percussive method, is not described in the text as it has no application in
micropile construction.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-10 December 2005
 • Single-Tube Advancement-External Flush (Wash Boring): The toe of the drill
casing is fitted with an open crown or bit and the casing is advanced into the ground
by rotation of the drill head. Water flush is pumped continuously through the casing,
which washes debris out and away from the crown. The water-borne debris typically
escapes to the surface around the outside of the casing, but may be lost into especially
loose and permeable strata. Care must be exercised below sensitive structures in
order that uncontrolled washing does not damage the structure by causing cavitation.

Air flush is not normally used with this system due to the danger of accidentally over
pressurizing the ground in an uncontrolled manner which can cause ground
disturbance. Conversely, experience has shown that polymer drill flush additives can
be very advantageous in certain ground conditions, in place of water alone (Bruce,
1992). These do not appear to detrimentally affect grout-to-soil bond development as
may be the case with bentonite slurries.

• Rotary Duplex: The drill rod with a suitable drill bit is placed inside the drill casing.
It is attached to the same rotary head as the casing, allowing simultaneous rotation
and advancement of the combined drill and casing string. The flushing fluid, usually
water or polymer flush, is pumped through the head down through the central drill
rod to exit from the flushing ports of the drill bit. The flush-borne debris from the
drilling then rises to the surface along the annulus between the drill rod and the
casing. At the surface, the flush exits through ports in the drill head. Air flush must
be used with caution because blockages within the annulus can allow high air
pressures to develop at the drill bit and cause ground disturbance.

• Rotary Percussive Duplex (Concentric): Rotary percussive duplex systems are a

development of rotary duplex methods, whereby the drill rods and casings are
simultaneously percussed, rotated, and advanced. The percussion is provided by a
top-drive rotary percussive drill head. This method requires a drill head of substantial
rotary and percussive energy.

• Rotary Percussive Duplex (Eccentric or Lost Crown): Originally sold as the

Overburden Drilling Eccentric (ODEX) System, this method involves the use of
rotary percussive drilling combined with an eccentric underreaming bit. The
eccentric bit undercuts the drill casing, which is then pushed into the oversized drill
hole with much less rotational energy or thrust than is required with the concentric
method. The drill casing does not require an expensive cutting shoe and suffers less
wear and abrasion. The larger diameter options, of more than 127 mm (5 in.) in
diameter, often involve the use of a down-the-hole hammer acting on a drive shoe at

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-11 December 2005
 the toe of the casing so that the casing is effectively pulled into the borehole as
opposed to being pushed by a top hammer.

• Double Head Duplex: With the double head duplex method, the rods and casings
are rotated by separate drill heads mounted one above the other on the same carriage.
These heads provide high torque (and so enhanced soil- and obstruction-cutting
potential), but at the penalty of low rotational speed. However, the heads are geared
such that the lower one (rotating the outer casing), and the upper one (rotating the
inner drill string) turn in opposite directions. The resulting aggressive cutting and
shearing action at the bit permits high penetration rates, while the counter-rotation
also minimizes blockage of the casing/rod annulus by debris carried in the exiting
drill flush. In addition, the inner rods may operate by either purely rotary techniques
or rotary percussion using top-drive or down-the-hole hammers. The counter-rotation
feature promotes exceptional hole straightness and penetrability, even in the most
difficult ground conditions.

• Hollow-Stem Auger: Hollow-stem augers are continuous flight auger systems with
a central hollow core similar to those commonly used in auger-cast piling or for
subsurface investigation. These are installed by purely rotary heads. When drilling
down, the hollow core is closed off by a cap on the drill bit. When the hole has been
drilled to depth, the cap is knocked off or blown off by grout pressure, permitting the
pile to be formed as the auger is withdrawn. Such augers may be used for drilling
cohesive materials, very soft rocks, and are commonly used in sands. If used in sands
with minimal cohesion or adhesion, there is a danger of loosening or cavitating the
soil, especially in inclined holes. Post grouting is essential (Type D).

Various forms of cutting shoes or drill bits can be attached to the lead auger, but
heavy obstructions, such as old foundations and cobble and boulder soil conditions,
are difficult to penetrate economically with this system. In addition, great care must
be exercised when using augers as uncontrolled penetration rates or excessive “hole
cleaning” may lead to excessive spoil removal, thereby risking soil loosening or
cavitation in certain circumstances.

• Sonic: Sonic drilling is a dual cased drilling system that employs high frequency
mechanical vibration to take continuous core samples of overburden and most
bedrock formations, and to advance casing into the ground. Other names for sonic
drilling include rotosonic, rotasonic, sonicore, vibratory or resonant sonic drilling.
The entire drill string is vibrated at a frequency of between 50 and 150 hertz and
evenly distributes the energy and wear at the drill bit face. The rig uses a specially

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-12 December 2005
 designed hydraulically powered drill head or oscillator that is attached directly to the
core barrel, drill pipe or outer casing. The vibrations are sent down through the drill
steel to the face of the drill bit creating displacement, fracturing or shearing action
depending on the material being drilled.

4.2.5 Open Hole Drilling Techniques

When a micropile can be formed in stable and free-standing conditions, the advancement of
casing may be suspended and the hole continued to final depth by open-hole drilling
techniques. There is a balance in cost between the time lost in changing to a less-expensive
open-hole system and continuing with a more expensive overburden drilling system for the
full hole depth. Open-hole drilling techniques may be classified as follows:

• Rotary Percussive Drilling: Particularly for rocks of high compressive strength,

rotary percussive techniques using either top-drive or down-the-hole hammers are
utilized. For the small hole diameters used for micropiles, down-the-hole techniques
are the most economical and common. Air, air/water mist, or foam is used as the
flush.

Top-drive systems can also use air, water, or other flushing systems, but have limited
diameter and depth capacities, are relatively noisy, and may cause damage to the
structure or foundation through excessive vibration.

• Solid Core Continuous Flight Auger: In stiff to hard clays without boulders and in
some weak rocks, drilling may be conducted with a continuous flight auger. Such
drilling techniques are rapid, quiet, and do not require the introduction of a flushing
medium to remove the spoil. There may be the risk of lateral decompression or wall
remolding/interface smear, either of which may adversely affect grout-to-ground
bond. Such augers may be used in conditions where the careful collection and
disposal of drill spoils are particularly important.

• Underreaming: Various devices have been developed to enlarge or underream open

holes in cohesive soils or soft sediments, especially when the micropiles are to act in
tension. These tools can be mechanically or hydraulically activated and will cut or
abrade single or multiple underreams or “bells.” However, this is a time-consuming
process, and it is rarely possible or convenient to verify its effectiveness. In addition,
the cleaning of the underreams is often difficult; water is the best cleaning medium,
but may cause softening of the ground. For all these reasons, it is rare to find
underreaming used in typical micropile practice.

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4.3 GROUTING

4.3.1 General

As described in Chapter 2, the grouting operations have a major impact on micropile

capacity. Details of each type of grouting operation vary somewhat throughout the world,
depending on the origins of the practice and the quality of the local resources. However, as
general observations, it may be noted that:

• Grouts are designed to provide high strength and stability (i.e., bleed), but must also
be pumpable. As shown in Figure 4-10, this implies typical water/cement (w/c) ratios
in the range of 0.40 to 0.50 by weight for micropile grout. In Figure 4-10, bleed
capacity is defined as amount of free water that develops at final set. For example,
for a w/c ratio of 1.0, 100 liters of grout would develop 20 liters of free water.
• Grouts are produced with potable water, to reduce the danger of reinforcement
corrosion.

1 N/mm2 = 145 psi

1 dyne/cm2 = 1.45 × 10-5 psi

Figure 4-10. Effect of Water Content on Grout Compressive Strength and Flow Properties
(after Littlejohn and Bruce, 1977).

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-14 December 2005
 • Type I/II cement conforming to ASTM C150/AASHTO M85 is most commonly
used, supplied either in bagged or bulk form depending on site condition, job size,
local availability, and cost.
• Neat cement-water grout mixes are most commonly used, although sand is a common
additive in certain countries (e.g., Italy, Britain). Bentonite (which reduces grout
strength) is used in primary mixes only with extreme caution, while additives are
allowed only for cases where improved pumpability is required as for pumping over
long distances and/or in hot conditions (e.g., high-range water reducers).
• Design compressive strengths of 28 to 35 MPa (4,000 to 5,000 psi) can be attained
with properly produced neat cement grouts.
• If admixtures and/or additives are used, it is essential that they are chemically
compatible. This is best achieved by using only one chemical supplier, and not by
“mixing and matching”.

The placed grout is required to serve a number of purposes, as described below.

• It transfers the imposed loads between the reinforcement and the surrounding ground.
• It may form part of the load-bearing cross section of the micropile.
• It serves to protect the steel reinforcement from corrosion.
• Its effects may extend beyond the confines of the drill hole by permeation,
densification, and/or fissuring.
The grout, therefore, needs to have adequate properties of fluidity, strength, stability, and
durability. The need for grout fluidity can mistakenly lead to an increase in water content
which has a negative impact on the other three properties. Of all the factors that influence
grout fluidity and set properties, the water/cement ratio is the most important. Again, Figure
4-10 illustrates why this ratio is limited to a range of 0.40 to 0.50, although even then,
additives may be necessary to ensure adequate pumpability for ratios less than 0.40.

It is essential to the integrity of the micropile that upon completion of the grouting operation,
there is no significant loss of grout from any part of the micropile that will be relied upon for
load bearing or corrosion protection. This condition can be achieved by grouting to refusal
during micropile formation, i.e. continue grouting until no more grout take occurs. Problems
with grout loss may necessitate the use of a filler such as sand for plugging the permeable
layer, or may require pre-grouting the hole and redrilling and regrouting after set of the initial
grout. Loss of grout is judged simply by observing the level of grout which remains in the
hole after the grout has stiffened. For general guidance, a grout take over twice the “neat”

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-15 December 2005
hole volume is indicative of voided or very permeable conditions warranting special
attention.

For a Type B micropile, it may not always be possible to attain the desired pressures during
grouting; the soil seal around the casing may not always be adequate to contain the
pressurized grout. This may occur after partial pressure grouting of the bond length. If this
occurs, the grout should be pumped until the level reaches the top of pile, at which time
grouting is discontinued. Maintaining grout pressures at a reasonable level (0.70 MPa (100
psi) or less) will help prevent this from occurring. If the bond lengths of the test micropiles
(that verified the geotechnical capacity) are grouted full length with the desired pressure,
questions may be raised as to the adequacy of micropiles that are grouted under partial
pressure. One benefit of conducting micropile tests to typically 150 to 200 percent of the
design load or greater is that it helps to determine if the micropiles have excess geotechnical
capacity. Production proof tests (described in Chapter 7) may be conducted on the suspect
micropiles.

Because the grout is such a vital component of the micropile, close attention must be paid to
the control and quality of the product. A grout quality control plan, which at a minimum
should include cube or cylinder compression testing and grout density (water /cement ratio)
testing, is discussed in Chapter 8.

Comprehensive guides to cement grout mix design, performance, and equipment are
provided in Littlejohn (1982), Gourlay and Carson (1982), and Houlsby (1990). Similar
issues relating solely to the similar demands of prestressed ground anchors are summarized
by Littlejohn and Bruce (1977).

4.3.2 Grout Equipment

In general, any plant suitable for the mixing and pumping of fluid cementitious grouts may
be used for the grouting of micropiles. The best quality grouts, in terms of both fluid and set
properties, are produced by high-speed, high-shear colloidal mixers (see Figure 4-11) as
opposed to low-speed, low-energy mixers, such as those that depend on paddles (Figure 4-
12). High speed mixers are faster and produce a homogeneous grout mix (see Section 4.3.3).
Mixing equipment can be driven by air, diesel, or electricity, and is available in a wide range
of capacities and sizes from many manufacturers.

For grout placement, lower pressure injection (up to 2 MPa (290 psi)) and up to 200
liters/min (52 gal/min)) is usually completed using constant pressure, rotary-screw type
pumps (e.g., Moyno pumps), while higher pressure grouting, such as for Type C or D

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-16 December 2005
micropiles, usually requires a fluctuating pressure piston or ram pump, which can deliver up
to 8 MPa (1,160 psi) at up to 50 liters/min (13 gal/min).

DISCHARGE
VALVE

ROTOR ROTOR

CONCRETE MIXER
VORTEX DRUM HANY MIXER
HANDY MIXER

THE ORIGINAL CHEMGROUT MODIFIED OF

SKETCH CHEMGROUT MIXER
LATER CHEMGROUT MIXER
ORIGINAL CHEMGROUT
COLLOIDAL MIXER
COLLOIDAL MIXER

VORTEX DRUM DISCHARGE

VALVE

ROTOR ROTOR
CEMIX
CEMIXMIXERS
MIXER
Left: MODEL
Left MODEL 175 Right:
176 MODEL
Right MODEL200
200
ROTOR

DOUBLE-ROTOR CONCRETE
DOUBLE-ROTOR COLCRETE MIXER
MIXER

Figure 4-11. Various Types of High Speed, High Shear “Colloidal” Mixers.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-17 December 2005
 MOTOR

A A

END VIEW ELEVATION ELEVATION

PADDLES

SECTION AA
HORIZONTAL PADDLE MIXER
VERTICAL PADDLE MIXER

PROPELLER PORTABLE
MOVABLE
FIXED IN PROPELLER
PROPELLER
CHEMGROUT PADDLE MIXER DRUM

Figure 4-12. Various Types of Paddle Mixers.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-18 December 2005
4.3.3 Grout Mixing

During mixing, a measured volume of water is usually added to the mixer first, followed by
cement and then aggregate or filler (if applicable). It is generally recommended that grout be
mixed for a minimum of two minutes and that thereafter the grout is kept in continuous slow
agitation in a holding tank prior to being pumped to the micropile. Only in cases where
exceptionally large grout takes are anticipated should ready-mix grout be considered. The
grout should be injected within a certain maximum time after mixing. This “safe
workability” time should be determined on the basis of on-site tests, but is typically not in
excess of one hour. There is no question that high speed high shear mixers produce higher
quality, more consistent grout more quickly than do paddle mixers. Bearing in mind the
relatively large cement particle surface area to be “wetted” (measured in “football fields” per
single 43 kg bag), and that this must be accomplished with less than 20 liters of water, the
intimate blending generated by the high speed mixer is essential for efficient hydration.

Water is typically batched into the mixer by means of a calibrated tank or flow meter.
Cement is typically batched by weight, either in bags or by bulk from a silo. Sand or fillers
are also batched by weight from premeasured bags or more commonly, by using a gage box
that has previously been checked and weighed. For bulk material, some method must be
provided for controlling the quantities of components (volume or weight measurement)
added to the mix. Admixtures are usually provided ready-proportioned to a single bag of
cement, or the dosage can be adjusted by the mixer operator.

4.3.4 Grout Placement Techniques

4.3.4.1 Gravity Fill Techniques (Type A Micropiles)

For Type A micropiles, the hole is drilled to depth and it is then filled with grout and the
reinforcement is placed. Grout should always be introduced into the drill hole through a
tremie pipe exiting at the bottom of the hole. Grout is pumped into the bottom of the hole
until grout of similar quality to that being injected is freely flowing from the mouth of the
borehole. No excess pressure is applied. This type and phase of grouting is referred to as the
primary treatment.

The grout usually comprises a neat cement mix with w/c ratio between 0.45 and 0.50 by
weight. Additionally, sanded mixes of up to 1:1 or 2:1 sand:cement ratio have been used in
European practice, but they are becoming less common due to a growing trend towards the
use of higher grouting pressures involving neat cement grouts. Gravity fill techniques tend
now to be used only when the pile is founded in rock, or when low-capacity piles are being
installed in stiff or hard cohesive soils, and pressure grouting is unnecessary (Bruce and

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-19 December 2005
Gemme, 1992). For sanded mixes, the w/c ratio is often extended to 0.60, assuming the
resultant mix remains stable (i.e., bleed less than 5 percent and sand does not segregate)
(Barley and Woodward, 1992). In the U.S., sanded mixes are only used for pregrouting, e.g.,
in karst terrains, for economic reasons.

4.3.4.2 Pressure Grouting Through the Casing (Type B Micropiles)

For Type B micropiles, additional grout is injected under pressure after the primary grout has
been tremied, and as the temporary casing is being withdrawn. The aim is to enhance the
grout-to-ground bond characteristics. This operation can be limited to the load transfer
length within the design-bearing stratum, or may be extended to the full length of the pile
where appropriate.

Pressure grouting is usually conducted by attaching a pressure cap to the top of the drill
casing (this is often the drilling head itself) and injecting additional grout into the casing
under controlled pressure. In the past, pressurization of the grout was achieved by applying
compressed air through the grout line, since contemporary drill head details and grout pump
technology could not accommodate the relatively viscous, sand-cement mortars. This
method has now been rendered obsolete by the developments in pump capabilities, combined
with the trend to use stable, neat cement grouts without sand.

Grout pressures are measured as close to the point of injection as possible, to account for line
losses between pump and hole. Commonly, a pressure gauge is mounted on the drill rig and
monitored by the driller as a guide for rate of casing withdrawal during the pressurization
phase. Alternatively, if a grouting cap is used and the casing is being extracted by means
other than the drill rig (e.g., by hydraulic jacks), it is common to find a pressure gauge
mounted on the cap itself. Practitioners acknowledge that there will be line losses in the
system, but typically record the pressure indicated on the pressure gauge without the
correction, reasoning that such losses are compensated by the extra pressure exerted by the
grout column due to its weight in the borehole. The recommended method is to install a
pressure gauge on the drill rig or on the line just at the cap.

American practice is to inject additional grout at a typical average pressure between 0.5 to 1
MPa (72 to 145 psi), with the aim of reinstating in-situ lateral soil pressures that may have
been reduced by the drilling process and achieving permeation into coarser grained granular
soils or fractured rocks. The maximum applied injection pressures (typically 20 kPa per
meter (18 psi per ft) of depth in loose soils and 40 kPa per meter (36 psi per ft) of depth in
dense soils) are dictated by the following factors:

• need to avoid ground heave or uncontrolled loss of grout;

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-20 December 2005
 • nature of the drilling system (permissible pressures are lower for augers due to
leakage at joints and around the flights);
• ability of the ground to form a “seal” around the casing during its extraction and
pressure grouting;
• need to avoid “seizing” the casing by flash setting of the grout due to excessive
pressure, preventing proper completion of the pile;
• required grout-to-ground bond capacity; and
• total micropile depth.

The injection of grout under pressure is aimed at improving grout-to-ground skin friction,
thus enhancing the load-carrying capacity of the micropile. Extensive experience with
ground anchors has confirmed the effect of pressure grouting on ultimate load-holding
capacity.

When pressure grouting in granular soils, a certain amount of permeation and displacement
(i.e., slight redensification or compaction occurs to “repair” the soil locally loosened during
drilling) of loosened soils takes place. Additionally, a phenomenon known as pressure
filtration occurs, wherein the applied grout pressure forces some of the integral mixing water
out of the cement suspension and into the surrounding soil. This process leaves behind a
grout of lower water content than was injected and is thus quicker setting and of higher
strength. It also causes the formation of cake-like cement paste along the grout/soil interface
that improves bond. In cohesive soils, some lateral displacement, compaction, or localized
improvement of the soil can occur around the bond zone, although the improvement is
generally less than for cohesionless soils.

Pressure grouting also appears to cause a recompaction or redensification of the soil around
the borehole and increases the effective diameter of the pile in the bond zone. These
mechanisms effectively enhance grout/soil contact, leading to higher skin friction values and
improved load/displacement performance. Such pressure grouting may also mechanically
improve the soil between piles.

4.3.4.3 Postgrouting (Type C and D Micropiles)

It may not be possible to exert sufficiently high grout pressures during the casing removal
stage due to potential ground hydrofracture or leakage around the casing. In addition, some
micropile construction methods may not use or need a temporary drill casing, and so pressure
grouting of the Type B method is not feasible. These circumstances have led to the
development of post-grouting techniques, whereby additional grout can be injected via
special grout tubes some time after the placing of the primary grout (Figure 4-13). Such
grouts are always neat cement-water mixes (for the ease of pumpability through the rubber

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-21 December 2005
valves) and may therefore have higher w/c ratios than the primary grout, being in the range
of 0.50 to 0.75 by weight. It is reasoned that excess water from these mixes is expelled by
pressure filtration during passage into the soil, and so the actual placed grout has a lower
water content (and therefore higher strength).

