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 Fourth Edition

PRINCIPLES OF

Electronic
Materials
& Devices

S. O. K A SA P
 CONTENTS

Preface xiii 1.10.2 Line Defects: Edge and Screw

Dislocations 73
Chapter 1 1.10.3 Planar Defects: Grain Boundaries 77
1.10.4 Crystal Surfaces and Surface
Elementary Materials Science
Properties 79
Concepts 3 1.10.5 Stoichiometry, Nonstoichiometry, and
Defect Structures 82
1.1 Atomic Structure and Atomic Number 3
1.11 Single-Crystal Czochralski Growth 82
1.2 Atomic Mass and Mole 8
1.12 Glasses and Amorphous
1.3 Bonding and Types of Solids 9
­Semiconductors 85
1.3.1 Molecules and General Bonding
1.12.1 Glasses and Amorphous Solids 85
Principles 9
1.12.2 Crystalline and Amorphous
1.3.2 Covalently Bonded Solids:
Silicon 88
Diamond 11
1.13 Solid Solutions and Two-Phase Solids 90
1.3.3 Metallic Bonding: Copper 13
1.13.1 Isomorphous Solid Solutions:
1.3.4 Ionically Bonded Solids: Salt 14
Isomorphous Alloys 90
1.3.5 Secondary Bonding 18
1.13.2 Phase Diagrams: Cu–Ni and Other
1.3.6 Mixed Bonding 22
Isomorphous Alloys 91
1.4 Kinetic Molecular Theory 25
1.13.3 Zone Refining and Pure Silicon
1.4.1 Mean Kinetic Energy and
Crystals 95
Temperature 25
1.13.4 Binary Eutectic Phase Diagrams and
1.4.2 Thermal Expansion 32
Pb–Sn Solders 97
1.5 Molecular Velocity and Energy
Additional Topics 102
­Distribution 37
1.14 Bravais Lattices 102
1.6 Molecular Collisions and Vacuum
1.15 Grüneisen’s Rule 105
Deposition 41
Defining Terms 107
1.7 Heat, Thermal Fluctuations, and
Questions and Problems 111
Noise 45
1.8 Thermally Activated Processes 50
Chapter 2
1.8.1 Arrhenius Rate Equation 50
1.8.2 Atomic Diffusion and the Diffusion Electrical and Thermal Conduction
Coefficient 52 in Solids: Mainly Classical
1.9 The Crystalline State 55 Concepts 125
1.9.1 Types of Crystals 55
1.9.2 Crystal Directions and Planes 61 2.1 Classical Theory: The Drude Model 126
1.9.3 Allotropy and Carbon 66 2.2 Temperature Dependence of Resistivity:
1.10 Crystalline Defects and Their Ideal Pure Metals 134
­Significance 69 2.3 Matthiessen’s and Nordheim’s Rules 137
1.10.1 Point Defects: Vacancies and 2.3.1 Matthiessen’s Rule and the Temperature
Impurities 69 Coefficient of Resistivity (α) 137