As described in the following paragraphs, high postgrouting pressures are typically applied,
locally, for quite restricted periods; it may only take a few minutes to inject a sleeve.
However, higher grout-to-ground bond capacity may, in fact, be more efficiently achieved in
Type B micropiles, where grouting pressures are lower but are exerted over a larger area and
a much longer period.

Postgrouting techniques Type C and Type D micropiles are described below.

• Type C: Neat cement grout is placed in the hole as done for Type A micropiles.
Between 15 and 25 minutes later, and before hardening of this primary grout, similar
grout is injected once from the head of the hole without a packer, via a 38- to 50-mm
(1.5- to 2-in.) diameter preplaced sleeved grout pipe through the reinforcement at a
pressure of at least 1 MPa (145 psi) (Figure 4-14).

Type D: Neat cement grout is placed in the hole as done for Type A micropiles.
When this primary grout has hardened, similar grout is injected via a preplaced
sleeved grout pipe. Several phases of such injection are possible at selected horizons
and it is typical to record pressures of 2 to 8 MPa (290 to 1,160 psi), especially at the
beginning of each sleeve treatment when the surrounding primary grout must be
ruptured for the first time. There is usually an interval of at least 24 hours before
successive phases. Three or four phases of injection are not uncommon, contributing
additional grout volumes of as much as 250 percent of the primary volume.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-22 December 2005
 REINFORCING
STEEL CLOSED RUBBER
SLEEVE

BOND ZONE SLEEVED PIPE

(SOIL / GROUT
INTERFACE)

DOUBLE
CEMENT GROUT PACKER (TYP)
(FIRST PHASE)

POST GROUT
(SECOND PHASE)

OPEN RUBBER
SLEEVE

Figure 4-13. Principle of the Tube á Manchette Method of Postgrouting Injection.

The postgrout tube can be a separate 25- or 38-mm (1- or 1.5-in.) diameter sleeved plastic
pipe (tube à manchette) placed together with the steel reinforcement (Figure 4-13), or it can
be the reinforcement tube itself, suitably sleeved (Figure 4-14). In each of these cases, a
double packer may be used to grout through the tubes from the bottom sleeve upwards.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-23 December 2005
 DRILL HOLE
DIAMETER

STEEL TUBE

DOUBLE PACKER

NON RETURN VALVE

(MANCHETTE)

ANNULUS GROUT
(GROUT PRESSURE)

1st PHASE PRESSURE GROUT

2nd PHASE PRESSURE GROUT

Figure 4-14. Use of Reinforcement Tube as a Tube á Manchette Postgrouting System.

Alternatively, pressure grouting can be conducted from the surface via a circulating-loop
arrangement. By this method, grout is pumped around the system and the pressure is
increased steadily by closing the pressurization value on the outlet side. At the critical
“break out” pressure, dictated by the lateral resistance provided by the adjacent grout, the

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-24 December 2005
grout begins to flow out of the tube through one or more sleeves and enters the ground at that
horizon. When using the loop method, it is assumed that with each successive phase of
injection that a different sleeve opens ultimately resulting in treatment over the entire sleeved
length (a feature guaranteed by the tube à manchette method using double packers) (Figure 4-
15).

Figure 4-15. Circulating Loop Arrangement for Pressure Grouting (DSI, 1992).

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-25 December 2005
Where micropile structural capacity depends on the compressive strength of the grout, the
use of low-strength bentonite primary grouts to reduce “break out” pressures should be
avoided.

4.3.5 Top-Off (Secondary) Grouting

Due to slow grout seepage, bleed, or shrinkage, it is common to find that the grout level
drops slightly prior to stiffening and hardening. In ground anchorage practice, this is simply
rectified by topping off the hole with the lowest water-content grout practical, at some later
phase. However, in micropile practice where a permanent casing for reinforcement of the
upper micropile length is not used, such a cold joint should be avoided since the grout
column should be continuous for load holding and corrosion protection reasons. Topping off
is therefore best conducted during the stiffening phase to ensure integrity. Where particularly
high interfacial bond stresses must be resisted between the micropile and an existing
structure, the use of a high-strength non-shrink grout may be considered.

4.4 REINFORCING STEEL

4.4.1 General

The amount of steel reinforcement placed in a micropile is determined by the loading it

supports and the stiffness required to limit elastic displacements. Reinforcement may consist
of a single reinforcing bar, a group of reinforcing bars, a steel pipe casing or rolled structural
steel. In American practice, the use of a single reinforcing bar and/or a high-strength steel
casing is commonly used.

4.4.2 Placement of Reinforcement

Reinforcement may be placed either prior to grouting, or placed into the grout-filled borehole
before the temporary support (if used) is withdrawn. It must be clean of deleterious
substances such as surface soil and mud that may contaminate the grout or coat the
reinforcement, impairing bond development. Suitable centralizers should be firmly fixed to
maintain the specified grout cover. Pile cages and reinforcement groups, if used, must be
sufficiently robust to withstand the installation and grouting process and the rotation and
withdrawal of the temporary casing.

4.4.3 Reinforcement Types

A description of the various types of reinforcement is provided in this section.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-26 December 2005
 • Concrete Reinforcing Steel Bars (rebar): Standard reinforcing steel (Table 4-2),
conforming to ASTM A615/AASHTO M31and ASTM A706, with yield strengths of
420 and 520 MPa (60 and 75 ksi), is typically used. Bar sizes range in diameter from
25 mm to 63 mm (1 to 2.5 in.). A single bar is typically used, but bar groups have
been used. For a bar group, the individual bars can be separated by the use of spacers
or tied to the helical reinforcement, to provide area for grout to flow between the bars
and ensure adequate bonding between the bars and grout (Figure 4-16). Alternatively,
bars can be bundled as long as adequate development length for the bundle is
provided.

Table 4-2. Dimensions, Yield, and Ultimate Strengths for Standard Reinforcing Bars.

Steel Grade Rebar Size, mm (in) Area, mm2 (in.2) Yield Strength, kN (kip)
19 (#6) 284 (0.44) 117 (26)
Grade 420(1) 22 (#7) 387 (0.60) 160 (36)
25 (#8) 510 (0.79) 211 (47)
19 (#6) 284 (0.44) 147 (33)
22 (#7) 387 (0.60) 200 (45)
25 (#8) 510 (0.79) 264 (59)
29 (#9) 645 (1.0) 334 (75
Grade 520(2)
32 (#10) 819 (1.27) 424 (95)
36 (#11) 1006 (1.56) 520 (117)
43 (#14) 1452 (2.25) 751 (169)
57 (#18) 2581 (4.0) 1335 (3000)
(3)
Grade 550 63 (2.5 in) 3168 (4.91) 1747 (393)
(1)
Notes: Grade 420 steel has yield stress of fy= 420 MPa (60 ksi) and tensile strength of fu = 620
MPa (92 ksi)
(2)
Grade 520 steel has yield stress of fy= 520 MPa (75 ksi) and tensile strength of fu = 690
MPa (102 ksi)
(3)
Grade 550 steel has yield stress of fy = 550 MPa (80 ksi) and tensile strength of fu = 700
MPa (104 ksi)

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 PILE
CL

245 mm OD x 12 mm WALL
THICKNESS STEEL CASING

75 mm REINFORCING
BAR (TYP)

120E

BAR CENTRALIZER

280 mm DIAMETER NEAT CEMENT GROUT

DRILLED HOLE

Figure 4-16. Multiple Bar Reinforcement with Bar Centralizer/Spacer.

For low overhead conditions where placement of full-length bars is not feasible, mechanical
couplers can be used. Field adjustment of individual bar lengths can be difficult if the
coupler type requires shop fabrication.

• Continuous-Thread Steel Bars: Steel reinforcing bars may be fabricated with a

continuous full-length thread, such as the Dywidag Systems International (DSI)
Threadbar or the Williams All-Thread Bar.

The DSI Threadbar system, which is also referred to as a GEWI Threadbar (Figure 4-
17 and Table 4-3), is a common choice throughout the world for micropile
reinforcement. The bar has a coarse pitch, continuous ribbed thread rolled on during
production. It is available in diameters ranging from 19 mm to 63 mm (3/4 to 2-1/2
in.) in steel conforming to ASTM A615/AASHTO M 31, with yield strengths of 420,

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-28 December 2005
 520, and 550 MPa (60, 75, and 80 ksi). The size range of 32 mm to 63 mm (1-1/4 to
2-1/2 in.) is most commonly used. Higher strength bars of steel conforming to ASTM
A722/AASHTO M 275 with an ultimate strength of 1,035 MPa (150 ksi) are also
available, in diameters of 26, 32, and 36 mm (1, 1-1/8, and 1-3/8 in.).

Figure 4-17. Details of DSI Threadbar (DSI, 1993).

Table 4-3. Dimensions and Yield Strength for DSI Threadbar.

Diameter
Bar Yield
Steel Area over Bar Weight
Diameter Strength
Grade mm2 (in2) Threads kg/m (lbs/lf)
mm (in) kN (kip)
mm (in.)
32 (#10) 819 (1.27) 424 (95) 36.3 (1.43) 6.41 (4.30)
36 (#11) 1006 (1.56) 520 (117) 40.9 (1.61) 7.91 (5.31)
520(1)
43 (#14) 1452 (2.25) 751 (169) 47.2 (1.86) 11.39 (7.65)
57 (#18) 2581 (4.0) 1335 (300) 63.5 (2.5) 20.24 (13.6)
550(2) 63 (2.5in) 3168 (4.91) 1747 (393) 69.1 (2.72) 24.86 (16.7)
Notes: (1)Grade 500 steel has yield stress of fy= 520 MPa (75 ksi) and tensile strength of fu = 690
MPa (100 ksi).
(2)
Grade 550 steel has yield stress of fy= 552 MPa (80 ksi) and tensile strength of fu = 700
MPa (102 ksi).

The Williams All-Thread Bar is available in diameters ranging from 20 to 89 mm (0.8

to 3.5 in.) in steel conforming to ASTM A615/AASHTO M 31 and from 26 to 65 mm
(1 to 2.5 in.) in steel conforming to ASTM A722/AASHTO M 275, with an ultimate
strength of 1,035 MPa (150 ksi). The bar has a finer thread than used on the Dywidag
bar.

The thread on the bars not only ensures grout-to-steel bond, but also allows the bar to
be cut at any point and joined with a coupler to restore full tension/compression
capacity. The continuous thread also simplifies pile-to-structure connections where

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-29 December 2005
 the bar is connected to an anchor plate. A hex nut is used to connect the plate, with
the continuous thread allowing easy adjustment of the plate location.

• Continuous-Thread Hollow-Core Steel Bars: Steel reinforcing bars that have a

hollow core and a continuous full-length thread include the Dwyidag, Ischebeck
Titan, MAI International, and Chance IBO Injection Boring Rods. Typical sizes of
hollow-core steel bars are shown in Table 4-4. It should be noted that additional sizes
are available. Hollow-core steel bars offer the advantages of continuous thread, and
the hollow core allows the bar to be used to drill the micropile hole. A drill bit is
mounted on the tip of the bar, and the bar is drilled in with grout flush pumped to the
bit through the hollow core of the bar. Alternately, an air or water flush can be used,
with the grout placed through the bar after drilling to the final depth.

The continuous thread allows the bar to be cut to length and coupled, and allows the
use of a hex nut for the pile top connection. The main drawback of this type of
reinforcement is the higher cost.

• Steel Pipe Casing: With the trend towards micropiles that can support higher loads
at low displacements and for the requirement to sustain lateral loads, steel-pipe
reinforcement has become more common. Pipe reinforcement can provide significant
steel area for support of high loading and contribution to the micropile stiffness, while
providing high shear and reasonable bending capacity to resist the lateral loads.

Pipe reinforcement is placed by either using the drill casing as permanent

reinforcement, or by placing a smaller diameter permanent pipe inside the drill
casing. Use of the drill casing for full-length reinforcement is typical only for
micropiles founded in rock, where extraction of the casing for pressure grouting is not
necessary. The length of the pipe sections used is dictated by the length of the drill
mast and by the available overhead clearance. Casing sections are typically joined by
a threaded connection, which is machined into the pipe. The reduced area of the
threaded joint should be considered in the structural design of the pile, particularly for
the capacity in tension and bending. Methods exist for reinforcement of the threaded
joints that can provide a strength equivalent to the full casing section.

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 Table 4-4. Dimensions and Yield Strength of Common Hollow Injection Bars.

Ultimate Diameter
Yield Weight
Rod Size Capacity Inner Outer
kN (kip) kg/m (lb/ft)
kN (kip) mm (in.) mm (in.)
MAI
150 (33.7) 200 (45) 14 (.55) 25 (1.0) 2.6 (1.74)
R25N
MAI
230 (51.7) 280 (63) 18.5 (.73) 32 (1.25) 3.4 (2.28)
R32N
MAI
400 (90) 500 (112.4) 19 (.75) 38 (1.5) 6.0 (4.0)
R38N
MAI
630 (141.6) 800 (179.8) 33 (1.3) 51 (2.0) 8.4 (5.64)
R51N
IBO-
TITAN 180 (40.5) 220 (49.5) 16 (.63) 30 (1.18) 2.7 (1.8)
30/16
IBO-
TITAN 244 (54.9) 291 (64.5) 20 (.79) 32 (1.26) 3.2 (2.15)
32/20
IBO-
TITAN 525 (118) 660 (148.4) 16 (.63) 40 (1.57) 7.0 (4.63)
40/16
TITAN
970 (218.1) 1,160 (260.8) 53 (2.09) 73 (2.87) 12.3 (8.3)
73/53
TITAN
1,800 (404.6) 2,282 (513) 78 (3.07) 103 (4.05) 24.9 (16.7)
103/78

Pipe in the sizes typically used for micropile construction are available in steel
conforming to ASTM A53, A519, A252 and A106 with typical yield strengths of 241
MPa (36 ksi). Availability of the desired pipe size may determine the grade of steel
used. The main drawback of using these pipe grades is the relatively low yield
strength and very high unit cost per linear meter.

American Petroleum Institute (API) 5CT or 5L (N-80) casing may be used. The high
yield strength of 552 MPa (80 ksi) greatly aids in the ability of the micropile to
support high loads, and improves the strength of threaded joints machined into the

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-31 December 2005
 pipe wall. The pipe is also readily available in the form of mill secondary material at
a reasonable unit cost. The overwhelming majority of higher capacity micropiles
installed to date in the United States have used the N-80 casing. The casing should be
specified to meet the tensile requirements of ASTM A252, Grade 3 with a minimum
elongation of 15 percent, except the minimum specified yield strength should be
consistent with that used for design. A minimum of two representative coupon
samples or mill certificates (if available) for each truckload of casing delivered to
project should be submitted.

Due to the high strength and typical chemical composition of the API N-80 casing,
weldability of the casing sections requires special welding procedures. Welding
should be performed in accordance with American Welding Society (AWS) D1.1
“Structural Welding Code – Steel” or alternate methods or materials can be described
on an AWS weld procedure form and that method should be approved by a welding
specialist. Prior to welding the N-80 casing, welding procedures must be submitted
to the owner for approval. Special welding procedures are not required for minor
welds which do not carry structural loads.

Pipe dimensions and yield strengths, for various grades of steel, are presented in
Table 4-5.

• Composite Reinforcement: For micropiles with partial length permanent drill

casing (Type 1C, 2C and 4C), the use of a steel bar for reinforcement of the bottom
portion of the pile is common, resulting in a composite reinforced pile (example
shown in Figure 4-18). The reinforcing bar may be extended to the top of the
micropile for support of tension loading. The use of varying reinforcement adds
complexity to the pile structural analysis, with particular attention needed for the
location and capacity of reinforcement transition.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-32 December 2005
Table 4-5. Dimensions and Yield Strength of Common Micropile Pipe Types and Sizes.

API N-80 Pipe – Common Sizes

Casing OD
139.7 (5.500) 139.7 (5.500) 177.8 (7.000) 177.8 (7) 244.5 (9.625)
Wall(1), mm (in.)
Wall Thickness(1),
9.17 (0.361) 10.5 (0.415) 12.6 (0.498) 18.5 (0.73) 12.0 (0.472)
mm (in.)
Area(2), mm2
3760 (5.83) 4280 (6.63) 6560 (10.2) 9280 (14.4) 8760 (13.6)
(in.2)
Yield Strength(3),
2,070 (466) 2,360 (530) 3,620 (814) 5,120 (1,151) 4,830 (1,086)
kN (kip)
ASTM A519, A106 Pipe – Common Sizes(5)
Casing OD
139.7 (5.50) 168.3 (6.625) 203.2 (8.00) 273.1 (10.75) -
Wall(1), mm (in.)
Wall Thickness(1),
12.7 (0.50) 12.7 (0.50) 12.7 (0.50) 16 (0.625) -
mm (in.)
Area(2), mm2
5,067 (7.85) 6,208 (9.62) 7,600 (11.8) 12,850 (19.9) -
(in.2)
Yield Strength(3),
1,270 (286) 1,540 (346) 1,890 (425) 3,190 (717) -
kN (kip)
(1)
Notes: Casing outside diameter (OD) and wall thickness (t) are nominal dimensions.
(2)
Steel area is calculated as As = (π/4) × (OD2 - ID2).
(3)
Nominal yield stress for API N-80 steel is Fy = 552 MPa (80 ksi).
(4)
Nominal yield stress for ASTM A519 & A106 steel is Fy = 241 MPa (36 ksi).
(5)
Other pipe sizes are manufactured but may not be readily available. Check for availability
through suppliers.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-33 December 2005
 #16 REINFORCING BAR
TOP OF FOOTING

BAR COUPLER
8 EA 19 X 19
SHEAR RINGS
BOTTOM OF
FOOTING

176 or 211 DIA CASING

13mm WALL

TOP OF DENSE
SOILS

CASED UPPER
MICROPILE
BOND LENGTH

GROUT
MAX TEST LOAD – 4,500 kN
CASING: 176 or 211 mm DIA
WALL: 13 mm

NOTE: ALL DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS

Note: 1 mm = 0.040 in and 1 kN = 0.224 kips

Figure 4-18. Details of Example Composite High-Capacity Type 1B Micropiles.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-34 December 2005
4.5 REFERENCES

Barley, A. D., and Woodward, M. A. (1992), “High Loading of Long Slender Minipiles,”
Proceedings, ICE Conference on Piling European Practice and Worldwide Trends,
Thomas Telford, London, pp. 131-136.

Bruce, D. A. (1989), “Aspects of Minipiling Practice in the United States,” Ground

Engineering, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 35-39.

Bruce, D. A. (1992), “Recent Progress in American Pin Pile Technology,” Proceedings,

ASCE Conference, Grouting, Soil Improvement, and Geosynthetics, New Orleans,
Louisiana, Feb. 25-28, pp. 765-777.

Bruce, D. A. and Gemme, R. (1992), “Current Practice in Structural Underpinning Using

Pinpiles,” Proceedings, New York Met Section, ASCE Seminar, New York, April 21-22,
46 pages.

CCTG (1992), Technical Rules for the Design and Calculation of the Foundations of the
Civil Engineering Works, Publication 62, Title V, September.

DSI (2004), DSI Product Literature.

Federal Highway Administration (1997), “Drilled and Grouted Micropiles: State of Practice
Review, Volumes I, II, III, and IV.” Principal Investigators D.A. Bruce, I. Juran.,
Publication Nos. FHWA-RD-96-016. –017, -018, and –019, July.

Gourlay and Carson, C. (1982), “The State of Grouting in the 1980’s” Grouting in
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE Conference, New Orleans, LA, February 10-12, pp.
346-358.

Houlsby, A. C. (1990), Construction and Design of Cement Grouting, John Wiley & Sons,
442 p.

Littlejohn, G. S. (1982), “Design of Cement Based Grouts,” Grouting in Geotechnical

Engineering, ASCE Conference, New Orleans, LA, February 10-12, pp. 35-48.

Littlejohn, G. S., and Bruce, D. A. (1977), Rock Anchors State-of-the-Art, Foundation

Publications Ltd., Brentwood, Essex, England, 50 pages.

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Micropile Design & Construction 4-35 December 2005
FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 4 – Construction Techniques & Materials
Micropile Design & Construction 4-36 December 2005
 CHAPTER 5
DESIGN OF MICROPILES FOR STRUCTURE FOUNDATIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

A typical micropile cross section used for structural foundation support is shown on Figure 5-
1. This micropile consists of an upper length reinforced with a permanent steel casing with a
center steel reinforcing bar and a lower grouted bond length reinforced with the center
reinforcing bar.

The geotechnical load capacity of a micropile is sensitive to the process used during
micropile construction, especially the techniques used for drilling the micropile shaft,
flushing the drill cuttings, and grouting the micropile. Therefore, verification of the shaft
resistance developed at the grout – ground interface assumed in design via micropile load
testing is essential to confirm structure safety; load testing should therefore be considered a
part of the design.

The basic philosophy of micropile design differs little from that for a drilled shaft. The
system must be capable of sustaining the anticipated loading conditions with the micropile
components operating at safe stress levels, and with resulting displacements being within
tolerable (or allowable) limits. For conventional drilled shafts, where the large cross
sectional area results in high structural capacity and stiffness, the design is normally
governed by the geotechnical load capacity, i.e., side and base resistance. Because
micropiles have a relatively small cross sectional area, the design is usually controlled by
structural considerations. Moreover, the high grout to ground capacities that can be
developed using pressure grouting techniques will typically result in high geotechnical load
capacities.

The purpose of this chapter is to present a step-by-step generalized method for the design of
micropiles used for structural foundations. The major steps and substeps in this design
method are outlined in Table 5-1. Detailed information for each of these steps is presented in
this chapter and a complete design is shown in Sample Problem No. 1.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-1 December 2005
 Table 5-1. Design Steps for Micropiles used for Structural Foundations.

1. Identify project requirements and evaluate micropile feasibility

2. Review available information and perform subsurface exploration and laboratory testing
program
3. Develop all loading combinations
4. Preliminary design of micropiles
• spacing
• length
• cross section
5. Evaluate allowable structural capacity of cased length
6. Evaluate allowable structural capacity of uncased length
7. Compare design loads to structural capacity from Steps 5 and 6 and modify structural
section, if necessary
8. Evaluate geotechnical capacity of micropile
• evaluate suitable ground stratum for bond zone
• select bond stress and calculate bond length required to resist design load
• evaluate micropile group capacity for compression and tension (i.e., uplift)
9. Estimate micropile group settlement
10. Design micropile to footing connection at pile cap
11. Develop load testing program
12. Prepare Drawings and Specifications

Other Design Considerations

1. Corrosion Protection**
2. Plunge Length
3. End Bearing Micropiles
4. Downdrag
5. Lateral Loads on Single Vertical Micropiles
6. Lateral Loads on Micropile Groups
7. Buckling
8. Seismic

** Corrosion protection is a critical component of all micropile designs.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-2 December 2005
 MICROPILE
C REINFORCING BAR
TOP OF FOOTING L

PILE CAP ANCHORAGE

BOTTOM OF FOOTING
CASED UPPER
MICROPILE
LENGTH
TOP OF DENSE
SOIL / ROCK

CASING PLUNGE
STEEL CASING LENGTH

CENTRALIZER PRESSURE
GROUTED
MICROPILE
BOND LENGTH
GROUT

GROUTED BOND ZONE

DIAMETER (DIA BOND)

Figure 5-1. Detail of a Composite Reinforced Micropile.

5.2 STEP 1: EVALUATE PROJECT REQUIREMENTS AND MICROPILE

FEASIBILITY

It is essential to systematically consider various foundation types and to select the optimum
alternative based on the superstructure requirements, the subsurface conditions, and
foundation cost. Foundation types may include shallow foundations consisting of spread

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-3 December 2005
footing or mat foundations with or without ground improvement; or deep foundations
consisting of driven piles, drilled shafts, or micropiles.

The feasibility of using spread footings for foundation support should be considered in any
foundation selection process. Spread footings are generally more economical than deep
foundations; spread footings in conjunction with ground improvement techniques should also
be considered. Deep foundations should not be used indiscriminately for all subsurface
conditions and for all structures. Feasibility evaluations considering shallow foundations,
driven piles, and drilled shafts is provided in FHWA NHI-05-042 (2005).

Where deep foundations have been judged to be the most appropriate foundation alternative
(as compared to shallow foundations), micropiles should be compared to driven piles and
drilled shafts. On some projects, construction of driven piles and/or drilled shafts may be
feasible though subsurface conditions or other project constraints will increase cost. Cost
effectiveness of micropiles should be investigated for such projects. Bidding of alternative
foundation systems may provide the most cost-effective option.

In assessing micropile feasibility for a specific project, micropiles will most often be
compared to drilled shafts and/or driven piles. In many cases, either driven piles or drilled
shafts will be more cost-effective than micropiles, therefore the cost-effective use of
micropiles will be limited to projects with specific technical constraints that make the
construction of drilled shafts or driven piles difficult to impossible. In general, micropiles
may be cost-effective at project locations where:

• subsurface conditions would make the installation of driven piles or drilled shafts
difficult (and expensive) such as ground containing significant amounts of boulders,
cobbles, or other large debris;
• difficult access or limited overhead clearance is available for constructing deep
foundations (e.g., working inside existing structures or underneath bridge decks);
• subsurface voids may exist (e.g., potentially collapsible ground, karstic formations,
underground mines, etc.);
• vibration limits would preclude the use of conventional deep foundation installation
equipment; or
• underpinning or retrofitting of existing foundations requires strict control of
vibrations or settlements.

It is noted, however, that micropile capacities continue to increase as additional experience

with this technology is obtained. Currently, micropiles in rock have been tested to ultimate
loads as high as 4,500 kN (1,000 kips). For high capacity micropiles, the cost per unit of

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-4 December 2005
capacity may be comparable to that for driven piles. A process to evaluate micropile project
costs is described in Chapter 10. The user of this manual is also specifically referred to
FHWA NHI-05-042 (2005) for information on developing cost per unit capacity for driven
piles.

5.3 STEP 2: REVIEW AVAILABLE INFORMATION AND GEOTECHNICAL

DATA

The subsurface exploration, laboratory testing, and evaluation of geotechnical design

parameters for the design of micropiles used for structural foundation support is similar to
that for either driven piles (see FHWA NHI-05-042 (2005) or drilled shafts (see FHWA-HI-
99-025, 1999). Specific elements that should precede the actual exploration program include
a search and review of published and unpublished information at and near the site, a visual
site inspection, and design of the subsurface exploration program. For guidance regarding
the planning and conduct of subsurface exploration programs, refer to AASHTO Manual on
Subsurface Investigations (1988), FHWA NHI-01-031 Manual on Subsurface Investigations
(2001), and Geotechnical Engineering Circular 5 (GEC 5), Evaluation of Soil and Rock
Properties (2002).

As a minimum, the information gathering and subsurface exploration and laboratory testing
program should obtain information to analyze foundation stability and settlement with
respect to:

• regional and local geology;

• discussion of site history which may include information on mining, previous
excavations, problems with previous construction, construction methods used for
adjacent utilities or basements or foundations, possible occurrence of potentially
contaminated materials, etc.;
• logs of soil borings that includes description and classification of the soil strata
encountered, unit weights, moisture contents, standard penetration tests (SPT) or cone
penetrometer test (CPT) values, and description of groundwater conditions;
• if rock is encountered, logs with rock classifications, penetration rates, degree of
weathering and fracturing, recovery and RQD measurements, and driller’s
observations should be provided;
• laboratory testing results including Atterberg limits information (for silty or clayey
soils) and grain size analyses;
• a subsurface soil profile along the alignment of the structure developed from the soil
boring information presenting soil type, ground water elevations, and SPT values as a
minimum;

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-5 December 2005
 • estimated soil and/or rock shear strength and compressibility parameters;
• determination and discussion of the presence of hazardous, contaminated, and/or
corrosive conditions, if applicable; indicators of corrosive conditions include low soil
resistivity, the presence of lead, sulfates, and chlorides, and observations of corrosion
of existing site features; and
• project-specific considerations including, for example, liquefiable soil layers,
expansive or dispersive soil deposits, underground voids from solution weathering or
mining activity, etc.

Some minimum guidelines for boring spacing and depth are provided in Table 5-2. This
table should be used only as a first step in estimating the number of borings for a particular
design, as actual boring spacing and depth will depend upon the project type, geologic
environment, and variability encountered during the field investigation.

Table 5-2. Guidelines for Minimum Number of Investigation Points and Depth of
Investigation (Modified after FHWA-IF-02-034, 2002).
Minimum Number of
Application Investigation Points and Minimum Depth of Investigation
Location of Investigation Points
Deep For substructure (e.g., bridge In soil, depth of investigation should extend below the
Foundations piers or abutments) widths less anticipated micropile tip elevation a minimum of 6 m (20 ft),
(Micropiles for than or equal to 30 m (100 ft), a or a minimum of two times the maximum micropile group
Structural minimum of one investigation dimension, whichever is deeper. All borings should extend
Support) point per substructure. For through unsuitable strata such as unconsolidated fill, peat,
substructure widths greater than highly organic materials, soft fine-grained soils, and loose
30 m (100 ft), a minimum of coarse-grained soils to reach hard or dense materials.
two investigation points per
substructure. Additional For micropiles bearing on rock, a minimum of 3 m (10 ft) of
investigation points should be rock core shall be obtained at each investigation point location
provided if erratic subsurface to verify that the boring has not terminated on a boulder.
conditions are encountered.
For micropiles supported on or extending into rock, a
minimum of 3 m (10 ft) of rock core, or a length of rock core
equal to at least three times the micropile diameter for isolated
micropiles or two times the maximum micropile group
dimension, whichever is greater, shall be extended below the
anticipated micropile tip elevation to determine the physical
characteristics of rock within the zone of foundation
influence.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-6 December 2005
In areas underlain by heterogeneous soil deposits and/or rock formations, it will likely be
necessary to exceed the minimum guidelines provided in Table 5-2 to evaluate variations in
soil and/or rock types and to assess consistency across the site area. For situations where
micropiles will be installed in karstic formations, it may be necessary to advance a boring at
the location of each micropile. Where battered micropiles may be used, the location of the
micropile bond length will be offset from the footing location. Borings should be located so
that information on bond zone soils is obtained.

In general, all geotechnical data interpretations should be provided. The basic character and
extent of the soil strata determined from the geotechnical investigation can be verified during
pile installation by monitoring and logging of the penetration rates, drilling action, flush
return, and soil cuttings.

5.4 STEP 3: DEVELOP APPLICABLE LOADING COMBINATIONS

For state DOT projects, reference will typically be made to AASHTO Standard Specification
for Highway Bridges (when using allowable stress design (ASD) or load factor design
(LFD)) or to AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (when using load and resistance
factor design) for loadings, load combinations, and load terminology. Under any of these
design approaches, various individual loads will be added together to develop a series of load
combinations to be checked as part of the design. The required loads for consideration in
design (e.g., maximum compression load, maximum tension load, and maximum transverse
and longitudinal overturning moments) will usually be provided by the structural engineer as
part of a design criteria package. Other loading cases that may be considered include lateral
loads, seismic loads, and loads due to downdrag.

For most applications, it is sufficiently accurate to assume that the foundation cap is perfectly
rigid, i.e., the cap is free to rotate about all axes but will not bend. With this, the so-called
“rigid cap” method can be used to distribute axial forces resulting from overturning moments
to individual foundation elements. However, for large pile groups, relatively thin pile caps,
and/or widely spaced foundation elements, a more sophisticated soil-structure interaction
analysis may be required. Moreover, since micropiles are often used with pre-existing
foundation elements, the potential differences in the stiffness of the elements may require
that such sophisticated analyses be used. Additional discussion on available soil-structure
interaction analysis methods is provided in Section 5.19.3.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-7 December 2005
5.5 STEP 4: PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF MICROPILES

5.5.1 Selection of Micropile Spacing

In all cases, the center-to-center spacing between individual micropiles should be at least 760
mm (30 in.) or 3 micropile diameters, whichever is greater. This spacing criterion was
originally developed for driven piles and it allows for potential deviations in drilling over
significant depths and reduces group effects between adjacent micropiles

The spacing of micropiles for structural foundation support will also depend on the specific
application. For example, the spacing of micropiles used to improve (or retrofit) an existing
foundation (or footing) will be based on the condition of the existing footing, access to the
existing footing, and the magnitude of the loads that need to be resisted by the micropiles.
Where relatively small design loads are involved (e.g. less than 450 kN (100 kips)), it may be
feasible to drill and install micropiles through the existing foundation and still develop
sufficient load transfer between the micropiles and the existing foundation to provide
adequate capacity. Where larger loads are required or where the existing foundation has
deteriorated, a new footing may need to be constructed around the existing footing and
positively connected to the existing footing using steel dowels or other devices to provide the
required capacity.

Micropile spacing and layout can either be selected by the Owner and included in the Plans
or the Specifications may allow for the Contractor to select the number of micropiles and
layout. The latter provides the Contractor with the flexibility to consider whether fewer
higher capacity micropiles may be used as compared to a baseline configuration with a
greater number of lower capacity micropiles.

5.5.2 Selection of Micropile Length

The total length of an individual micropile will be selected such that the required
geotechnical capacity is developed by skin friction (or side resistance) between the grout and
the ground over a suitable length in an appropriate stratum. The evaluation of this suitable
length is described in Section 5.9.

The total length will also be controlled by required penetration depths to resist downdrag and
uplift forces and to provide additional lateral resistance where scour is a consideration or
where other sources of lateral load need to be considered in the design.

The maximum length of a micropile that can be achieved using common track-drilling
equipment is greater than 90 m (300 ft). Typically, however, micropiles of such lengths

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-8 December 2005
would be very expensive and a practical limit for most projects may be on the order of 30 m
(100 ft).

5.5.3 Selection of Micropile Cross Section

To carry required axial loads, it is not uncommon for up to one half of the cross sectional
area of the micropile to comprise steel casing and/or steel reinforcing rod (s). The use of
common casing sizes is preferred to avoid delays associated with material availability.
Currently, the most common casing sizes in the U.S. are 141 mm (5-1/2 in.), 178 mm (7 in.),
and 245 mm (9-5/8 in.) with a nominal yield stress of 552 MPa (80 ksi), with the 178 mm
casing being the most common. These sizes refer to the outside diameter of the casing.
Tables 4-2, 4-3, 4-4, and 4-5 provide material properties for common micropile
reinforcement.

In general, it is preferable to install fewer higher capacity micropiles as compared to a larger

number of lower capacity micropiles to resist a given set of foundation loads. With this
approach, less total drilling is required thus reducing overall costs. Also, it is more efficient
to resist lateral loads, minimize lateral deflections, and/or achieve relatively high axial load
capacities using steel casing as compared to steel reinforcing bars alone. For example, a 178
mm (7-in.) diameter steel casing has about 2.5 times as much steel area as a 2.25-in. diameter
reinforcing bar. Therefore, for allowable axial loads greater than approximately 900 kN (200
kips), it is likely that steel casing would be required as compared to a micropile only
reinforced with steel reinforcing bars.

The bond between the cement grout and the reinforcing steel bar allows the composite action
of the micropile, and is the mechanism for transfer of the pile load from the reinforcing steel
to the ground. Typical ultimate bond values range from 1.0 to 1.75 MPa (145 to 254 psi) for
smooth bars and pipe, and 2.0 to 3.5 MPa (290 to 508 psi) for deformed bars (ACI 318).
Flaky rust on bars lowers the bond strength, but wiping off the loosest rust produces a
rougher surface which develops a bond equal to or greater than the unrusted bar. The loose
powdery rust appearing on bars after short exposures does not have a significant effect on
grout-reinforcing bar bond.

In the majority of cases, grout-to-steel bond does not govern the pile design. In general, the
allowable load of a micropile is controlled by the structural strength of the micropile cross
section. The procedure to calculate allowable loads in a micropile based on structural
considerations is provided as part of Design Step 5 and 6.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-9 December 2005
5.5.4 Selection of Micropile Type

A description of the various micropile types (Type A, B, C, and D) is provided in Chapter 4

of this manual. The selection of the micropile type should be left to the discretion of the
Contractor. As part of the request for bid, however, the Owner should require that the
Contractor provide information on their proposed methods of drilling and grouting. Based on
previous project experience, the Owner may wish to disallow certain drilling techniques
based on project-specific constraints. For example, the need to limit surface ground
movements for a project involving sandy ground may preclude the use of certain drilling
techniques known to increase the potential for soil caving. The Owner should provide
specific performance criteria (e.g., movements of structures) as part of the bid package so
that the Contractor can select an appropriate industry-accepted drilling and grouting
procedure.

5.6 STEP 5: STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF MICROPILE CASED LENGTH

1) Evaluate Allowable Compression Load for Cased Length

The allowable compression load for the cased length of a micropile is given as:

[ ]
Pc − allowable = 0.4 f c'− grout × Agrout + 0.47 Fy − steel (Abar + Aca sin g ) (Eq. 5-1)

where

Pc-allowable = allowable compression load;

f'c = unconfined compressive strength of grout (typically a 28-day strength);

Agrout = area of grout in micropile cross section (inside casing only, discount
grout outside the casing);

Fy-steel = yield stress of steel;

Abar = cross sectional area of steel reinforcing bar (if used); and

Acasing = cross sectional area of steel casing.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-10 December 2005
 Strain Compatibility between Grout, Casing, and Reinforcing Rod

Strain compatibility under compression loads is considered for the steel components
and grout by limiting allowable compressive stresses to the minimum allowable for
any individual component (i.e., steel casing, steel reinforcement, or grout).
Therefore, the maximum yield stress of steel to be used in Eq. 5-1 is the minimum
of: (1) yield stress of casing; (2) yield stress of steel reinforcing rod; and (3)
maximum stress based on considerations of grout failure. Additional explanation for
the maximum stress based on grout failure is provided below.

According to Section 8.16.2.3 of AASHTO (2002), “the maximum usable strain at

the extreme concrete compression fiber is equal to 0.003”. Therefore, if the grout is
limited to a compression strain of 0.003, the steel components must also be limited to
this value. The stress in the steel at this strain level is equal to the Young’s modulus
of steel, E, multiplied by strain (i.e., 0.003). For a typical E for steel of 200,000 MPa
(29,000 ksi), the allowable steel yield stress is then 200,000 MPa × 0.003 = 600
MPa (87 ksi). Therefore, the maximum stress based on considerations of grout
failure is 600 MPa (87 ksi).

For example, for a micropile with a casing yield strength of 241 MPa (36 ksi), a
reinforcing rod yield strength of 520 MPa (75 ksi), and a grout failure controlled
maximum stress of 600 MPa (87 ksi), a value of 241 MPa (36 ksi) would be used for
the term Fy-steel in Eq. 5-1.

An example of the evaluation of Pc-allowable is described for the micropile shown in

Figure 5-2.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-11 December 2005
Figure 5-2 Example Micropile Detail.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-12 December 2005
 [
Pc − allowable = 0.4 f c'− grout × Agrout + 0.47 Fy −ca sin g Aca sin g ]
π
Aca sin g =
(OD 2 − ID 2 )
4
ID = OD − 2 tw = 5.5 in. − 2 (0.415 in.) = 4.67 in
π
Aca sin g = (5.5 in.2 − 4.67 in.2 ) = 6.63 in.2
4
π π
Agrout = ( Ddrillhole )2 − Aca sin g = (5.5 in.)2 − 6.63 in.2 = 17.13 in.2
4 4
Fy − ca sin g = min (Fy − ca sin g , grout crushing strength )
Fy − ca sin g = min (80 ksi, 87 ksi ) = 80 ksi

∴Pc − allowable = 0.4 (4 ksi) (17.13 in. 2 ) + 0.47 (80 ksi) (6.63 in. 2 ) = 276 kips

Effect of Coupled Sections on Compression Capacity

As previously discussed in Chapter 3, steel reinforcing bars and casing are installed
in coupled sections. For installation of micropiles in very low overhead clearance
conditions, the length of individual casing sections may be 1 meter or shorter.
Reinforcing bar couplers can typically provide a minimum axial capacity of 125
percent of the intact reinforcing bar yield strength, therefore the strength properties
of an intact reinforcing bar can be used.

A common method for coupling individual casing lengths for micropiles is to

machine a thread into the wall of the casing at the section ends. If the joint is
properly designed and if the casing is filled with grout (as is commonly done), the
joint can provide compressive capacity approximately equivalent to the strength of
the full intact casing section. The grout provides support, preventing the male half of
the joint from deforming inward.

From a practical standpoint, the strength of coupled sections of reinforcing bars

and/or casing sections is confirmed via proof testing and verification testing.