vii
viii Contents

2.3.2 Solid Solutions and Nordheim’s 3.6 Tunneling Phenomenon: Quantum

Rule 145 Leak 248
2.4 Resistivity of Mixtures and Porous 3.7 Potential Box: Three Quantum
Materials 152 Numbers 254
2.4.1 Heterogeneous Mixtures 152 3.8 Hydrogenic Atom 257
2.4.2 Two-Phase Alloy (Ag–Ni) Resistivity 3.8.1 Electron Wavefunctions 257
and Electrical Contacts 156 3.8.2 Quantized Electron Energy 262
2.5 The Hall Effect and Hall Devices 157 3.8.3 Orbital Angular Momentum and
2.6 Thermal Conduction 162 Space Quantization 266
2.6.1 Thermal Conductivity 162 3.8.4 Electron Spin and Intrinsic Angular
2.6.2 Thermal Resistance 166 Momentum S 271
2.7 Electrical Conductivity of 3.8.5 Magnetic Dipole Moment of the
Nonmetals 167 Electron 273
2.7.1 Semiconductors 168 3.8.6 Total Angular Momentum J 277
2.7.2 Ionic Crystals and Glasses 172 3.9 The Helium Atom and the Periodic
Additional Topics 177 Table 278
2.8 Skin Effect: HF Resistance of a 3.9.1 He Atom and Pauli Exclusion
Conductor 177 Principle 278
2.9 AC Conductivity σac 180 3.9.2 Hund’s Rule 281
2.10 Thin Metal Films 184 3.10 Stimulated Emission and Lasers 283
2.10.1 Conduction in Thin Metal Films 184 3.10.1 Stimulated Emission and Photon
2.10.2 Resistivity of Thin Films 184 Amplification 283
2.11 Interconnects in Microelectronics 190 3.10.2 Helium–Neon Laser 287
2.12 Electromigration and Black’s 3.10.3 Laser Output Spectrum 290
­Equation 194 Additional Topics 292
Defining Terms 196 3.11 Optical Fiber Amplifiers 292
Questions and Problems 198 Defining Terms 294
Questions and Problems 298
Chapter 3
Elementary Quantum Physics 213 Chapter 4
Modern Theory of Solids 313
3.1 PHOTONS 213
3.1.1 Light as a Wave 213 4.1 Hydrogen Molecule: Molecular Orbital
3.1.2 The Photoelectric Effect 216 Theory of Bonding 313
3.1.3 Compton Scattering 221 4.2 Band Theory of Solids 319
3.1.4 Black Body Radiation 224 4.2.1 Energy Band Formation 319
3.2 The Electron as a Wave 227 4.2.2 Properties of Electrons in a
3.2.1 De Broglie Relationship 227 Band 325
3.2.2 Time-Independent Schrödinger 4.3 Semiconductors 328
Equation 231 4.4 Electron Effective Mass 334
3.3 Infinite Potential Well: A Confined 4.5 Density of States in an Energy
Electron 235 Band 336
3.4 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 241 4.6 Statistics: Collections of Particles 343
3.5 Confined Electron in a Finite Potential 4.6.1 Boltzmann Classical Statistics 343
Energy Well 244 4.6.2 Fermi–Dirac Statistics 344
 Contents ix

4.7 Quantum Theory of Metals 346 5.3.3 Conductivity Temperature

4.7.1 Free Electron Model 346 Dependence 443
4.7.2 Conduction in Metals 349 5.3.4 Degenerate and Nondegenerate
4.8 Fermi Energy Significance 352 Semiconductors 445
4.8.1 Metal–Metal Contacts: Contact 5.4 Direct and Indirect Recombination 447
Potential 352 5.5 Minority Carrier Lifetime 451
4.8.2 The Seebeck Effect and the 5.6 Diffusion and Conduction Equations,
Thermocouple 355 and Random Motion 457
4.9 Thermionic Emission and Vacuum 5.7 Continuity Equation 463
Tube Devices 364 5.7.1 Time-Dependent Continuity
4.9.1 Thermionic Emission: Richardson– Equation 463
Dushman Equation 364 5.7.2 Steady-State Continuity Equation 465
4.9.2 Schottky Effect and Field 5.8 Optical Absorption 469
Emission 368 5.9 Piezoresistivity 473
4.10 Phonons 374 5.10 Schottky Junction 477
4.10.1 Harmonic Oscillator and Lattice 5.10.1 Schottky Diode 477
Waves 374 5.10.2 Schottky Junction Solar Cell and
4.10.2 Debye Heat Capacity 379 Photodiode 482
4.10.3 Thermal Conductivity of 5.11 Ohmic Contacts and Thermoelectric
Nonmetals 384 Coolers 487
4.10.4 Electrical Conductivity 387 Additional Topics 492
Additional topics 388 5.12 Seebeck Effect in Semiconductors
4.11 Band Theory of Metals: Electron and Voltage Drift 492
­Diffraction in Crystals 388 5.13 Direct and Indirect Bandgap
Defining Terms 397 Semiconductors 495
Questions and Problems 399 5.14 Indirect Recombination 505
5.15 Amorphous Semiconductors 505
Chapter 5 Defining Terms 508
Semiconductors 411 Questions and Problems 511