Allowance for Corrosion

For evaluation of the allowable compression capacity of the cased length, the outside
diameter of the steel casing is reduced to account for assumed losses in section
resulting from corrosion over the design life. The specific losses depend on the
agressivity of the ground in which the micropile is constructed. It is noted here, that
the cross sectional area of the reinforcing bar is not reduced (for purposes of

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-13 December 2005
 calculating allowable compression capacity). Typical reinforcement coatings (e.g.,
epoxy-coating) and minimum specified grout cover thickness are selected to provide
sufficient protection against corrosion.

Detailed information on corrosion protection for micropiles including recommended

losses due to corrosion for micropiles loaded in compression is provided in Section
5.14.

Buckling of Cased Length of Micropile

In some cases, the cased length of the micropile may be formed within, for example,
very weak ground or in a karstic zone. In such cases, the allowable compression
load calculated above may need to be reduced to account for bucking over this length
of the micropile. Section 5.20 provides information on project conditions which may
require that buckling be considered and structural calculations for evaluating the
allowable compression load of the cased length accounting for micropile buckling.

2) Evaluate Allowable Tension Load for Cased Length

For projects in which the micropiles will be subject to tensile loads, the allowable
tension load Pt-allowable for the cased length of a micropile can be calculated as:

Pt − allowable = 0.55 Fy − steel × (Abar + Aca sin g ) (Eq. 5-2)

where Fy-steel is the minimum yield stress of the bar and casing.

Allowance for Corrosion

For aggressive ground conditions (as defined in Section 5.14), it may be

conservatively assumed that the steel casing is not effective in carrying tensile loads,
i.e., assume Acasing = 0 in Eq. 5-2. In this case, the central reinforcing steel should be
designed to carry the entire tension design load. Detailed information on corrosion
protection for micropiles loaded in tension is provided in Section 5.14.

Effect of Coupled Sections on Tensile Capacity

Unlike compressive stresses, tension stresses have a greater impact on the integrity
of the casing at the joint location primarily because of the reduced thickness of the
casing over the length of the threaded area. Currently, no specific testing standard

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-14 December 2005
 exists for evaluating the tension capacity of a threaded casing joint appropriate for
micropile applications.

If tension loads greater than 25 percent of the allowable tension load on the intact
casing are proposed to be resisted by a casing with flush joint threaded connections,
the Owner should require the contractor to provide data demonstrating the adequacy
of the proposed joint detail. Since a common testing method does not exist, testing
procedures and test data will need to be reviewed by a qualified engineer. As
projects involving micropiles subject to relatively large tensile forces become more
commonplace, a means to evaluate allowable tensile stresses for threaded joints will
become necessary, especially since many casing providers in the U.S. have a slightly
different proprietary threading detail.

3) Evaluate Combined Axial Compression and Bending of Cased Length

The application of lateral loads or overturning moments (from the superstructure) at

the ground surface create bending stresses in the micropile. These bending stresses
cause additional compressive stresses (above those from vertical compression loads
alone) in the micropile. Allowable stresses in the cased length of the micropile are
evaluated using a combined stress evaluation.

As for other deep foundation elements subject to lateral loads and/or overturning
moments, the bending moments in the pile can be evaluated using a laterally loaded
pile analysis program such as LPILE (Reese et al., 2005). With these analyses, the
maximum bending moment in the pile, Mmax, is calculated and used in the combined
stress evaluation.

The details of performing laterally loaded micropile analyses are provided in Section
5.18. Herein, it is assumed that Mmax has been evaluated and the structural capacity
of the cased length can be evaluated.

The combined stress evaluation is based on the method described in Section 10.36 of
AASHTO (2002) for structural steel sections. The design check for combined
stresses (appropriate for micropiles) is

fa fb
+ ≤1.0 (Eq. 5-3)
Fa  fa 
1 − '  Fb
 Fe 

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-15 December 2005
 where

• fa is the axial stress = Pc/Acasing;

• fb is the bending stress = Mmax/S where S is the elastic section modulus of
the steel casing;
• Fa is the allowable axial stress that would be permitted if axial force alone
existed = 0.47 Fy-casing (see AASHTO Table 10.32.1.A);
• Fb = is the allowable bending stress that would be permitted if bending
moment alone existed = 0.55 Fy-casing (see AASHTO Table 10.32.1.A) ; and
• F′e is the Euler buckling stress.

The contribution of a central reinforcing bar to bending strength is small compared to

that of the casing, hence its effects on bending strength are ignored in Eq. 5-3. In Eq.
5-3, it is conservatively assumed that the maximum axial compression load, Pc, is
carried by the steel casing only and the yield stress of the steel casing is used.
Section properties required for the analysis are calculated as:

π
Aca sin g = (OD 2 − ID 2 ) (Eq. 5-4a)
4

I ca sin g
S= (Eq. 5-4b)
(OD / 2)

π
I ca sin g =
64
(OD 4
− ID 4 ) (Eq. 5-4c)

The Euler buckling stress is calculated as:

π2E
F = '
(Eq. 5-5)
FS (Kl r )
e 2

where

• E = elastic modulus of the steel casing (typically assumed to be 200,000

MPa (29,000 ksi));
• FS is a factor of safety equal to 2.12;
• K = effective length factor (assumed equal to 1.0);
• L = unsupported length of the micropile; and
• r = radius of gyration of the steel casing = (Icasing/Acasing)1/2.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-16 December 2005
 The effective length factor, K, depends on the rotational restraint at the ends of the
micropile and the means available to resist lateral movements. This value is
typically assumed equal to 1.0 for micropile designs.

The assumption that the entire axial load is carried by the steel casing is
conservative. Richards and Rothbauer (2004) proposed a combined stress check that
can account for the contribution of the grout inside the casing to compression
capacity. This method assumes that buckling potential is negligible. The Richards
and Rothbauer combined stress check can be written as:

Pc M max
+ ≤ 1.0 (Eq. 5-6)
Pc − allowable M allowable

where

• Pc = maximum axial compression load;

• Pc-allowable is determined from Eq. 5-1;
• Mmax = maximum bending moment in the micropile; and
• Mallowable = Fb (=0.55 Fy-casing) × S.

More advanced methods which consider composite action between the steel casing
and the grout inside the casing in carrying these axial loads could be used, but are
beyond the scope of this manual.

5.7 STEP 6: STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF MICROPILE UNCASED LENGTH

The allowable compression load for the uncased length of a micropile is given as:

(
Pc − allowable = 0.4 f c' × Agrout + 0.47 Fy − bar × Abar ) (Eq. 5-7)

For the uncased portion of the pile, the reinforcing bar yield stress used in the
calculations in compression is assumed to not exceed 600 MPa (87 ksi) (i.e., to
prevent grout crushing at an assumed strain of 0.003 unless data is provided
demonstrating that the confined grout can sustain higher strain levels without
crushing).

The allowable tension load for the uncased length of a micropile is given as:

Pt − allowable = 0.55 Fy − bar × Abar (Eq. 5-8)

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-17 December 2005
 In Eq. 5-8, the actual yield stress of the bar is used.

It is noted that a combined stress evaluation (see Step 5 Part 3) is not performed for
the uncased length since micropiles are designed so that bending stresses are
negligible within the uncased portion of the micropile. In other words, the steel
casing will be placed to a sufficient depth so that bending moments below that depth
are negligible.

5.8 STEP 7: REVISE MICROPILE DESIGN

Based on the calculations performed in Steps 5 and 6, the micropile cross section
should be modified if the allowable compression or tension load (for either the cased
or uncased length) is not sufficient to carry the compression or tension design loads
provided as part of Step 3. Possible modifications include using more micropiles,
increasing the size of the drill hole, using a larger diameter reinforcing bar, replacing
a single reinforcing bar with two bars, and/or increasing the steel area of the casing.

5.9 STEP 8. EVALUATE GEOTECHNICAL CAPACITY OF MICROPILE

5.9.1 Establish Stratum for Bond Zone

The maximum compression and tension loads applied at the top of the micropile
must be resisted through grout to ground bond over a specific length of the
micropile. This length is referred to as the bond zone or bond length. This length
can be formed in most soil and rock strata with the major differences being in the
grout to ground bond strength that can be developed in a given ground type. The
objective for design is to evaluate the length of this bond zone required to resist the
applied tension and compression loads with a prescribed factor of safety (discussed
subsequently).

As part of this design step, all borings should be reviewed to identify strata
appropriate for the micropile bond zone and to identify significant variations in
subsurface conditions. Like ground anchors, certain soil deposits are not generally
suitable as the location for the micropile bond zone, including (1) organic soils; (2)
cohesive soils with an average liquidity index greater than 0.2; (3) cohesive soils
with an average liquid limit greater than 50; and (4) cohesive soils with an average
plastic index greater than 20. Micropiles installed in these deposits may be

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-18 December 2005
 susceptible to excessive creep deformations at testing and working loads. If used,
however, for the bond zone, comprehensive testing is recommended and higher
factors of safety for geotechnical capacity should be used, as discussed subsequently.

5.9.2 Select Ultimate Bond Stress and Calculate Bond Length

The allowable geotechnical bond capacity, PG-allowable, is calculated as:

α bond
PG − allowable = × π × Db × Lb (Eq. 5-9)
FS

where:
αbond = grout to ground ultimate bond strength;
FS = factor of safety applied to the ultimate bond strength;
Db = diameter of the drill hole; and
Lb = bond length

In most cases, Eq. 5-9 will be used to calculate the estimated bond length to resist the
maximum compression load and/or maximum tension (i.e., uplift) load based on load
information provided as part of Step 3. To this end, Eq. 5-9 can be rearranged as:

PG − allowable × FS
Lb = (Eq. 5-10)
α bond × π × Db

where, for Eq. 5-10, PG-allowable is equal to the maximum compression or tension load
for design.

Table 5-3 provides guidance for estimating the values for grout-to-ground ultimate
bond strengths. The table includes ranges for the four methods of grouting (Type A,
Type B, Type C, and Type D) in a variety of ground conditions.

For most micropile projects, the contract documents will provide a minimum bond
length. This bond length will be based on the evaluation provided in Eq. 5-10.
Unless the design engineer has previous experience in similar ground, values no
greater than average values (i.e., middle of range reported) for αbond from Table 5-3
should be used. The design engineer may wish to consider lower bound values
where granular materials are loose or for medium to high plasticity cohesive
materials. Although the specific type of micropile (i.e., Type A, B, C, or D) will be
selected by the Contractor, the design engineer should assume a Type A micropile

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-19 December 2005
 will be constructed for microple bond zones in rock and a Type B micropile will be
constructed for bond zones in soil.

Ranges of values provided in Table 5-3 and additional information on estimating

grout-to-ground bond capacities is available in the following publications:

• “GEC No. 4, Ground Anchors and Anchored Structures”, FHWA Report No.
FHWA-IF-99-015, (1999).
• “Post-Tensioning Institute (PTI) Recommendations for Prestressed Rock and
Soil Anchors”, (2004).
• “Construction, Carrying Behavior, and Creep Characteristics of Ground
Anchors,” H. Ostermayer, Conference on Diaphragm Walls and Anchorages,
Institute of Civil Engineers, London, (1975).
• “Ground Control and Improvement” by P.P. Xanthakos, L.W. Abramson,
and D.A. Bruce, (1994).
• “Drilled and Grouted Micropiles State-of-the-Practice Review”, FHWA
Report Nos. RD-96-016/017/018/019; Volumes I – IV, (1997).
• “Tiebacks”, FHWA Report No. FHWA/RD-82/047, (1982).
• “Permanent Ground Anchors”, FHWA Report No. FHWA-DP-68-1R,
(1988).

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-20 December 2005
 Table 5-3. Summary of Typical αbond (Grout-to-Ground Bond) Values
for Micropile Design.

Grout-to-Ground Bond Ultimate Strengths, kPa (psi)

Soil / Rock Description
Type A Type B Type C Type D

Silt & Clay (some sand) 35-70 35-95 50-120 50-145

(soft, medium plastic) (5-10) (5-14) (5-17.5) (5-21)

Silt & Clay (some sand) 50-120 70-190 95-190 95-190

(stiff, dense to very dense) (5-17.5) (10-27.5) (14-27.5) (14-27.5)

Sand (some silt) 70-145 70-190 95-190 95- 240

(fine, loose-medium dense) (10-21) (10-27.5) (14-27.5) (14-35)

Sand (some silt, gravel) 95-215 120-360 145-360 145-385

(fine-coarse, med.-very dense) (14-31) (17.5-52) (21-52) (21-56)

Gravel (some sand) 95-265 120-360 145-360 145-385

(medium-very dense) (14-38.5) (17.5-52) (21-52) (21-56)

Glacial Till (silt, sand, gravel) 95-190 95-310 120-310 120-335

(medium-very dense, cemented) (14-27.5) (14-45) (17.5-45) (17.5-48.5)

Soft Shales (fresh-moderate 205-550

N/A N/A N/A
fracturing, little to no weathering) (30-80)
Slates and Hard Shales (fresh-
515-1,380
moderate fracturing, little to no N/A N/A N/A
(75-200)
weathering)
Limestone (fresh-moderate 1,035-2,070
N/A N/A N/A
fracturing, little to no weathering) (150-300)

Sandstone (fresh-moderate 520-1,725

N/A N/A N/A
fracturing, little to no weathering) (75.5-250)
Granite and Basalt (fresh-
1,380-4,200
moderate fracturing, little to no N/A N/A N/A
(200-609)
weathering)
Type A: Gravity grout only
Type B: Pressure grouted through the casing during casing withdrawal
Type C: Primary grout placed under gravity head, then one phase of secondary “global” pressure grouting
Type D: Primary grout placed under gravity head, then one or more phases of secondary “global” pressure
grouting

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-21 December 2005
 For all highway projects, some amount of site-specific load testing of micropiles
must be performed and the scope of this load testing is used to define the factor of
safety applied to the ultimate bond strength for design. Herein, a factor of safety of
2.0 is recommended provided the following load testing is performed:

• At least one ultimate or verification test is conducted prior to beginning

production micropile installation, and then one or more additional ultimate
or verification tests must be conducted in each significantly different
ground type encountered as construction proceeds. A larger number of
ultimate, or verification, tests may be specified for larger projects.

• During installation of production micropiles, proof testing must be

conducted on a specified number of the total production piles installed. In
general, proof tests may be performed on 5 percent of production
micropiles. Specific proof testing requirements are discussed in Chapter
7.

For projects in which the micropile bond zone is formed in potentially creeping soils,
high plasticity soils, weak rock, or any other ground type considered to be marginal
or for which previous experience in similar ground is limited, a factor of safety value
of 2.5 should be used to estimate the bond length and as the basis for the maximum
load in an ultimate or verification load test. For micropiles installed in soils
susceptible to creep, load testing will include measuring micropile deformations
during an extended period of time at one or more test loads. The measured
movement is compared to a maximum allowable creep movement (see Chapter 7 for
details on sustained load (creep) testing).

5.9.3 Evaluate Micropile Group Compression Capacity

Micropile Groups in Cohesive Soils

The efficiency of a micropile group installed in cohesive soils is a function of the

center-to-center spacing of the micropiles, s, and contact condition between the
bottom of the micropile footing cap and the soil near the ground surface (see Table
5-4).

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-22 December 2005
 Table 5-4. Efficiency Factors for Micropile Groups in Cohesive Soils.

Case Efficiency Factor, η

If cap is in firm contact with the ground 1.0
If cap is not in firm contact with the ground 1.0
and the ground is stiff (i.e., undrained shear
strength of the soil is greater than 95 kPa (1
ton per square ft (tsf))
If the cap is not in firm contact with the
ground and the ground is relatively soft
(i.e., undrained shear strength of the soil is
less than 95 kPa (1 tsf)) or is disturbed

• s = 2.5 Db 0.65
• s = 3.0 Db 0.70
• s = 6.0 Db 1.0
• 3.0 Db < s < 6.0 Db Interpolate between 0.70 and 1.0

At small micropiles spacings, however, the potential for the micropile group to fail
as a “block” should be evaluated. For a micropile group of width Bg and length Lg
and depth D (as shown in Figure 5-3), the ultimate capacity of the micropile group,
Qg, is given by:

Qg = (2 Bg + 2 Lg ) D × su + Bg Lg × N c su (Eq. 5-11)

where s u is the average undrained shear strength along the depth of penetration of
the micropiles and su is the undrained shear strength at the base of the micropile
group. For this analysis, it is assumed that the pile cap provides no resistance.

The bearing capacity factor used in Eq. 5-11 is calculated according to the following:

 0.2 Bg   0.2 D 
N c = 5 1 +  1 +  for D ≤ 2.5 (Eq. 5-12)
 Lg  Bg  Bg
 

 0.2 Bg 
N c = 7.5 1+  for D > 2.5 (Eq. 5- 13)
 Lg  Lg
 

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-23 December 2005
 Qg
Cap

Cohesive soil
with c=su and D
φ=0

Block
shear Bg
surface

Lg

Figure 5-3. Block Failure Model for Micropile Group in Cohesive Soil with Cap in Contact
with Ground.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-24 December 2005
 The group capacity to be used for design is evaluated using the following steps:

Step 1: Calculate ultimate group capacity as:

Q g = (α bond × π × Db × Lb )× no. of micropiles in group ×η (Eq. 5-14)

where η is obtained from Table 5-4.

Step 2: Calculate ultimate group capacity according to Eq. 5-14 and use lower value
(i.e., from Step 1 and Step 2) for design.

Step 3: Use a FS value of 2.0 to calculate an allowable group capacity.

Micropile Groups in Cohesionless Soils

As long as the center-to-center spacing of micropiles in a group is greater than three

times the diameter of the grouted body (i.e., s > 3Db), the capacity of a micropile
group in cohesionless soils may be calculated as the sum of the resistance of all the
individual micropiles in the group, i.e., use Eq. 5-14 with η=1.0. For example, for
pressure grouted micropiles installed in cohesionless soils with a typical grouted
diameter of 200 mm and typical minimum center-to-center spacing in the range of
750 to 1,000 mm, it is therefore unnecessary to consider a reduction in micropile
capacity as a result of group effects.

For the case of micropiles installed in strong soil (which may be cohesionless soil)
over weak or compressible soil, an alternate method to evaluate micropile group
capacity is used, as described below.

Micropile Groups in Strong Soil Overlying a Weak or Compressible Soil

If a micropile group is embedded in a strong soil deposit overlying a weaker soil

deposit, then the potential for a “punching” shear failure of the micropile group into
the weaker soil stratum should be considered during design.

The method proposed herein to evaluate the potential for punching shear failure of
micropile groups is the same as that which has been developed to address this same
issue for drilled shaft groups (see FHWA-IF-99-025, 1999). This approach requires
that the capacity of the block of micropiles meet the following condition to assure
safety against punching shear failure:

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-25 December 2005
 Qg H
= q p ≤ qo + [q1 − qo ]≤ q1 (Eq. 5-15)
B g Lg 10 B g

where:

• Qg, Bg, and Lg are as defined on Figure 5-3;

• qo is the ultimate unit base resistance at the depth of the top of the lower (i.e.,
weaker) layer using the shear strength parameters of the lower layer;
• q1 is the ultimate unit base resistance at the depth of the top of the upper (i.e.,
stronger) layer using the shear strength parameters of the upper layer;
• qp is the ultimate unit base resistance at the depth of the micropile tips; and
• H is the distance from the tip elevation of the micropiles to the elevation of
the top of the weaker lower soil layer.

If the piles are battered, the values for Bg and Lg should be based on the plan area of
the pile group at the base of the piles. Satisfaction of the condition prescribed in Eq.
5-15 should preclude the potential for a punching shear failure of the micropile group
(see Figure 5-4).

Weak Soil
q1
D

Strong
qp
Pile toe 10Bg
H

qo Weak Soil

Figure 5-4. End-bearing Resistance of Piles in Layered Soils (after Meyerhof, 1976).

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-26 December 2005
5.9.4 Evaluate Micropile Group Uplift Capacity

The design of micropile groups subject to uplift forces follows the method described
in FHWA NHI-05-042 (2005) for uplift capacity for driven piles in cohesionless
soils and for driven piles in cohesive soils.

Micropile Groups in Cohesive Soils

For micropile groups in cohesive soil, the group uplift capacity may be calculated
based upon the undrained shear strength of the block of soil enclosed by the group
plus the effective weight of the pile cap and pile-soil block as shown on Figure 5-5.
This may be expressed as:

Qug = 2Z × ( X + Y ) × su + Wg (Eq. 5-16)

where s u is the average undrained soil shear strength over the depth of micropile
embedment along the group perimeter and Wg is the effective weight of the pile/soil
block including the pile cap. In using Eq. 5-16, a factor of safety of 2.0 should be
used to estimate the allowable group uplift capacity.

Figure 5-5. Model to Calculate Micropile Group Uplift Capacity in Cohesive Soils.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-27 December 2005
 Micropile Groups in Cohesionless Soils

The uplift capacity of a micropile group in cohesionless soil may be conservatively

taken as the effective weight of a block of soil extending upward from the base of the
micropiles at a slope of 1H:4V as shown on Figure 5-6. In this evaluation, the
weight of the micropiles within the block is (conservatively) considered equal to the
weight of the soil. Using Figure 5-6, the group uplift capacity is given by:

1
( ) 
Qug =  × Abase + Atop + Abase × Atop × D  × γ (Eq. 5-17)
3 

where Abase = Bg × Lg and Atop = (Bg+D/2) × (Lg+D/2) and γ is the effective unit
weight of the soil. In Eq. 5-17, the term in brackets is simply the volume of the
enclosed soil. A FS = 1.0 is acceptable for this analysis since the shear strength that
would be mobilized within the soil is conservatively neglected; this implies that the
allowable micropile group capacity would be equal to the calculated group uplift
capacity based on Eq. 5-17.

The allowable group uplift capacity (based on either Eq. 5-16 or 5-17) should be
compared to the allowable uplift capacity of a single micropile multiplied by the
number of micropiles in the group and the design should be based on the lesser group
capacity.

Figure 5-6. Model to Calculate Micropile Group Uplift Capacity in Cohesionless Soils.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-28 December 2005
5.10 STEP 9. ESTIMATE MICROPILE GROUP SETTLEMENT

5.10.1 General

In general, methods used for estimating settlements of driven pile groups are
applicable for micropile groups. The major components of settlement that need to be
assessed include: (1) settlements of the ground in which the micropiles are
constructed; and (2) elastic compression/tension of an individual micropile. These
settlements are added together to evaluate the total settlement of the micropile group
subject to the design load and are then compared to the allowable settlement.

The specific value for allowable settlement will depend on the structure being
supported, but for typical highway bridge projects, the maximum vertical movement
will depend primarily on anticipated differential settlements between bridge piers for
single span or continuous span bridges.

5.10.2 Micropile Group Settlement

Micropiles in a group can undergo vertical displacement as a result of consolidation

of soil layers below the bottom of the micropile group. Where a single pile will
transfer its load to the soil in the immediate vicinity of the pile, a pile group can
distribute its load to the soil layer below the group. Consideration should be made
for this group displacement when the soil below the group is cohesive in nature and
subject to consolidation. The method presented herein for evaluating micropile
group settlements is similar to that for driven piles (see FHWA-NHI-05-042, 2005).

For purposes of calculating settlements of micropile groups in soil (for which loads
are primarily transferred through side resistance), loads are assumed to act on an
equivalent footing located at two-thirds of the depth of embedment of the micropiles
into the layer that provides support (i.e., two-thirds of the depth of the micropile
bond zone). This concept is illustrated in Figure 5-7 for a uniform soil profile and
Figure 5-8 for a micropile bond zone formed in firm or strong layer that is overlain
by an upper soft or weak layer (which is common for many micropile applications).
Where a clayey layer may exist just below the tips of the micropiles, the equivalent
footing is assumed to exist at the depth corresponding to 8/9 of the length of the
bond zone. The reader is referred to FHWA-NHI-05-042 (FHWA, 2005) for
additional information on the equivalent footing concept. For a pile group consisting
of only vertical piles, the equivalent footing has a plan area that corresponds to the
perimeter dimensions of the pile group.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-29 December 2005
Figure 5-7. Equivalent Footing Concept for Uniform Soil (after FHWA-NHI-05-042, 2005).

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-30 December 2005
 SOFT OR
WEAK LAYER

LAYER WHERE
BOND ZONE IS
FORMED

Figure 5-8. Equivalent Footing Concept for Firm Soil Underlying Soft Soil Layer.

The pile group load over this plan area is then the bearing pressure transferred to the
soil through the equivalent footing. The load is assumed to spread within the
frustum of a pyramid of side slopes at 1H:2V and to cause uniform additional
vertical pressure at lower levels. The pressure at any level is equal to the load
carried by the group divided by the plan area of the base of the frustum at that level.
Settlements are calculated based on the pressure increase in the underlying layers.
This method is conservative because compression settlements from the layer defined
from just below the top of the equivalent footing to the bottom of the micropiles do
not take into account the increased stiffness of the profile at this location resulting
from the micropiles.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-31 December 2005
 Where clayey soils may consolidate as a result of micropile group loading, nominally
undisturbed tube samples should be collected from potential consolidating layers and
consolidation tests should be performed to assess compressibility parameters and
stress history information for the consolidating layer. The reader is referred to GEC
No. 5 for specific information on consolidation testing and parameter evaluation.
For micropile group settlements in cohesionless layers, SPT data is used to estimate
compression parameters.

Step By Step Procedure for Micropile Group Settlement In Cohesive Soils

Step 1: Determine the new load imposed on soil by the pile group.

a. Determine the location of the equivalent footing using Figure 5-7 or 5-8.

b. Determine the dimensions of the equivalent footing. For pile groups

consisting only of vertical piles, the equivalent footing has the same
dimensions as the length and width of the pile group from Figure 5-7. For
pile groups that include batter piles, the plan area of the footing should be
calculated from the dimensions of the pile group at depth 2/3 D, including
the plan area increase due to the pile batter.

c. Determine the pressure distribution to soil layers below the equivalent

footing up to the depth at which the pressure increase from the equivalent
footing is less than 10% of existing effective overburden pressure at that
depth. The depth at which the pressure increase is less than 10% will
provide the total thickness of cohesive soil layer or layers to be used in
performing settlement computations. Note that the group design load
should be used in determining the pressure distribution for settlement
computations, and not the ultimate group load.

d. Divide the cohesive soil layers in the affected pressure increase zone into
several thinner layers of 1.5 to 3 meter (5 to 10 ft) thickness. The
thickness of each layer is the thickness H for the settlement computation
for that layer.

e. Determine the existing effective overburden pressure, po, at midpoint of

each layer.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-32 December 2005
 f. Determine the imposed pressure increase, ∆p, at midpoint of each affected
soil layer based on the appropriate pressure distribution.

Step 2: Determine consolidation test parameters.

Step 3: Compute settlements.

Using an appropriate settlement equation, compute the settlement of each

affected soil layer. Sum the settlements of all layers to obtain the total
estimated soil settlement from the pile group.

Step By Step Procedure for Micropile Group Settlement In Cohesionless Soils

Pile groups supported in and underlain by cohesionless soils will produce only
immediate settlements implying that the settlements will occur immediately as the
pile group is loaded. A procedure to calculate pile group settlements in cohesionless
soils is provided below.

Step 1: Determine the new load imposed on soil by the pile group.

a. Determine the location of the equivalent footing using Figure 5-7 or 5-8.

b. Determine the dimensions of the equivalent footing.

c. Determine the pressure distribution to soil layers below the equivalent

footing up to the depth at which the pressure increase from the equivalent
footing is less than 10% of existing effective overburden pressure at that
depth.

d. Divide the soil layers in the affected pressure increase zone into several
thinner layers of 1.5 to 3 meter (5 to 10 ft) thickness. The thickness of
each layer is the thickness H for the settlement computation for that layer.

e. Determine the existing effective overburden pressure, po, at midpoint of

each layer.

f. Determine the imposed pressure increase, ∆p, at midpoint of each affected

soil layer based on the appropriate pressure distribution.

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 Step 2: Determine bearing capacity index for each cohesionless layer.

Determine the average corrected (for overburden pressure and hammer

efficiency) SPT N160 value for each cohesionless layer. Use N160 in Figure 5-9
to obtain the bearing capacity index, C′ for each layer.

Step 3: Compute settlements.

Compute the settlement of each affected soil layer under the applied load
using the following formula:

1  p + ∆p 
∆H = H o '
log  o  (Eq. 5-18)
C  po 

Sum the settlements of all layers to obtain the total estimated soil settlement
from the pile group. If a layered soil profile is within the compressible zone
being considered, the two methods previously described for cohesive and
cohesionless soils can be used separately for the appropriate layers and then
settlements form each layer added to obtain the total settlement from the pile
group.

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 Corrected SPT N-value, N160
(Note: The “Inorganic SILT” curve should generally not be applied to soils that exhibit plasticity)

Figure 5-9. Bearing Capacity Index versus Corrected SPT Blowcount (modified after
Hough, 1959).

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5.10.3 Micropile Elastic Movement

The calculation of the elastic compression and/or elastic tension of a single micropile
subject to the design compression and/or tension load are presented herein. This
elastic compression value is added to the total settlement of the group resulting from
consolidation (as discussed in Section 5.10.2) to obtain the total estimated pile group
settlement.

Elastic displacement of a micropile is a function of the imposed load, the pile

stiffness, and the load transfer characteristics of the pile to the surrounding soil via
grout-to-ground bond. The elastic compression displacement, ∆elastic, of a micropile
can be written in its most general form as:

PL
∆ elastic = (Eq. 5-19)
AE

where P is the design load applied at the ground surface (kN), L is the length of the
pile (m), A is the area of the section (m2) and E is the elastic modulus of the section
(kPa). Because the stiffness of the micropile may change over its length and because
axial load is transferred to the ground, the elastic displacement may be calculated as
the sum of elastic displacements of “n” pile segments as follows:

n
Pi Li
∆ elastic = ∑ (Eq. 5-20)
i =1 Ai Ei

where Li, Ai, and Ei are the length, average cross section area, and average modulus,
respectively, for each of the pile segments. The term Pi is the average axial load at
the pile segment. The load at the top pile segment would be the total imposed load
to that individual pile, and would reduce in magnitude down to the mobilized end
bearing load at the pile tip in accordance with the load transfer response from the
micropile to the ground. Determination of a stiffness value, i.e., AE, for a micropile
is complex due to the:

• contribution of the grout to the pile’s stiffness due to the pile acting in
compression; and
• varying reinforcement (type and length) used in some micropiles, with
casing (and perhaps bar) reinforcement in the upper portion of the pile and
bar reinforcement in the lower portion.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-36 December 2005
 For estimates of displacement caused by compression loads, the stiffness of the
composite section at a given point in the pile can be evaluated using the formula:

[ ] [
EA pile = Agrout × E grout + Asteel × E steel ] (Eq. 5-21)

For estimates of displacement caused by tension loads, the stiffness of the composite
section can be evaluated using the formula:

[
EA pile = Asteel × E steel ] (Eq. 5-22)

The value for Egrout can be quite variable, but for design calculations may be
estimated as Egrout (MPa) = 4732 × (f′c (MPa))1/2 (Egrout (ksi) = 57 × (f′c (psi))1/2).

A conservative approach to calculate elastic displacement is to assume that no load is

transferred to the ground over the length of the micropile from the top of the
micropile to the top of the bond zone; this implies that the elastic compression of this
length of the micropile can be calculated according to Eq. 5-19 with P equal to the
design load and L equal to the length of the micropile above the bond zone. If there
are changes in the micropile cross section over that length (e.g., section with just
reinforcing bar and section with reinforcing bar and casing), then Equation 5-20 is
used with pile segment lengths defined based on changes in cross section.

In the bond zone, the cross section of the micropile will usually be constant.
Therefore, since it is assumed that the design load is carried uniformly over the
length of the bond zone in side resistance; the elastic displacement along this length
of the micropile can be calculated using Eq. 5-19 with P equal to the design load and
L equal to one-half the length of the bond zone.

For micropiles bonded in rock or for end-bearing micropiles on rock, the full length
of the micropile above the top of rock should be assumed for the elastic length. It is
noted that the assumption of the lengths over which elastic movements occur can be
confirmed via load testing in which loads are incrementally cycled (similar to a
ground anchor performance test) to allow for measurement of the elastic movement.

An example calculation of elastic compression and tension displacement for a

micropile is provided in Sample Problem No. 1.

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5.11 STEP 10. DESIGN MICROPILE CONNECTION AT PILE CAP

Unless a single micropile is used to support a load, a pile cap (footing) is necessary
to spread the structure loads and any overturning moments to all the micropiles in the
group. Reinforced concrete pile caps are designed in accordance with the AASHTO
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and individual DOTs may have
minimum requirements for pile caps (e.g., minimum concrete cover, minimum
embedment of pile top into cap). The structural design of reinforced concrete pile
caps is not addressed in this manual.

The connection between the top of the micropiles and the reinforced concrete pile
cap can vary depending on the required capacity of the connection, the type of
micropile reinforcement, and the details of the pile cap. Seven examples of the pile-
to-footing connections are shown in Figures 5-10 through 5-16. Figures 5-10
through 5-13 show typical connections for piles that can have both tension and
compression loads depending on load case. Figures 5-14 through 5-16 show simple
connections for piles that are only in compression.

Figure 5-10 shows a composite reinforced micropile connected to a new (or

extended) footing. The footing tension and compression load is transferred to the
pile through the top bearing plate. The stiffener plates provide bending strength to
the plate, plus provide additional weld length for transferring the load from the
bearing plate to the pile casing. The stiffener plates can be eliminated if the support
of the top plate and additional weld length are not required. Additional
considerations for this connection detail include the following:

• The portion of the tension load carried by the reinforcing bar can be
transferred to the top plate through the nut, reducing the plate-to-casing weld
requirement.
• The bond between the pile casing and the footing concrete can be utilized,
reducing the load capacity required for the top plate and top plate to casing
weld.
• A portion of the compression load can be transferred from the top plate to
the casing through bearing, reducing the weld capacity requirement. This
requires a higher level of quality for the fabrication of the bearing surface
between the casing and the plate.

Sample Problem No. 1 includes the design of a pile connection similar to that shown
in Figure 5-10. The additional considerations listed above are not included in the
sample problem calculations.

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 EXTENDED FOOTING
REINFORCING
BAR W/NUT
EXISTING FOOTING

BEARING PLATE
AS REQUIRED

STIFFNER
PLATE (TYP)

TYP

BOTTOM OF
FOOTING ELEV. STEEL CASING

Figure 5-10. Pile to Footing Connection Detail (compression and tension loads).

Figure 5-11 shows a composite reinforced micropile connected to an existing

footing. The pile is installed through an oversized hole cored through the existing
footing or slab. After the pile is installed, the annulus between the core hole and the
micropile is cleaned (usually via pressure washing) and filled with non-shrink
cement grout. Steel rings are welded to the top section of the casing prior to pile
installation. These rings transfer the pile load from the casing to the non-shrink
grout. Adequate spacing must be used between the rings to avoid combining bearing
stresses in the concrete and grout. The total capacity of the connection is controlled
by the sum of the bearing strength of the rings, the capacity of the load transfer
across the interface between the non-shrink grout and the existing concrete, and the
shear capacity of the existing concrete.

Grooves may be chipped into sides of the core hole (typical dimension = 20 mm
deep and 32 mm wide (3/4 in. deep and 1 ¼ in. wide)) to increase the load carrying
capacity of the grout to existing concrete. Also, vertical reinforcing bars may be

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-39 December 2005
 drilled and epoxied into the existing concrete around the exterior of the connection to
increase the punching shear capacity.

For thick existing footings, the shear rings and grooves in Figure 5-11 may be
eliminated. Load tests on the connections are appropriate to verify the casing to
grout bond and grout to existing concrete bond for the proposed materials and
methods. If this connection is proposed for a project, the Contractor should be
required to perform a load test, provide load test data from previous projects, or
provide in-house testing to quantify that the proposed connection will be able to
support the design load.

Figure 5-12 shows a composite reinforced micropile connected to a new footing.

The footing compression load is transferred to the pile through bearing on the pile
top and reinforcing bar plate and the tension load is transferred through bearing on
the reinforcing bar plate. A portion of the load transferred from the footing to the
pile may be attributed to the bond between the pile casing and the footing concrete.

REINFORCING
BAR W/NUT

BEARING PLATE
AS REQUIRED
TOP OF EXISTING
FOOTING

TYP
STEEL CASING

CHIPPED GROOVE STEEL SHEAR RING (TYP)

NON – SHRINK GROUT OVERSIZED CORE HOLE

(DIAMETER AS PER
CONTRACT PLANS)

BOTTOM OF
FOOTING ELEV.

Figure 5-11. Pile to Footing Connection (compression and tension loads).

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 REINFORCING BAR
FULL HEX NUT
BEARING PLATE
AS REQUIRED

½ HEX NUT
NEW FOOTING

BEARING PLATE
(OPTIONAL)
STEEL CASING

BOTTOM OF
FOOTING ELEV.

Figure 5-12. Pile to Footing Connection (compression and tension loads).

Figure 5-13 shows a bar-reinforced micropile cast into a new footing. The
compression and tension load is transferred to the pile through bearing on the bar
plate, and through bond between the footing concrete and the reinforcing bar.
Competency of the construction joint between the pile grout and footing concrete is
an important quality consideration for this pile type.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-41 December 2005
 FULL HEX NUT
BEARING PLATE
AS REQUIRED

½ HEX NUT

REINFORCING BAR

NEW FOOTING

BOTTOM OF
FOOTING ELEV.

Figure 5-13. Pile to Footing Connection (compression and tension loads).

Figure 5-14 shows a typical compression connection for a moderately loaded

micropile where concrete bearing stress on the pile top is within AASHTO limits
(see AASHTO Section 8.15.2.1.3). Figure 5-15 shows a typical compression
connection for a heavily loaded micropile where a bearing plate welded to the casing
is required for concrete bearing stress on the pile top to be within AASHTO limits.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-42 December 2005
 NEW FOOTING

STEEL CASING
150 mm

BOTTOM OF
FOOTING ELEV.

Figure 5-14. Pile to New Footing Connection Detail used for Moderate Loads (compression
loads).

NEW FOOTING
BEARING PLATE

STEEL CASING

BOTTOM OF
FOOTING ELEV.

Figure 5-15. Pile to New Footing Connection Detail used for High Loads (compression
loads).

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 Figure 5-16 shows a compression connection for a pile through an existing footing.
The bond of the non-shrink grout to the footing is a function of the proposed
methods (cored hole, down-the-hole hammered hole, etc.) and materials (non-shrink
grout, existing concrete, etc.). Connection load tests are appropriate to verify the
design.

NON-SHRINK
GROUT

EXISTING
FOOTING

STEEL CASING

BOTTOM OF
FOOTING ELEV.

Figure 5-16. Pile to Existing Footing Connection Detail (compression loads).

5.12 STEP 11. DEVELOP LOAD TESTING PROGRAM

Section 7.6 of this Manual provides specific information on the evaluations to be

performed as part of the development of a load testing program. Of primary
importance is that the scope of the load testing program be consistent with the
selected factor of safety for the grout/ground bond strength used for geotechnical
capacity evaluations. In Section 5.9.2, the minimum requirements for verification
and proof testing were described which are consistent with a factor of safety of 2.0.

For load testing, maximum test loads should not exceed 80 percent of the ultimate
structural capacity of the micropile. The ultimate structural capacity is given by:

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-44 December 2005
 [
Pult −compression = 0.85 f c'− grout × Agrout + f y −ca sin g × Aca sin g + f y −bar × Abar ] (Eq. 5-23)
[
Pult −tension = f y −ca sin g × Aca sin g + f y −bar × Abar ] (Eq. 5-24)

For some designs, the verification test pile(s) may require larger pile casing and
reinforcing bar than the production micropiles. The resulting stiffer micropile can
adequately confirm the grout-ground bond strength for production micropiles, but
will likely not provide representative structural displacement behavior. The
deflections measured for proof-tested micropiles will need to be relied upon to
provide best estimate of structural deflections.

5.13 STEP 12. PREPARE DRAWINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS

When the design has been finalized, drawings and specifications are prepared and the
procedures that will be used to verify micropile capacity (e.g. load testing) should be
defined. At the time of the bid, all of the quality control procedures to be used for
the project should also be defined and included in the specifications. Example
typical drawings and specifications is provided in Sample Problem No. 1.

5.14 CORROSION PROTECTION

5.14.1 Background

Protecting the metallic components of a micropile against the detrimental effects of corrosion
is necessary to assure adequate long-term durability of the micropile. The degree and extent
of corrosion protection is a function of loading condition, the expected service life of the
micropile, the aggressiveness of the ground, the perceived importance of the structure, and
consequences of failure. In all cases, it is the responsibility of the Project Designer to select
the corrosion protection for each micropile.