5.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors 412 Chapter 6

5.1.1 Silicon Crystal and Energy Band Semiconductor Devices 527
Diagram 412
5.1.2 Electrons and Holes 413 6.1 Ideal pn Junction 528
5.1.3 Conduction in Semiconductors 416 6.1.1 No Applied Bias: Open Circuit 528
5.1.4 Electron and Hole Concentrations 418 6.1.2 Forward Bias: Diffusion
5.2 Extrinsic Semiconductors 426 Current 533
5.2.1 n-Type Doping 427 6.1.3 Forward Bias: Recombination and
5.2.2 p-Type Doping 429 Total Current 539
5.2.3 Compensation Doping 430 6.1.4 Reverse Bias 541
5.3 Temperature Dependence of 6.2 pn Junction Band Diagram 548
­Conductivity 435 6.2.1 Open Circuit 548
5.3.1 Carrier Concentration Temperature 6.2.2 Forward and Reverse Bias 550
Dependence 435 6.3 Depletion Layer Capacitance of the pn
5.3.2 Drift Mobility: Temperature and Junction 553
Impurity Dependence 440
x Contents

6.4 Diffusion (Storage) Capacitance and Chapter 7

Dynamic Resistance 559 Dielectric Materials and
6.5 Reverse Breakdown: Avalanche Insulation 659
and Zener Breakdown 562
6.5.1 Avalanche Breakdown 562 7.1 Matter Polarization and Relative
6.5.2 Zener Breakdown 564 ­Permittivity 660
6.6 Light Emitting Diodes (LED) 566 7.1.1 Relative Permittivity: Definition 660
6.6.1 LED Principles 566 7.1.2 Dipole Moment and Electronic
6.6.2 Heterojunction High-Intensity Polarization 661
LEDs 568 7.1.3 Polarization Vector P 665
6.6.3 Quantum Well High Intensity 7.1.4 Local Field Eloc and Clausius–
LEDs 569 Mossotti Equation 669
6.7 Led Materials and Structures 572 7.2 Electronic Polarization: Covalent
6.8 Led Output Spectrum 576 ­Solids 671
6.9 Brightness and Efficiency of LEDs 582 7.3 Polarization Mechanisms 673
6.10 Solar Cells 586 7.3.1 Ionic Polarization 673
6.10.1 Photovoltaic Device Principles 586 7.3.2 Orientational (Dipolar)
6.10.2 Series and Shunt Resistance 593 Polarization 674
6.10.3 Solar Cell Materials, Devices, and 7.3.3 Interfacial Polarization 676
Efficiencies 595 7.3.4 Total Polarization 678
6.11 Bipolar Transistor (BJT) 598 7.4 Frequency Dependence: Dielectric
6.11.1 Common Base (CB) dc Constant and Dielectric
Characteristics 598 Loss 679
6.11.2 Common Base Amplifier 607 7.4.1 Dielectric Loss 679
6.11.3 Common Emitter (CE) dc 7.4.2 Debye Equations, Cole–Cole
Characteristics 609 Plots, and Equivalent Series
6.11.4 Low-Frequency Small-Signal Circuit 688
Model 611 7.5 Gauss’s Law and Boundary
6.12 Junction Field Effect Transistor ­Conditions 691
(JFET) 614 7.6 Dielectric Strength and Insulation
6.12.1 General Principles 614 Breakdown 696
6.12.2 JFET Amplifier 620 7.6.1 Dielectric Strength: Definition 696
6.13 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect 7.6.2 Dielectric Breakdown and Partial
Transistor (MOSFET) 624 Discharges: Gases 697
6.13.1 Field Effect and Inversion 624 7.6.3 Dielectric Breakdown: Liquids 700
6.13.2 Enhancement MOSFET 626 7.6.4 Dielectric Breakdown: Solids 701
6.13.3 Threshold Voltage 631 7.7 Capacitor Dielectric Materials 710
6.13.4 Ion Implanted MOS Transistors and 7.7.1 Typical Capacitor Constructions 710
Poly-Si Gates 633 7.7.2 Dielectrics: Comparison 715
Additional Topics 635 7.8 Piezoelectricity, Ferroelectricity,
6.14 pin Diodes, Photodiodes, and Solar and Pyroelectricity 719
Cells 635 7.8.1 Piezoelectricity 719
6.15 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers and 7.8.2 Piezoelectricity: Quartz Oscillators
Lasers 638 and Filters 724
Defining Terms 641 7.8.3 Ferroelectric and Pyroelectric
Questions and Problems 645 Crystals 727
 Contents xi