The variables which indicate a high corrosion potential include:

• low resistivity of ground;
• high concentration of chlorides or sulfides in ground or groundwater;
• too low or too high hydrogen potential (pH) of ground or groundwater;
• high saturation conditions; and
• stray currents.

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The factors above collectively define ground corrosion potential (or aggressivity of the
ground). In addition to corrosion of metallic components, potential degradation of the
cement grout as a result of sulfate, chloride, and/or acid attack should also be considered.
Information on cement degradation as it applies to pile design is provided in FHWA-NHI-05-
042.

5.14.2 Evaluation of Soil Corrosion Potential

Tests listed in Table 5-5 are used to classify the corrosion potential of the ground.

Table 5-5. Criteria for Assessing Ground Corrosion Potential (Elias et al., 2001).

AASHTO
Strong Corrosion
Test Units Test
Potential/Aggressive
Method
pH – < 5, >10 T 289
Resistivity ohm-cm <3,000 T 288
Sulfates ppm(1) >200 T 290
Chlorides ppm >100 T 291
Note: (1) ppm = parts per million.

In general, the ground is classified with a strong corrosion potential or aggressive if any one
of the conditions listed in the third column of Table 5-5 exceeds the limits listed during
the service life of the micropile. In addition, buried structures immediately adjacent to the
project exhibiting corrosion or direct chemical attack might be an indication of strong
corrosion potential. If tests are not performed, then the ground should be assumed to be
aggressive. Classification of ground aggressivity should consider the possibility of changes
during the service life of the structure which may cause the ground to become aggressive
(e.g., near mining operations, chemical plants, or chemical storage areas).

5.14.3 Corrosion Protection Systems

5.14.3.1 Methods for Corrosion Protection of Reinforcing Steel

Corrosion protection can be provided by physical and chemical protection, or a combination

thereof. Physical protection involves placing a continuous barrier between the reinforcing
bar, pipe casing, other metallic parts, and the corrosion sources. Chemical protection
consists of the use of a sacrificial material or a dielectric material, which will preclude the
flow of electric current. Some of the corrosion protection systems currently in use utilize a

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-46 December 2005
combination of these mechanisms. The most common systems used to provide corrosion
protection for micropiles are described below.

Grout Protection

This method of corrosion protection is used as a protective measure for the steel reinforcing
bar and involves fully covering the reinforcing bar with neat cement grout. Centralizers are
applied along the length of the bar (Figure 5-17(a)) to ensure adequate cover of grout
between the bar and the side of the borehole. After the bar is centered in the drillhole, neat
grout is injected and fills up the annular space around the steel bar. The grout provides an
alkaline environment that reduces corrosion potential.

Epoxy Coating

Corrosion protection with epoxy consists of coating the reinforcing rod with a fusion-bonded
epoxy that is applied by the manufacturer prior to shipment to the construction site. The
minimum required thickness of epoxy coatings is typically 12 mils (0.3 mm). Thicker
coatings may reduce steel to grout bond. The epoxy coating provides physical and chemical
protection, as epoxy is a dielectric material. In transporting and handling bars, the epoxy
coating may be damaged before bar installation. Therefore, it is not uncommon to spray
epoxy coating in the field on chipped or nicked surfaces. Applicable standards for epoxy
coating and allowable extent of damage (i.e., number of discontinuities in epoxy coating per
unit length of bar) are found in ASTM A775/AASHTO M282. Patching materials should be
approved by the epoxy coating manufacturer and should be inert in cement grout.

Galvanized Coating

A common method of providing corrosion protection is galvanization, which consists of

applying a zinc coating on the steel surface. The process is performed by hot-dipping bars
and other metallic pieces with zinc. The protection provided by galvanized coating is both
physical and chemical, as this process forms a protective layer of zinc oxide. Galvanization
shall meet the requirements of ASTM A153. Galvanization should not be used on high
strength bars.

Encapsulation

For maximum corrosion protection, a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or high-density polyethylene

(HDPE) (minimum 1-mm (0.04-in.) thick for PVC and 1.5-mm (0.06-in.) thick for HDPE)
sheathing may be installed around the reinforcing bar similar to what is done for ground
anchors in permanent applications. The sheathing is corrugated to transfer load to the
surrounding grout. Grout-filled corrugated sheaths comprise double corrosion protection.

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This system may be used with DSI threadbar and GEWI Bar (Figure 5-17(b)) and others.
The encapsulation shall meet the requirements for encapsulation of soil and rock ground
anchors as provided in PTI (2004).

5.14.3.2 Methods for Corrosion Protection of Steel Casing

Grout that may fill the annulus outside the steel casing is not considered to be sufficient to
provide a quantifiable level of corrosion protection. Corrosion resistant coatings on
permanent drill casing is impractical due to the abrasive action of the soil on the outer surface
of the casing which would likely result in damage to the coating. Corrosion protection for
steel casing subject to compressive loads in aggressive environments is typically considered
by including a sacrificial steel thickness in the design. Casing should not be used to carry
tension loads in aggressive ground environments.

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 ADDITIONAL ADDITIONAL
REINFORCEMENT REINFORCEMENT
(COMPRESSION) (TENSION) TORQUED
ANCHOR
PLATE

TORQUED
ANCHOR
HEAD CONCRETE
STRUCTURE

UPPER PILE
STRENGTHENING

ELASTIC
SPACER

CORRUGATED
INNER SHEATH
CEMENT
GROUT
GEWI – BAR

OUTER
CEMENT GEWI – BAR
GROUT

CEMENT
GROUT

(a) (b)
GEWI – PILE with GEWI – PILE with
Standard Corrosion Protection Double Corrosion Protection

Figure 5-17. GEWI Piles with (a) Grout Protection only; and (b) Double Corrosion
Protection (Courtesy of DSI).

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5.14.3.3 Corrosion Protection Requirements for Micropiles

Corrosion protection recommendations for micropiles are provided in Table 5-6.

Table 5-6. Corrosion Protection Recommendations for Micropiles (after DFI, 2004).

Corrosion Protection
Loading Tension1 Compression
Ground Aggressive2 Non aggressive Aggressive2 Non-aggressive
Casing a. Do not rely on a. None required if a. Min.1.6 mm a. None
casing for load tension load on (0.063 in.)
capacity casing is less than corrosion loss on
20% of casing outside
thread strength The Specifier may
The Specifier may
OR use different use different
corrosion loss per corrosion loss per
b. Do not rely on
site-specific site-specific
casing for load
corrosion studies. corrosion studies.
capacity
Core steel a. epoxy coating3 a. bare steel5 a. Grout cover4 a. Grout cover4
(reinforcing OR OR AND
bar)l 3 3
b. galvanization b. epoxy coating The Specifier may
desire to add other
OR OR
options listed for
c. encapsulation c. galvanization3 tension.
in plastic
OR
sheath3
d. encapsulation in
AND
plastic sheath3
Grout cover4
AND
Grout cover4
NOTES:
1. Permanent tension or temporary tension (e.g., wind, seismic, impact) on critical
structures. For temporary tension on normal structures, corrosion protection for
compression may be used. The recommendations for corrosion protection for micropiles
subject to tension loadings should also be used for that length of the micropile subject to
tension as a result of lateral loads and/or overturning moments at the ground surface.
2. Corrosion protection must extend 5 m (15 ft) below corrosive material
3. Core steel corrosion protection must extend a minimum of 1.5 m (5 ft) into casing
4. Minimum 1 inch in soil and 0.5 inch in rock. If protective coatings (epoxy,
galvanization, or encapsulation) are provided in compression, minimum cover may be
0.25 inches in soil or rock.
5. Not recommended for permanent or cyclic tension loads.

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Corrosion protection requirements (via sacrificial steel section losses) prescribed in Table 5-6
for casings subject to compressive loads in an aggressive ground environment include a
minimum section loss of 1.6 mm (0.063 in.). This value is prescribed in AASHTO Section
4.5.7.4 for cross section reductions for concrete-filled pipe piles. Guidance on sacrificial
thickness for structural steel elements in CCTG (1992) indicate that, for a design life of 75
years, a steel section loss range of 2 mm (0.0787 in.) to 5 mm (0.196 mm) is appropriate for
non-protected steel in moderately to strongly corrosive environments, respectively, where no
specific site corrosivity studies for the steel elements have been performed. Higher section
losses are provided for a design life greater than 75 years.

These information sources provide a relatively wide range of corrosion losses. It is strongly
recommended that site-specific corrosivity studies be performed where micropiles will be
used in aggressive ground (as defined in Table 5-5).

5.15 PLUNGE LENGTH

The micropile detail shown in Figure 5-1 depicts a casing plunge length. With this detail
(primarily used for micropiles with bond zones formed in soil), it is assumed that a portion of
the micropile design load is transferred to the surrounding ground (over the plunge length) by
the cased portion of the pile, thus reducing the load that must be supported by the uncased
portion of the micropile (see Figure 5-18). This can allow a lesser amount of steel
reinforcing through the uncased length to meet the structural strength requirements. The
reduction in load applied to the uncased length is termed the transfer load, Ptransfer.

The allowable axial load transferred through the plunge length, Ptransfer-allowable may be
calculated as:

α bond
Ptransfer − allowable = × π × Db × ( Plunge Length) (Eq. 5-25)
FS

The value for this load is based on the unit grout-to-ground bond, αbond (from Table 5-3)
acting uniformly over the casing plunge length. It must be recognized that reliably achieving
this load transfer depends on the casing installation method, the specific soil type and
grouting method to obtain sufficient grout coverage between the casing and the surrounding
ground.

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For these reasons, micropile designs which incorporate a plunge length and a corresponding
reduction in axial load reaching the uncased portion should be confirmed by the site-specific
load testing information wherein axial load transfer over the plunge length is measured or can
be computed based on verification load testing. Alternatively, Ptransfer may be conservatively
neglected.

LOAD IN PILE
PPILE (kN)

CASING PLUNGE
LENGTH

PILE BOND
LENGTH
2

Db

TRANSFER LOAD:
PTRANSFER = αbond × 3.14 × Db × Casing Plunge Length
LOAD CARRIED BY PILE @ DEPTH 1 = PPILE
LOAD CARRIED BY PILE @ DEPTH 2 = PPILE – PTRANSFER

Figure 5-18. Detail of Load Transfer Through the Casing Plunge Length.

5.16 END BEARING MICROPILES

Due to the relatively small cross sectional area of micropiles, load carrying capacity resulting
from end bearing is generally considered to be negligible for micropiles in soil or weak rock.

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Micropiles founded on high quality sound rock, however, may develop their capacity
primarily through end bearing and secondarily by side resistance. In this case, care must be
taken to ensure that the micropile is not terminated on a boulder or on rock with voids or very
soft material below. Where end bearing micropiles are being considered, the subsurface
investigation should be sufficiently detailed to allow for a determination of the quality of the
rock (see Table 5-2).

The design for end bearing micropiles may be done similar to end bearing drilled shafts, or
may be based on previous load test experience of similar micropiles. Typically, a nominal
length rock socket may be used (on the order of 0.6 m (2 ft)) to assure that the micropile is, in
fact, founded on high quality rock. The capacity of end bearing micropiles on competent
rock will likely be controlled by the structural capacity of the micropile since very high end
bearing capacities can be achieved for micropiles on rock.

5.17 DOWNDRAG

Micropiles may be subjected to additional axial compression loading due to downdrag forces
when the soils in contact with the cased portion of the micropile (i.e., above the bond zone)
move downward relative to the micropile and tend to “drag” the micropile downward. The
resulting downward force will add to the load applied to the micropile by the structure at the
ground surface. The user of this manual is referred to the NHI/FHWA reference manuals for
design of driven piles and for drilled shafts (FHWA-NHI-05-042 and FHWA-IF-99-025,
respectively) for background information on downdrag and methods to compute downdrag
forces.

The potential for downdrag exists when the surface soils can settle and where the foundation
element passes through those settling soils into a stratum of relatively rigid geomaterial.
Possible development of downdrag loads on micropiles should be considered where: (1) the
site is underlain by compressible silts, clays, or peats; (2) fill has recently been placed on the
earlier; and (3) the groundwater is substantially lowered.

If analyses or computations indicate that the surface soils are moving downward more than
the micropile, a conservative solution can be obtained if it is assumed that the downdrag
force will develop along the micropile from the ground surface to the top of the bond zone.
To compute the downdrag force from the upper weak material, grout-to-ground bond stress
values based on Table 5-3 should be used with consideration for the grouting technique used
over the length of the micropile formed in the relatively weak materials. The maximum load
along the micropile would occur at the top of the bond zone and would be the sum of the
downdrag force and the load applied at the top of the micropile. The structural capacity of
the micropile would be checked based on this total load.

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The use of micropiles for a foundation system on sites where downdrag forces are of concern
offers several benefits. The small surface area of a micropile will result in relatively small
downdrag forces transmitted from the settling soil to the micropile. Further isolation of the
micropile from the moving soils can be accomplished by installation of an additional
oversized outer casing through the settling soils. Battered micropiles should not be used in
soil conditions where large soil settlements are expected because of the additional bending
forces imposed on the piles.

5.18 DESIGN OF MICROPILES FOR LATERAL LOADING

5.18.1 General

It is specifically noted that the analysis of a single vertical micropile for lateral loading
and/or overturning moments is equivalent to that for a driven pile or drilled shaft. The user
of this manual is referred to the NHI/FHWA reference manuals for design of driven piles and
for drilled shafts (FHWA-NHI-05-042 and FHWA-IF-99-025, respectively) for specific
modeling details related to lateral loading analysis. Herein, the overall design procedure for
a laterally loaded micropile is provided (within the context of a p-y analysis) and specific
issues that must be addressed for the design of a micropile subject to lateral load are
discussed.

5.18.2 Analysis Steps for Single Laterally Loaded Micropile

Step 1: Determine basic pile input parameters for the micropile including: (1) pile
length; (2) modulus of elasticity for grout, reinforcing bar, and steel casing; (3)
distance from pile head to ground surface; and (4) slope of ground surface.

Step 2: Divide the micropile into segments with uniform cross sectional properties.
For each segment, provide the pile diameter, moment of inertia, and area of pile.

A micropile subject to lateral loads and/or overturning moments will include a cased length
in the upper portion of the micropile. A center steel reinforcing bar may be used along the
entire length of the micropile, however the steel bar provides negligible resistance to lateral
loads. Lateral loads and overturning moments applied at the ground surface will usually be
carried by the portion of the micropile from the ground surface down to a depth on the order
of 20 micropile diameters; below that depth bending moments will usually be negligible.
The length of the micropile to be analyzed should be such that calculated bending moments,
shear forces, and lateral pile movement are negligible at the bottom of the micropile. This
length can be used to select the minimum micropile cased length.

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 Step 3: Delineate the soil/rock profile into layers over the maximum anticipated
penetration depth of the trial micropile.

Step 4: Determine the required soil input parameters for each layer. For cohesive
soil layers, the effective unit weight of the soil and the undrained shear strength is
required for analysis while for cohesionless soils, the effective unit weight and
drained friction angle is required.

The user inputs two additional parameters: (1) ε50 which is the axial strain corresponding to a
shear stress equal to ½ of the shear strength of the material (this parameter is used for clays
only); and (2) slope of the soil resistance versus lateral deflection curve, k. These values are
typically selected based on soil type using Tables 5-7 through 5-10.

It is noted that user-defined p-y curves can be used for analysis where these curves are based
on micropile lateral load test results (which include pile lateral movement measurements at
the ground line and at various depths along the length of the micropile) from previous
projects in similar ground or preproduction test piles. Actual foundation lateral
displacements will likely be less than those measured in a load test since most load test
setups do not incorporate the beneficial effects of pile cap stiffness and embedment below the
ground surface which will likely be part of the actual foundation structure.

Most engineers, however, simply use the p-y curves contained within programs such as
LPILE. These p-y curves have not been developed specifically for relatively small diameter
micropiles but can provide reasonably accurate results. Moreover, good subsurface and shear
strength characterization of the ground in the upper 5 m (15 ft) of the subsurface profile is
critical to developing p-y curves for analysis (Richards and Rothbauer, 2004). If overly
conservative assumptions regarding soil shear strength near the ground surface are used, it is
likely that ground line lateral movements will be significantly overpredicted. Site specific
strength data should be obtained.

Table 5-7. Values of ε50 for intact clays (after Reese et al., 2005).

Consistency of clay ε50

Soft 0.020
Medium 0.010
Stiff 0.005

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 Table 5-8. Values of ε50 for stiff clays (after Reese et al. 2005).

Undrained shear strength

ε50
(kPa) (psi)
50 – 100 7.3 – 14.5 0.007
100 -200 14.5 – 29.0 0.005
300 -400 43.5 – 58.1 0.004

Table 5-9. Soil-modulus parameter (k) for sands (after Reese et al., 2005).

Loose Medium Dense

Relative Density
(kPa/m) (lb/in3) (kPa/m) (lb/in3) (kPa/m) (lb/in3)

Submerged Sand 5,430 20 16,300 60 33,900 125

Sand Above WT 6,790 25 24,430 90 61,000 225

Table 5-10. Soil-modulus parameter (k) for clays (after Reese et al., 2005).

Undrained Shear
Clay Static Cyclic
Strength
Consistency
(kPa) (psi) (kPa/m) (lb/in3) (kPa/m ) (lb/in3)
1.74 –
Soft 12 – 24 8,140 30 - -
3.47
3.47 –
Medium 24 – 48 27,150 100 - -
6.94
6.94 –
Stiff 48 – 96 136,000 500 54,300 200
13.9
13.9 –
Very Stiff 96 – 192 271,000 1,000 108,500 400
27.8
27.8 –
Hard 192 - 383 543,000 2,000 217,000 800
55.6

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 Step 5: Determine the critical loading combinations and boundary conditions to be
analyzed.

For each loading combination, determine the axial load, lateral load, and overturning moment
at the ground line to be analyzed. An important input to the analysis is the assumed
boundary condition at the ground line. In general, the assumption of full fixity at the pile
head will result in large calculated negative bending moments at the top of the pile and small
lateral deflections at the ground line. Conversely, the assumption of a pinned pile head
connection will result in the largest calculated bending moment below the ground surface and
relatively large calculated movements at the ground surface. The use of vertical micropiles
to carry lateral loads is a relatively new application and little data exists to define the
appropriate level of fixity for a given micropile-footing connection to be assumed for design
analyses.

Typical practice is to evaluate the maximum bending moment from an analysis assuming
pinned head conditions (i.e., 0% fixity) and the maximum bending moment from an analysis
assuming fixed head conditions (i.e., 100% fixity). The structural capacity of the micropile is
then checked for the larger of the two calculated bending moments.

Calculated ground line deflections are also affected by the assumed level of fixity for the
micropile-footing connection. For assessing ground line deflections, a representative level of
fixity should be assumed. In other words, the approach used to evaluate structural capacity is
based on the “worst-case” bending moment from two analyses. This approach should not be
used to assess deformations, but instead the level of fixity assumed to evaluate ground line
deflections should be consistent with the actual micropile-footing connection. If a certain
level of fixity is assumed in design, this level of fixity must be at least achieved by the actual
(i.e., as-built) micropile-footing connection. To this end, Table 5-11 provides preliminary
guidance for selecting a level of fixity for a given micropile-footing connection. The level of
fixity (i.e., 0, 50, or 100 percent) can then be used in a lateral pile analysis to compute the
lateral ground line deflection.

For a given micropile-footing connection, greater fixity than that reported in Table 5-11 may
be able to be achieved. The user of this manual should assess fixity on a project-specific
basis.

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 Table 5-11. Guidance on Level of Fixity for Micropile-Footing Connections.

0 % Fixity (Pinned Head 100 % Fixity (Fixed

50 % Fixity(1)
Condition) Head Condition)(1)
Casing embedment of 300 mm Casing embedment of Casing embedment of
(12 in.) or less or 450 mm (18 in.) or 600 mm (24 in.) or
more
Reinforcing bar embedment with Shear connection
or without bearing plate or between casing and
existing footing with
Any detail where top of minimum casing
micropile embedment is at or embedment of 450 mm
below the level of the bottom (18 in.)
reinforcement of the footing

(1) Guidance provided assumes that footing itself is restrained. For example, if only one
row of piles in direction of loading then 0% fixity should be assumed

Example LPILE analysis results are provided in Figure 5-19 and 5-20. The 50% fixity
condition can be modeled in LPILE as follows:

• Perform LPILE analysis for case of 100% fixity (i.e., assume slope of zero for top of
micropile) and compute negative bending moment at ground line, Mneg (100%);
• Perform second LPILE analysis with an assumed moment boundary condition equal
to 50 percent of Mneg (100%); this analysis is used to obtain the ground line deflection.

Example LPILE analysis results and structural evaluation of the cased length using the
combined stress (i.e., combined axial and bending) check (Eqs. 5-4 and 5-6) are provided in
Sample Problem No. 2.

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 Bending Moment (kN-m)
-40 -20 0 20 40 60
0

Depth (m) 2

Fixed Head
4
50% Fixity

5 Free Head

Figure 5-19. LPILE Analysis Result for Bending Moment.

Deflection (mm)
-5 0 5 10 15 20
0

2
Depth (m)

4 Fixed Head

50% Fixity
5 Free Head

Figure 5-20. LPILE Analysis Result for Lateral Micropile Deflection.

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 Step 6: Determine structural capacity of the micropile for the critical case axial and
lateral load.

The structural capacity of the micropile should be verified for combined stresses due to axial
load and bending moment using Eq. 5-3 or Eq. 5-6. As previously mentioned, it may be
conservatively assumed that the maximum bending moment is carried completely by the steel
casing with no load being carried by the grout inside the casing. For this evaluation, it is
assumed that the structural capacity of the micropile is not impacted by potential weaknesses
at the threaded casing connection. The capacity of the connection and its effect on lateral
load capacity is discussed in Section 5.5.3 and Section 5.18.3.

If the condition prescribed in Eq. 5-3 or Eq. 5-6 is not met, additional lateral loading capacity
can be achieved by:

• installing an oversized casing in the top portion of the micropile where bending
moments are high;
• constructing a larger micropile diameter at the top (which will tend to increase lateral
soil resistance);
• embedding the pile cap deeper below the ground surface to develop more passive
resistance which will result in reduced groundline deflections and bending moments
(for a given lateral load); or
• battering some of the micropiles.

These options would need to be evaluated on a project-specific basis. For example,

embedding the pile cap deeper may not be a viable option if the foundation layout has
already been finalized for the project. That is, specific options may be outside the control of
the micropile contractor.

Step 7: Determine pile acceptability based on deflection under the design load and
modify the pile section properties, as needed, to meet lateral capacity and maximum
groundline deflection criteria.

5.18.3 Evaluation of Micropile Lateral Load Capacity at Threaded Casing Joints

A conservative approach is provided herein to evaluate the bending moment capacity at a

threaded casing joint. The method assumes that the wall thickness, tw, of the casing at the
location of a threaded joint is equal to 50 percent of the intact casing wall thickness; therefore
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the section modulus at the joint location is reduced. The outside diameter of the casing at the
joint is then equal to OD – 2 (tw/2) = OD – tw. The reduced section modulus of the threaded
joint, Sjoint is calculated as:

I jo int
π
(
× (OD − t w ) 4 − ID
4
)
S jo int = = 64 (Eq. 5-26)
(OD − t w ) / 2 (OD − t w ) / 2

Eq. 5-3 is used to evaluate the maximum bending moment at a joint location, Mmax (joint), as
follows:

 f   f 
M max ( jo int) = S jo int × 1 − a  × 1 − a'  Fb (Eq. 5-27)
 Fa   Fe 

The use of this method is demonstrated and discussed in Sample Problem No. 2.

5.19 LATERAL RESISTANCE OF MICROPILE GROUPS

5.19.1 General

Similar to other types of piles, micropile behavior in a group configuration is influenced by

spacing between individual elements. The deflection of a pile group under a lateral load may
be 2 to 3 times larger than the deflection of a single pile loaded to the same intensity.
Holloway et al. (1981) and Brown et al. (1988) reported that piles in trailing rows of pile
groups have significantly less resistance to a lateral load than piles in the lead row, and
therefore exhibit greater deflections. This is due to the pile-soil-pile interaction that takes
place in a pile group. The pile-soil-pile interaction results in the lateral capacity of a pile
group being less than the sum of the lateral capacities of the individual piles comprising the
group. Hence, laterally loaded pile groups have a group efficiency of less than 1. Based on
experiments conducted as part of the FOREVER National Project (FOREVER, 2003) on
horizontally loaded micropile groups, the following conclusions were drawn:

• For in-line micropiles, group effects are negligible for micropile spacing between 6 to
7 diameters; and
• For micropiles arranged in a row perpendicular to the direction of loading, group
effects are negligible for micropile spacing just greater than 3 diameters.

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The lateral capacity of an individual pile in a pile group is a function of its position in the
group and the center to center pile spacing. Piles in trailing rows of pile groups have less
resistance to a lateral load than pile sin the lead row, and therefore exhibit greater deflections.
This is due to the pile-soil-pile interaction that takes place in a pile group. Brown et al.
(1998) proposed a p-multiplier, Pm, be used to modify the p-y curve of an individual pile
based upon the piles row position to account for this pile-soil-pile interaction. An illustration
of the p-multiplier concept is presented in Figure 5-21. For piles in a given row, the same Pm
value is applied to all p-y curves along the length of the pile. In a lateral load test of a 3 by 3
pile group in very dense sand with a center to center pile spacing of 3b, Brown found the
leading row of piles had a Pm of 0.8 times that of an individual pile. The Pm values for the
middle and back row of the group were 0.4 and 0.3, respectively.

A summary of additional laterally loaded driven pile group studies is provided in FHWA-
NHI-05-042 (2005). Also, preliminary results from the FOREVER project indicate that Pm
multipliers for micropiles may be slightly higher than those recommended herein, however,
only limited data from centrifuge testing is available at this time.

Brown and Bollman (1993) proposed a p-multiplier procedure for the design of laterally
loaded pile groups. This approach, outlined in the step by step procedure that follows, may
be used for the design of laterally loaded micropile groups.

5.19.2 Step By Step Design Procedure For Laterally Loaded Pile Groups

Step 1: Develop p-y curves for single pile (see guidance for single pile previously
provided)

Step 2: Perform LPILE analyses

a. Perform LPILE analyses using the Pm values for each row position to
develop load-deflection and load-moment data.

b. Based on current data, it is suggested that Pm values of 0.8 be used for the
lead row, 0.4 for the second row, and 0.3 for the third and subsequent
rows. These recommendations are considered reasonable for center to
center pile spacing of three pile diameters and pile deflections at the
ground surface ranging from 10 to 15 percent of the micropile diameter.
For larger center to center spacings or smaller deflections (as would be
anticipated for typical micropile groups), these Pm values should be
conservative.

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 c. Determine shear load (at the ground line) versus deflection behavior for
piles in each row. Plot load versus pile head deflection results similar to
as shown in Figure 5-22(a). This plot can be developed for each row by
selecting a set of shear loads and using LPILE to evaluate the deflection
for each shear load.

Step 3: Estimate group deflection under lateral load

a. Average the load for a given deflection from all piles in the group to
determine the average group response to a lateral load as shown in Figure
5-22(a).

b. Divide the lateral load to be resisted by the pile group by the number of
piles in the group to determine the average lateral load to be resisted by
each pile. Enter load-deflection graph similar to Figure 5-22(a) with the
average load per pile to estimate group deflection using the group average
load deflection curve.

Step 4: Evaluate pile structural acceptability

a. Plot the maximum bending moment determined from LPILE analyses

versus deflection for each row of piles as illustrated in Figure 5-22(b).

b. Use the estimated group deflection under the lateral load per pile to
determine the maximum bending moment for an individual pile in each
row. Evaluate structural capacity according to Eq. 5-3 or Eq. 5-6 where
the Mmax used in these equations is the maximum bending moment
corresponding to the estimated group deflection.

Step 5: Perform refined pile group evaluation that considers superstructure-

substructure interaction.

A detailed example demonstrating this procedure for a driven pile group can be found in
Appendix F.8 of FHWA-NHI-05-042 (2005). The steps are the same as would be used for a
micropile group.

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Figure 5-21. Illustration of P-Multiplier Concept for Lateral Group Analysis (after FHWA-
NHI-05-042, 2005).

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Figure 5-22. Load-Deflection and Bending Moment-Deflection for Pile Group Analysis
(after FHWA-NHI-05-042, 2005).

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5.19.3 Soil-Structure Interaction Analyses for Micropile Groups

The methods described above uses analyses of single micropiles as a means to evaluate
lateral load response of micropile groups. Micropiles are often used in combination with
existing deep foundation elements. Because of this, estimates on the amount of load that will
be shared by each individual foundation element need to be made. In some cases, this may
be a statically indeterminate problem (i.e., loads need to be carried by, for example, more
than 2 piles in a given cross section) requiring that the stiffness of the foundation elements
(both existing and new micropiles) and the pile cap be considered in the analysis.

The computer program FB-Pier (2001) was developed with FHWA support as the primary
design tool for analysis of pile groups under axial and lateral loads. This program is a
nonlinear, finite element analysis, soil-structure interaction program. FB-Pier uses a p-
multiplier approach in the evaluation of laterally loaded pile groups under axial, lateral, and
combined axial and lateral loads. Additional information on FB-Pier program capabilities
can be found at http://bsi-web.ce.ufl.edu. The computer program GROUP (2003) can also be
used to model pile groups (see www.ensoftinc.com).

5.19.4 Battered Micropiles

The lateral load-carrying capacity of individual vertical micropiles is limited compared to

more conventional drilled shafts and driven piles. As for other deep foundation systems,
micropiles can be battered as a means to provide additional resistance to lateral loading.
Note that since micropile drilling equipment is designed to drill both vertically and
subvertically, there is not a significant increase in cost (on a per unit length basis) or quality
of finished pile for battered micropiles as compared to vertical micropiles.

The calculation of lateral capacity of a single battered micropile is demonstrated in Sample

Problem No. 1. The total lateral capacity of the battered micropiles is the sum of the lateral
capacities of each battered micropile. This lateral capacity is compared to the lateral load
applied to the foundation from the superstructure. If this sum is less than the lateral load
applied to the foundation, the remaining load is carried by the micropiles in bending (i.e., this
remaining load is used in a lateral load (i.e., LPILE analysis) for the structure).

Micropile groups with vertical and battered piles should be analyzed using the soil-structure
interaction programs described in Section 5.19.3. Pile groups that contain battered piles are
relatively stiff and will undergo less lateral movement for a given load than for a system with
the same number of vertical piles. However, this increased system stiffness also results in
greater bending moments in the pile cap which is a concern, especially for highly seismic

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regions. Moreover, battered micropiles should not be used where the potential for ground
settlement around the battered micropile is a possibility. These settlements will induce
additional bending moments in the micropiles and some loss of support. Additional
discussion on batter piles for seismic regions is discussed in Section 5.21.

5.20 BUCKLING CONSIDERATIONS FOR MICROPILES

5.21.1 General

Because micropiles are frequently installed to or into relatively sound rock or dense/hard soil,
their capacity is frequently dictated by the structural strength of the element, rather than by
the side resistance developed between the micropile grout and surrounding ground. The
potential for buckling is reduced by the lateral restraint provided by the surrounding ground,
however where soft or weak soils (e.g., very soft sedimentary deposits), voids (e.g., karstic
formations), or liquefiable soils overly the bearing strata, buckling may potentially control
the load-carrying capacity of a micropile and should be considered in design. For this
reason, it is critical that the subsurface investigation identify these critical zones and, also,
the depth of these zones should be recorded during the micropile installation process.

Herein, design analyses are presented to address micropile buckling. A more detailed
coverage of micropile buckling is provided in Cadden and Gomez (2002).

5.21.2 Micropile Surrounded by Very Weak Or Liquefiable Soil

It is not possible to specifically define “very weak soil” or liquefiable soils by means of a
readily available parameter such as SPT N value for purposes of evaluating buckling
potential. Rather, a simple analysis is presented which uses a soil modulus parameter to
evaluate whether buckling of the micropile is possible. The analysis involves comparing the
critical buckling load for an axially loaded micropile, Pcr, to the maximum axial stress (i.e.,
capacity) of the micropile. For simplicity, only the contribution of the steel casing to resist
buckling is considered, i.e., the potential benefits of grout within the casing and outside the
casing are not considered as part of this analysis. Eq. 5-28 is used to estimate the critical
buckling load:

π2 EI Es l 2
Pcr = + (Eq. 5-28)
l2 π2

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where:

E = modulus of elasticity of the steel casing (e.g., 200,000 MPa (29,000 ksi));

I = moment of inertia of the micropile (previously defined for a steel casing in Eq. 5- 4);

l = “unsupported” length of the micropile assumed to be the thickness of the relatively weak
or potentially liquefiable soil; and

Es = lateral reaction modulus of the soil surrounding the micropile over the “unsupported”
length.

Using Eq. 5-28, the limiting lateral reaction soil modulus for buckling, EsLIMIT can be
evaluated as:

1
EsLIMIT = (Eq. 5-29)
 4 I   E 
 2   2 
 A   Fy 

The first of the two terms inside the brackets in Eq. 5-29 represents the geometric properties
of the pile, while the second term represents its material properties. The combination of these
two terms is referred to as the pile factor and is given in units of [stress-1].

Using Eq. 5-29, if the EsLIMIT value is less than the measured or assumed soil modulus, Es,
then the geotechnical and structural strength of the micropile will control the micropile
capacity and buckling does not need to be considered further. If the EsLIMIT value is greater
than Es, buckling should be evaluated further. Tables 5-12 and 5-13 provide ranges of Es
values for various soil types.

Figure 5-23 provides a summary chart of limiting lateral reaction modulus values for various
micropile materials.

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 Table 5-12. Elastic Constants of Various Soils Based on Soil Type
(modified after AASHTO, 2002).

Soil Type Range of Equivalent Elastic Modulus,

kPa (ksf)
Clay
Soft sensitive 2,400 - 14,400 (50 - 300)
Medium stiff 14,400 - 48,000 (300 – 1,000)
Very stiff 48,000 - 96,000 (1,000 – 2,000)
Loess 14,400 - 57,500 (300 – 1,200)
Silt 1,900 - 19,000 (40 – 400)
Fine sand
Loose 7,600 - 11,500 (160 – 240)
Medium dense 11,500 - 19,000 (240 – 400)
Dense 19,000 - 29,000 (400 – 600)
Sand
Loose 9,600 - 29,000 (200 – 600)
Medium dense 29,000 - 96,000 (600 – 1,000)
Dense 96,000 - 76,000 (1,000 – 1,600)
Gravel
Loose 29,000 - 76,000 (600 – 1,600)
Medium dense 76,000 - 96,000 (1,600 – 2,000)
Dense 96,000 - 192,000 (2,000 – 4,000)

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 Table 5-13. Elastic Constants of Various Soils Based on SPT N Value
(modified after AASHTO, 2002).

Soil Type Equivalent Elastic Modulus,

kPa (ksf)
Silts, sandy silts, slightly
400 (N1)60 (8 (N1)60)
cohesive mixtures
Clean fine to medium sands
700 (N1)60 (14 (N1)60)
and slightly silty sands
Coarse sands and sands with
1,000 (N1)60 (20 (N1)60)
little gravel
Sandy gravels 1,200 (N1)60 (24 (N1)60)

700
610

610

610

610

610

610
600

500
Limiting Es (psi)

400

350
343
310
295

300
253

200
165
159
105
97

100
71

27

23

19

17

0
#10 Bar

#11 Bar

#14 Bar

#18 Bar

#20 Bar

#28 Bar
5.5"x0.36" 80 ksi casing

7"x0.5" 80 ksi casing

9.625"x0.47" 80 ksi casing

5 ½ -inch casing

6 ⅝–inch casing

8-inch casing

10 ¾ -inch casing

30/16

32/20

40/20

52/26

73/53

103/51
7"x0.73" 80 ksi casing

Figure 5-23. Limiting Lateral Modulus Values for Various Micropile Materials (after
Cadden and Gomez, 2002).

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-70 December 2005
If the analysis presented above indicates the potential for buckling (i.e., EsLIMIT > Es), the
allowable compression load for the cased section subject to buckling should be calculated.
Eq. 5-1 can be modified to account for buckling as:

[ ]
Pc − allowable = 0.4 f c'− grout × Agrout + 0.47 Fy − steel (Abar + Aca sin g ) ×
Fa
0.47 Fy − steel
(Eq. 5-30)

In Eq. 5-30, the allowable stress, Fa is calculated based on the following:

  Kl 
2

   
Kl Fy − steel   rt  
if 0 < ≤ Cc , Fa = × 1− 2  (Eq. 5-31)
rt FS 2 Cc
 
 
 

Kl π 2 E steel
if > C c , Fa = (Eq. 5-32)
FS [Kl rt ]
2
rt

2 π 2 E steel
where C c =
Fy − steel

K = effective length factor (assumed equal to 1.0 and previously defined in

Section 5.6);
l = unsupported length of the micropile;
rt = radius of gyration of the steel section only = (I/A)1/2;
FS = factor of safety = 2.12 (see Table 10.32.1.A in AASHTO (2002)) and
Fy-steel = the casing yield stress.

For this analysis, the unsupported length of the micropile, l, is assumed to be the thickness of
the weak soil surrounding the micropile and the effective length factor is conservatively
assumed to be 1.0. Also, this analysis can be used to consider scour in which the depth of
scour is assumed to be the unsupported length of the micropile.

Where combined axial and bending stresses are present and where buckling should be
checked (based on the evaluations presented in this section), Eq. 5-3 should be used.

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-71 December 2005
5.20.3 Micropiles Installed through Voids

Figure 5-24 illustrates the case of a micropile installed through a void such as for a micropile
installed in karst terrain. The micropile is subject to a centered load P applied at the top, and
penetrates consistent ground throughout its entire length, except at the void location.

The structural capacity of such a micropile should be checked using Eq. 5-30. Depending on
the procedure followed for micropile installation, the portion of the pile through the void may
be analyzed as a doubly pinned, pinned-fixed, or fixed-fixed column and k selected
accordingly. The model in Figure 5-24 assumes that the pile has been grouted only along the
bond length, and that an annular gap around the casing exists throughout its unbonded length.
Under these conditions, the micropile can be conservatively assumed to be pinned on both
ends such that k = 1.0.

M
P

voi

(a) (b)

Figure 5-24. Micropile Installed Through Voids in Karstic Terrain; (a) Actual Configuration,
(b) Model Used for Estimation of Structural Capacity (after Cadden and Gomez, 2002).

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Micropile Design & Construction 5-72 December 2005
In cases where the pile extends through hard rock above the void, consideration should be
given to the effect this may have on the ability of lateral loads or moments to transfer to the
portion of the pile within the void. If the pile is fixed in a rock layer above a void, then there
will not be any lateral load that is transferred to portion of micropile over the length of the
void; only vertical load is transferred over that length. The calculated allowable load
assuming lateral load is transferred over the length of the void is therefore conservative for
this case.

Micropiles may be susceptible to buckling-induced failure at the casing joints. To consider

the effect of joints, Eq. 5-29 is used to evaluate the critical or limiting lateral soil reaction
using a reduced value for the moment of inertia. This value for I is calculated as for Ijoint in
Eq. 5-26. It is noted that this method is conservative since it assumes that the micropile
stiffness is equivalent to that of the joint over the entire length of the unsupported micropile.
More detailed structural analyses could be carried out that only use the reduced casing
stiffness over the length of the joint, however, these are relatively complex and beyond the
scope of this report. As a practical consideration, however, micropiles installed through karst
must be designed for buckling, considering the presence of the casing joints, or should
include installation of continuous internal reinforcement along portions of micropile
traversing voids or very soft or loose soil.

5.21 SEISMIC CONSIDERATIONS

5.21.1 General

Micropiles have been used for seismic retrofit projects in which existing deep foundations
have been shown to have insufficient capacity to resist seismic forces consistent with the
design earthquake. As discussed in Chapter 3, seismic retrofit projects typically involve
adding micropiles to an existing foundation to provide additional capacity required to
withstand seismic effects (i.e., overturning, uplift, lateral forces). Current guidance for
seismic design of bridge foundations is provided in Division I-A of AASHTO (2002) and the
recommendations provided here apply generally to micropiles subject to seismic effects.
Additional information on seismic design of micropiles is found in JPWRI (2002)

As shown in Figure 5-25, the seismic response of a pile foundation involves the distribution
of a set of superstructure loads into the surrounding soil mass through the pile members. The
general case involves consideration of three components of translational forces (an axial and
two lateral shear forces) and three components of rotational moments (a torsional moment
about the pile axis and two rotational moments about two orthogonal horizontal axes) along
the pile member.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-73 December 2005
Figure 5-25. Three-dimensional Soil Pile Interaction (after Bryant and Matlock, 1977).