Additional Topics 734 8.6.2 Initial and Maximum

7.9 Electric Displacement and Depolarization Permeability 802
Field 734 8.7 Soft Magnetic Materials: Examples
7.10 Local Field and the Lorentz Equation 738 and Uses 803
7.11 Dipolar Polarization 740 8.8 Hard Magnetic Materials: Examples
7.12 Ionic Polarization and Dielectric and Uses 806
Resonance 742 8.9 Energy Band Diagrams and
7.13 Dielectric Mixtures and Heterogeneous Magnetism 812
Media 747 8.9.1 Pauli Spin Paramagnetism 812
Defining Terms 750 8.9.2 Energy Band Model of
Questions and Problems 753 Ferromagnetism 814
8.10 Anisotropic and Giant
Chapter 8 Magnetoresistance 815
Magnetic Properties and 8.11 Magnetic Recording Materials 820
Superconductivity 767 8.11.1 General Principles of Magnetic
Recording 820
8.1 Magnetization of Matter 768 8.11.2 Materials for Magnetic Storage 825
8.1.1 Magnetic Dipole Moment 768 8.12 Superconductivity 829
8.1.2 Atomic Magnetic Moments 769 8.12.1 Zero Resistance and the Meissner
8.1.3 Magnetization Vector M 770 Effect 829
8.1.4 Magnetizing Field or Magnetic Field 8.12.2 Type I and Type II
Intensity H 773 Superconductors 832
8.1.5 Magnetic Permeability and Magnetic 8.12.3 Critical Current Density 834
Susceptibility 774 8.13 Superconductivity Origin 838
8.2 Magnetic Material Classifications 778 Additional Topics 840
8.2.1 Diamagnetism 778 8.14 Josephson Effect 840
8.2.2 Paramagnetism 780 8.15 Flux Quantization 842
8.2.3 Ferromagnetism 781 Defining Terms 843
8.2.4 Antiferromagnetism 781 Questions and Problems 847
8.2.5 Ferrimagnetism 782
Chapter 9
8.3 Ferromagnetism Origin and the Exchange
Interaction 782 Optical Properties of Materials 859
8.4 Saturation Magnetization and Curie
Temperature 785 9.1 Light Waves in a Homogeneous
8.5 Magnetic Domains: Ferromagnetic Medium 860
Materials 787 9.2 Refractive Index 863
8.5.1 Magnetic Domains 787 9.3 Dispersion: Refractive Index–Wavelength
8.5.2 Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy 789 Behavior 865
8.5.3 Domain Walls 790 9.4 Group Velocity and Group Index 870
8.5.4 Magnetostriction 793 9.5 Magnetic Field: Irradiance and Poynting
8.5.5 Domain Wall Motion 794 Vector 873
8.5.6 Polycrystalline Materials and the M 9.6 Snell’s Law and Total Internal Reflection
versus H Behavior 795 (TIR) 875
8.5.7 Demagnetization 799 9.7 Fresnel’s Equations 879
8.6 Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials 801 9.7.1 Amplitude Reflection and Transmission
8.6.1 Definitions 801 Coefficients 879
xii Contents

9.7.2 Intensity, Reflectance, and 9.19 Electro-Optic Effects 928

Transmittance 885 Defining Terms 932
9.8 Complex Refractive Index Questions and Problems 935
and Light Absorption 890 Appendix A
9.9 Lattice Absorption 898
9.10 Band-To-Band Absorption 900
Bragg’s Diffraction Law and X-ray
9.11 Light Scattering in Materials 903 Diffraction 941
9.12 Attenuation in Optical Fibers 904 Appendix B
9.13 Luminescence, Phosphors, and White
Leds 907
Major Symbols and Abbreviations 947
9.14 Polarization 912 Appendix C
9.15 Optical Anisotropy 914 Elements to Uranium 955
9.15.1 Uniaxial Crystals and Fresnel’s
Optical Indicatrix 915 Appendix D
9.15.2 Birefringence of Calcite 919 Constants and Useful Information 959
9.15.3 Dichroism 920
9.16 Birefringent Retarding Plates 920 Index 961
9.17 Optical Activity and Circular
Birefringence 922 Periodic Table 978
9.18 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) 924

Left: Circular bright rings make up the diffraction pattern

obtained when an electron beam is passed through a
thin polycrystalline aluminum sheet. The pattern results
from the wave behavior of the electrons; the waves are
diffracted by the Al crystals. Right: A magnet brought to
the screen bends the electron paths and distorts the dif-
fraction pattern. The magnet would have no effect if the
pattern was due to X-rays, which are electromagnetic
waves. Courtesy of Farley Chicilo
 PREFACE

FOURTH EDITION line defects; planar defects; crystal

surfaces; Grüneisen’s rule.
The textbook represents a first course in elec-
tronic materials and devices for undergraduate Chapter 2 Temperature dependence of resis-
students. With the additional topics, the text can tivity, strain gauges, Hall effect;
also be used in a graduate-level introductory ionic conduction; Einstein relation
course in electronic materials for electrical engi- for drift mobility and diffusion;
neers and material scientists. The fourth edition is ac conductivity; resistivity of thin
an extensively revised and extended version of films; interconnects in microelec-
the third edition based on reviewer comments and tronics; electromigration.
the developments in electronic and optoelectronic Chapter 3 Electron as a wave; infinite poten-
materials over the last ten years. The fourth edi- tial well; confined electron in a
tion has many new and expanded topics, new ­finite potential energy well; stimu-
worked examples, new illustrations, and new lated emission and photon amplifi-
homework problems. The majority of the illustra- cation; He–Ne laser, optical fiber
tions have been greatly improved to make them amplification.
clearer. A very large number of new homework Chapter 4 Work function; electron photo-
problems have been added, and many more solved emission; secondary emission;
problems have been provided that put the con- electron affinity and photomulti-
cepts into applications. More than 50% of the il- plication; Fermi–Dirac statistics;
lustrations have gone through some kind of conduction in metals; thermoelec-
revision to improve the clarity. Furthermore, tricity and Seebeck coefficient;
more terms have been added under Defining thermocouples; phonon concentra-
Terms, which the students have found very useful. tion changes with temperature.
Bragg’s diffraction law that is mentioned in sev-
eral chapters is kept as Appendix A for those Chapter 5 Degenerate semiconductors; direct
readers who are unfamiliar with it. and indirect recombination; E vs.
The fourth edition is one of the few books on k diagrams for direct and indirect
the market that have a broad coverage of elec- bandgap semiconductors; Schottky
tronic materials that today’s scientists and engi- junction and depletion layer;
neers need. I believe that the revisions have Seebeck effect in semiconductors
improved the rigor without sacrificing the origi- and voltage drift.
nal semiquantitative approach that both the stu- Chapter 6 The pn junction; direct bandgap
dents and instructors liked. The major revisions in pn junction; depletion layer capac-
scientific content can be summarized as follows: itance; linearly graded junction;
hyperabrupt junctions; light emit-
Chapter 1 Thermal expansion; kinetic mole­ ting diodes (LEDs); quantum well
cular theory; atomic diffusion; high intensity LEDs; LED materi-
­molecular collisions and vacuum als and structures; LED character-
deposition; particle flux density; istics; LED spectrum; brightness