The evaluation of the dynamic response of a pile foundation can be performed using either a
pseudo-static analysis or a dynamic response analysis. A realistic approach to dynamic
analysis of pile foundations should account for the nonlinear behavior of near-surface soils
and the layered nature of typical soil profiles. In view of these constraints, current design
practice usually models the soil support characteristics along the pile by discrete nonlinear
springs. The pile is modeled as a beam-column supported by one set of lateral springs (using
p-y curves as previously discussed) and another set of axial springs. The curves for the axial
load transfer characteristics of the pile are referred to as t-z curves. Torsional resistance
against rotation of individual piles is usually ignored or assumed to be negligible for highway
bridges, as most deep highway foundations are supported by pile groups and torsional loads
on pile groups become resolved as lateral loads on the individual piles.

For evaluating the vertical response of piles subject to dynamic loading, t-z curves are
generally calculated over the entire length of the pile. Procedures for evaluating t-z curves
are provided by Lam and Martin (1986, 1997) and Kraft et al. (1981a, b).

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-74 December 2005
5.21.2 Use of Battered Micropiles in Highly Seismic Regions

Vertical micropiles in groups do little to resist horizontal seismic deformations due to their
relatively low stiffness (FOREVER, 2003). Under seismic loading, however, battered
micropiles will have a reduced positive bending moment (as compared to vertical
micropiles), but significantly higher negative bending moments at the pile head. In current
U.S. practice, the concern over excessive bending moments being mobilized during the
design seismic event has resulted in some owner agencies disallowing the use of battered
piles for seismic retrofit projects.

Trinh et al. (2004) performed finite element analyses to investigate the effects of combined
axial compression and lateral displacements on battered micropiles. The micropile
foundation consisted of a square column supported on a 4572 mm by 4572 mm (180 in. by
180 in.) 915-mm (36-in.) high pile cap. Twelve, 178-mm (7-in.) diameter micropiles
arranged in the configuration shown in Figure 5-26 were used to support the pile cap.
Micropiles were battered inward at 15 degrees and outward at 25 degrees from the vertical.

OUT

3 4 3 4
OUT

2 2 5

5 IN
OUT
1 Y 6
1 Y IN IN
0 X
0 X 6 IN
12 7
12 V Column
IN
OUT
60" Square Column
7 11 IN 8

11 8
9
OUT
10 Pile Cap
10 9
180" Square Pile Cap
OUT

(a) Pile spacing (b) Pile inclination

Figure 5-26. Plan View of the Micropile Foundation (after Trinh et al., 2004).

They concluded that with an adequate amount of flexural reinforcement in the pile cap, the
failure mode of the micropile foundation will primarily involve yielding of the micropiles or
pullout of the micropile itself with little (if any) yielding of the micropile-footing connection.
Figure 5-27 shows the effect of increasing steel reinforcement in the cap. This figure
indicates that a fully ductile response of the foundation can be achieved with a flexural

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-75 December 2005
reinforcement ratio, ρs (equal to area of flexural steel reinforcement to cross section area) of
about 0.5 percent. Ductility implies that the foundation does not undergo significant loss of
lateral support at large lateral displacements and/or where the ratio of ultimate deformation to
deformation at yield is relatively large. If the micropile-footing connection were to incur
higher than expected loading, the connection is expected to perform in a highly ductile
manner and the potential failure mechanism would be either pullout of the micropile or
yielding of the micropile.

5.21.3 Load Sharing with Existing Foundations

Applications in which micropiles are used to seismically retrofit an existing deep foundation
requires that load sharing between existing foundation elements and the micropiles be
evaluated. Where additional foundation elements are required to support additional
compression and uplift forces (e.g., rocking motions), vertical micropiles are used.

Figure 5-27. Lateral Response of Micropile Foundation for Different Flexural

Reinforcement Ratio (after Trinh et al., 2004).

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-76 December 2005
For the retrofit design of an old or deteriorated foundation or for a foundation in which the
original structural design details and specifications are uncertain, design seismic loads should
be assumed to be carried by the micropiles only. Load sharing between existing and new
foundations should only be considered if sufficient information on the existing foundation
system (i.e., as-built drawings, load test results, design calculations) is available. Where this
is considered, soil-structure interaction analyses will need to be performed.

5.21.4 Pile Uplift Capacity

Individual piles in pile groups will be subjected to significant uplift resulting from seismic
loading. The overturning moment applied by the seismic lateral force to the pile cap is
typically resisted by axial resistance in the piles with the outermost piles in the group being
subjected to relatively large cyclic axial loads.

Section 6.4.2(B) of AASHTO (2002) Division I-A suggests that some separation between the
bottom of the pile cap and the foundation soil is allowed, provided that the foundation soil is
not susceptible to loss of strength (e.g., liquefaction) under the imposed cyclic loading. For
pile groups, up to one-half the bearing area of the pile cap is allowed. In Section 6.4.2(C),
AASHTO recommends that the ultimate capacity of the piles be used in designing the
foundation for uplift forces resulting from seismic forces (i.e., FS = 1.0 on geotechnical uplift
capacity). It is noted that all other permanent loads are included in this assessment.
Structural requirements including embedment length of the pile in the pile cap and the
detailing of the connections need to be considered, as discussed below.

As part of the Trinh et al (2004) study, battered micropiles on the outboard side of the pile
cap were shown to develop large tensile forces and relatively severe cracking even though
the foundation was subject to large vertical compression forces. They concluded that a
prudent design approach would include increasing the amount of vertical shear reinforcement
(i.e., placing steel reinforcement at closer spacing) in the cap near the piles that are furthest
from the column (i.e., the outboard piles) to mitigate cracking of the cap concrete.

5.21.5 Liquefaction

In many earthquakes where liquefaction occurs, the soil may not liquefy until the end of the
earthquake. Therefore, piles in liquefied ground may still be able to rely on the vertical and
lateral support of the soil in the potentially liquefied zone during the earthquake. However,
due to uncertainties as to exactly when liquefaction will occur, it is common practice to
assign a reduced vertical and lateral resistance to potentially liquefiable soil surrounding a
pile if the pile is expected to function as a load carrying member during and after an
earthquake. Results presented by Ishihara and Cubrinovski (1998) suggest that the lateral

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-77 December 2005
resistance of a pile in liquefied ground is approximately 0.1 to 1.0 percent of the lateral
resistance in non-liquefied ground. Therefore, if a pile foundation in potentially liquefiable
soil is expected to carry lateral loads after the surrounding soil liquefies, batter piles may be
required to provide adequate lateral support. This reduction in lateral support is particularly
important for relatively flexible micropiles.

Studies reported in the FOREVER (2003) project showed that vertical micropiles were not
effective in reducing liquefaction. Batter micropiles, however, were shown to limit
seismically-induced soil movements (and pore pressure buildup) resulting in no liquefaction
in the zone affected by the piles, whereas the free-field soil did undergo liquefaction. If
batter piles are used, the pile cap connections should be designed to sustain moment loads
induced by lateral movements and the batter piles should be designed to sustain lateral loads
due to soil settlement.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-78 December 2005
5.22 REFERENCES

AASHTO (1988), “Manual on Subsurface Investigations”, American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials Publication, Washington, D.C.

AASHTO (2002), “Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges”, Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials Publication, Washington, D.C. ISBN: 156051-
171-0.

Brown, D. A., Morrison, C., and Reese, L. C. (1988), “Lateral Load Behavior of Pile Group
in Sand”, ASCE Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 114, No. 11, pp. 1261-1276.

Brown, D. A. and Bollman, H. T. (1993), “Pile-Supported Bridge Foundations Designed For

Impact Loading”, Appended Document to the Proceedings of Design of Highway Bridges
for Extreme Events, Crystal City, Virginia, pp. 265-281.

Bruce, D. A. and Gemme, R., (1992) “Current Practice in Structural Underpinning Using
Pinpiles,” Proceedings, New York Met Section, ASCE Seminar, New York, April 21-22,
46 pages.

Bryant, L.M. and Matlock, H. (1977), "Three Dimensional Analysis of Framed Structures with
Nonlinear Pile Foundations," Proc. 9th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,
Texas, Paper No. 2955.

Cadden, A. and Gomez, J. (2002), “Buckling of Micropiles – A Review of Historic Research

and Recent Experiences”, Schnabel Engineering Associates Report, West Chester, PA.

Cheney, R. S. (1988), “Permanent Ground Anchors”, Federal Highway Administration

Report, Report No. FHWA-DP-68-1R, Washington, D.C.

CCTG (1992). “Technical Rules for the Design and Calculation of the Foundations of Civil
Engineering Works,” Publication 62, Title V.

DFI (2004), “Guide to Drafting a Specification for Micropiles”, Deep Foundations Institute,
The International Association of Foundation Drilling, 60 pages, New Jersey.

Elias, V., Christopher, B.R., and Berg, R.R. (2001), “Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls
and Reinforced Soil Slopes: Design and Construction Guidelines”, Federal Highway
Administration, Report No. FHWA-NHI-00-043, Washington, D.C.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-79 December 2005
Eurocode EC8 (1994), “Structures in Seismic Regions, Part 5, Foundations, Retaining
Structures, and Geotechnical Aspects.”

FB-PIER (2001), “A Program for the Geotechnical and Structural Aspects of Foundation and
Pier Design”, Federal Highway Administration and University of Florida, Bridge
Software Institute (BSI), Manual No. of the Program FHWA-IF-01-010, Distribution of
software at http://bsi-web.ce.ufl.edu.

FHWA/NHI (2001), “Manual on Subsurface Investigations”, Federal Highway

Administration, Manual No. FHWA NHI-01-031, Mayne, P. W., Christopher, B. R., and
DeJong, J., July.

Federal Highway Administration (2005), “Design and Construction of Driven Pile

Foundations”, Hannigan, P. J., Goble, G. G., Thendean, G., Likins, G. E., and Rausche,
F., Publication No. FHWA-NHI-05-042, United States Department of Transportation,
December.

Federal Highway Administration (1997), “Drilled and Grouted Micropiles, State-of-Practice

Review”, Bruce, D. A. and Juran, I., Report No. FHWA-RD-96-016/019, United States
Department of Transportation, July, Four Volumes.

Federal Highway Administration (1999), “Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures and

Design Methods”, O’Neil, M. W. and Reese, L. C., Publication No. FHWA-HI-99-025,
United States Department of Transportation, August.

FOREVER (2003), “Synthesis of the Results of the National Project on Micropiles”,

International Center for Ground Improvement, Polytechnic University, Juran, I, Jahir
Hasan, Weinstein, G. M, and Sourisseau, L.

GROUP (2003), “A Program for the Analysis of Piles in a Group”, Ensoft Engineering
Software, Distribution of software http://www.ensoftinc.com/.

GEC No. 4 (1999), “Ground Anchors and Anchored Systems”, Geotechnical Engineering
Circular 4, Federal Highway Administration Publication, Sabatini, P. J., Pass, D. G., and
Bachus, R. C., Publication Number: FHWA-IF-99-015.

GEC No. 5 (2002), “Evaluation of Soil and Rock Properties”, Geotechnical Engineering
Circular 5, Federal Highway Administration Publication, Sabatini, P. J., Bachus, R. C.,
Mayne, P. W., Schneider, J. A., and Zettler, T. E., Publication Number: FHWA-IF-02-
034.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-80 December 2005
Holloway, D. M., Moriwaki, Y. Stevens, J. B., and Perez, J-Y. (1981), “Response of a Pile
Group to Combined Axial and Lateral Loading”, Proceedings of the 10th International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Boulimia Publishers,
Stockholm, Vol. 2, pp. 731-734.

Hough, B.K. (1959), “Compressibility as the Basis for Soil Bearing Value,” ASCE Journal
of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. 85, No. SM4, pp. 11-39.

Ishihara, K. and Cubrinovski, M. (1998), “Soil-Pile Interaction in Liquefied Deposits

undergoing Lateral Spreading,” Proc. 11th Danube-European Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Porec, Croatia, pp. 51-64.

Japanese Public Works Research Institute (JPWRI) (2002), “Design and Execution Manual for
Seismic Retrofitting of Existing Pile Foundations with High Capacity Micropiles”,
Foundation Engineering Research Team, Structures Research Group.

Kraft, L.M., Jr, Focht, J., Jr. and Amerasinghe, S.F. (1981a), “Friction Capacity of Piles
Driven into Clay,” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 107, No.
GT11, pp. 1521-1541.

Kraft, L.M., Jr, Ray, R. and Kagawa, T. (1981b), “Theoretical t-z Curves,” Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 107, No. GT11, pp. 1543-1561.

Lam, I.P. and Martin, G.R. (1986), "Seismic Design of Highway Bridge Foundations - Vol. II.
Design Procedures and Guidelines," Report No. FHWA/RD-86-102, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, Virginia, 167 p.

Lam, I.P. and Martin, G.R. (1997), "Current Developments in Seismic Design of Bridge
Foundations," Proc. Transportation Research Board 76th Annual Meeting, Session No. 236,
Washington, District of Columbia, 21 p.

Meyerhoff, G.G. (1976), “Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Piled Foundations”,

Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, GT#3, pp. 197-228.

Ostermayer, H. (1975), “Construction, Carrying Behavior, and Creep Characteristics of

Ground Anchors”, Conference on Diaphragm Walls and Anchorages, Institute of Civil
Engineers, London.

PTI (2004) “Recommendations for Prestressed Rock and Soil Anchors”, Post-Tensioning
Institute Publication.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-81 December 2005
Reese, L. C., Wang, S. T., Isenhower, W. M., Arréllaga, J. A., and Hendrix, J., (2005), “A
Program for Analysis of Single Piles Under lateral Load”, Version 5.0.18, Ensoft Inc.,
Austin, TX.

Richards, T.D. and Rothbauer, M.J. (2004), “Lateral Loads on Pin Piles (Micropiles),”
Geotechnical Special Publication “Drilled Shafts, Micropiling, Deep Mixing, Remedial
Methods, and Specialty Foundation Systems”, ASCE Publication, No.: 124, pp.158-174.

Trinh, R.S., Jain, V., Kunnath, S.K., and Chai, Y.H. (2004), “Finite Element Modeling of
Inclined Micropile Foundation under Combined Axial Compression and Lateral
Displacement”, Final Summary Report submitted to SALUT.

Weatherby, D. E. (1982), “Tiebacks”, Federal Highway Administration Report, Report No.

FHWA/RD-82/047, McLean, VA.

Xanthakos, P.P., Abramson, L. W., and Bruce, D.A., (1994) “Ground Control and
Improvement”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-82 December 2005
5.22 REFERENCES

AASHTO (1988), “Manual on Subsurface Investigations”, American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials Publication, Washington, D.C.

AASHTO (2002), “Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges”, Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials Publication, Washington, D.C. ISBN: 156051-
171-0.

Brown, D. A., Morrison, C., and Reese, L. C. (1988), “Lateral Load Behavior of Pile Group
in Sand”, ASCE Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 114, No. 11, pp. 1261-1276.

Brown, D. A. and Bollman, H. T. (1993), “Pile-Supported Bridge Foundations Designed For

Impact Loading”, Appended Document to the Proceedings of Design of Highway Bridges
for Extreme Events, Crystal City, Virginia, pp. 265-281.

Bruce, D. A. and Gemme, R., (1992) “Current Practice in Structural Underpinning Using
Pinpiles,” Proceedings, New York Met Section, ASCE Seminar, New York, April 21-22,
46 pages.

Bryant, L.M. and Matlock, H. (1977), "Three Dimensional Analysis of Framed Structures with
Nonlinear Pile Foundations," Proc. 9th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,
Texas, Paper No. 2955.

Cadden, A. and Gomez, J. (2002), “Buckling of Micropiles – A Review of Historic Research

and Recent Experiences”, Schnabel Engineering Associates Report, West Chester, PA.

Cheney, R. S. (1988), “Permanent Ground Anchors”, Federal Highway Administration

Report, Report No. FHWA-DP-68-1R, Washington, D.C.

CCTG (1992). “Technical Rules for the Design and Calculation of the Foundations of Civil
Engineering Works,” Publication 62, Title V.

DFI (2004), “Guide to Drafting a Specification for Micropiles”, Deep Foundations Institute,
The International Association of Foundation Drilling, 60 pages, New Jersey.

Elias, V., Christopher, B.R., and Berg, R.R. (2001), “Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls
and Reinforced Soil Slopes: Design and Construction Guidelines”, Federal Highway
Administration, Report No. FHWA-NHI-00-043, Washington, D.C.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-79 December 2005
Eurocode EC8 (1994), “Structures in Seismic Regions, Part 5, Foundations, Retaining
Structures, and Geotechnical Aspects.”

FB-PIER (2001), “A Program for the Geotechnical and Structural Aspects of Foundation and
Pier Design”, Federal Highway Administration and University of Florida, Bridge
Software Institute (BSI), Manual No. of the Program FHWA-IF-01-010, Distribution of
software at http://bsi-web.ce.ufl.edu.

FHWA/NHI (2001), “Manual on Subsurface Investigations”, Federal Highway

Administration, Manual No. FHWA NHI-01-031, Mayne, P. W., Christopher, B. R., and
DeJong, J., July.

Federal Highway Administration (2005), “Design and Construction of Driven Pile

Foundations”, Hannigan, P. J., Goble, G. G., Thendean, G., Likins, G. E., and Rausche,
F., Publication No. FHWA-NHI-05-042, United States Department of Transportation,
December.

Federal Highway Administration (1997), “Drilled and Grouted Micropiles, State-of-Practice

Review”, Bruce, D. A. and Juran, I., Report No. FHWA-RD-96-016/019, United States
Department of Transportation, July, Four Volumes.

Federal Highway Administration (1999), “Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures and

Design Methods”, O’Neil, M. W. and Reese, L. C., Publication No. FHWA-HI-99-025,
United States Department of Transportation, August.

FOREVER (2003), “Synthesis of the Results of the National Project on Micropiles”,

International Center for Ground Improvement, Polytechnic University, Juran, I, Jahir
Hasan, Weinstein, G. M, and Sourisseau, L.

GROUP (2003), “A Program for the Analysis of Piles in a Group”, Ensoft Engineering
Software, Distribution of software http://www.ensoftinc.com/.

GEC No. 4 (1999), “Ground Anchors and Anchored Systems”, Geotechnical Engineering
Circular 4, Federal Highway Administration Publication, Sabatini, P. J., Pass, D. G., and
Bachus, R. C., Publication Number: FHWA-IF-99-015.

GEC No. 5 (2002), “Evaluation of Soil and Rock Properties”, Geotechnical Engineering
Circular 5, Federal Highway Administration Publication, Sabatini, P. J., Bachus, R. C.,
Mayne, P. W., Schneider, J. A., and Zettler, T. E., Publication Number: FHWA-IF-02-
034.

FHWA NHI-05-039 Chapter 5 – Design for Structure Foundations

Micropile Design & Construction 5-80 December 2005
Holloway, D. M., Moriwaki, Y. Stevens, J. B., and Perez, J-Y. (1981), “Response of a Pile
Group to Combined Axial and Lateral Loading”, Proceedings of the 10th International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Boulimia Publishers,
Stockholm, Vol. 2, pp. 731-734.

Hough, B.K. (1959), “Compressibility as the Basis for Soil Bearing Value,” ASCE Journal
of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. 85, No. SM4, pp. 11-39.

Ishihara, K. and Cubrinovski, M. (1998), “Soil-Pile Interaction in Liquefied Deposits

undergoing Lateral Spreading,” Proc. 11th Danube-European Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Porec, Croatia, pp. 51-64.

Japanese Public Works Research Institute (JPWRI) (2002), “Design and Execution Manual for
Seismic Retrofitting of Existing Pile Foundations with High Capacity Micropiles”,
Foundation Engineering Research Team, Structures Research Group.

Kraft, L.M., Jr, Focht, J., Jr. and Amerasinghe, S.F. (1981a), “Friction Capacity of Piles
Driven into Clay,” Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 107, No.
GT11, pp. 1521-1541.

Kraft, L.M., Jr, Ray, R. and Kagawa, T. (1981b), “Theoretical t-z Curves,” Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 107, No. GT11, pp. 1543-1561.

Lam, I.P. and Martin, G.R. (1986), "Seismic Design of Highway Bridge Foundations - Vol. II.
Design Procedures and Guidelines," Report No. FHWA/RD-86-102, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, Virginia, 167 p.

Lam, I.P. and Martin, G.R. (1997), "Current Developments in Seismic Design of Bridge
Foundations," Proc. Transportation Research Board 76th Annual Meeting, Session No. 236,
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