xiii
xiv Preface

and efficiency of LEDs; multi- ∙ Even simple concepts have examples to aid
junction solar cells. learning.
Chapter 7 Atomic polarizability; interfacial ∙ Most students would like to have clear dia-
polarization; impact ionization grams to help them visualize the explanations
in gases and breakdown; and understand concepts. The text includes
­supercapacitors. 565 illustrations that have been profession-
Chapter 8 anisotropic and giant magnetore- ally prepared to reflect the concepts and aid
sistance; magnetic recording the explanations in the text. There are also
­materials; longitudinal and numerous photographs of practical devices
­vertical magnetic recording; and scientists and engineers to enhance the
­materials for magnetic storage; learning experience.
superconductivity. ∙ The end-of-chapter questions and problems
Chapter 9 Refractive and group index of (346 in total) are graded so that they start
Si; dielectric mirrors; free car- with easy concepts and eventually lead to
rier absorption; liquid crystal more sophisticated concepts. Difficult prob-
­displays. lems are identified with an asterisk (*). Many
practical applications with diagrams have
been included.
ORGANIZATION AND FEATURES
∙ There is a glossary, Defining Terms, at the
In preparing the fourth edition, as in previous edi- end of each chapter that defines some of the
tion, I tried to keep the general treatment and concepts and terms used, not only within the
various proofs at a semiquantitative level without text but also in the problems.
going into detailed physics. Many of the problems ∙ The end of each chapter includes a section Ad-
have been set to satisfy engineering accreditation ditional Topics to further develop important
requirements. Some chapters in the text have ad- concepts, to introduce interesting applications,
ditional topics to allow a more detailed treatment, or to prove a theorem. These topics are in-
usually including quantum mechanics or more tended for the keen student and can be used as
mathematics. Cross referencing has been avoided part of the text for a two-semester course.
as much as possible without too much repetition ∙ The text is supported by McGraw-Hill’s text-
and to allow various sections and chapters to be book website that contains resources, such
skipped as desired by the reader. The text has as solved problems, for both students and
been written so as to be easily usable in one- ­instructors.
semester courses by allowing such flexibility.
∙ The fourth edition is supported by an exten-
Some important features are:
sive PowerPoint presentation for instructors
∙ The principles are developed with the mini- who have adopted the book for their course.
mum of mathematics and with the emphasis The PowerPoint has all the illustrations in
on physical ideas. Quantum mechanics is part color, and includes additional color photos.
of the course but without its difficult mathe- The basic concepts and equations are also
matical formalism. highlighted in additional slides.
∙ There are numerous worked examples or ∙ There is a regularly updated online extended
solved problems, most of which have a prac- Solutions Manual for all instructors; simply
tical significance. Students learn by way of locate the McGraw-Hill website for this
examples, however simple, and to that end a textbook. The Solutions Manual provides
large number (227 in total) of solved prob- not only detailed explanations to the solu-
lems have been provided. tions, but also has color diagrams as well as
 Preface 1

references and helpful notes for instructors. former Global Brand Manager, at McGraw-Hill
(It also has the answers to those “why?” Education for their continued help throughout the
questions in the text.) writing and production of this edition. They were
always enthusiastic, encouraging, forgiving
(every time I missed a deadline) and always finding
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS solutions. It has been a truly great experience
working with MHE since 1993. I’m grateful to
My gratitude goes to my past and present graduate
Julie De Adder (Photo Affairs) who most dili-
students and postdoctoral research fellows, who
gently obtained the permissions for the third-
have kept me on my toes and read various sections
party photos in the fourth edition without missing
of this book. I have been fortunate to have a col-
any. The copyright fees (exuberant in many cases)
league and friend like Charbel Tannous (Brest
have been duly paid and photos from this book or
University) who, as usual, made many sharply
its PowerPoint should not be copied into other
critical but helpful comments, especially on Chap-
publications without contacting the original
ter 8. My best friend and colleague of many years
copyright holder. If you are an instructor and like
Robert Johanson (University of S ­ askatchewan),
the book, and would like to see a fifth edition,
with whom I share teaching this course, also pro-
perhaps a color version, the best way to make
vided a number of critical comments towards the
your comments and suggestions heard is not to
fourth edition. A number of reviewers, at various
write to me but to write directly to the Electrical
times, read various portions of the manuscript and
Engineering Editor, McGraw-Hill Education, 501
provided extensive comments. A number of in-
Bell St., Dubuque, IA 52001, USA. Both instruc-
structors also wrote to me with their own com-
tors and students are welcome to email me with
ments. I incorporated the majority of the
their comments. While I cannot reply to each
suggestions, which I believe made this a better
email, I do read all my emails and take note; it
book. No textbook is perfect, and I’m sure that
was those comments that led to a major content
there will be more suggestions (and corrections)
revision in this edition.
for the next edition. I’d like to personally thank
them all for their invaluable critiques.
I’d like to thank Tina Bower, my present Safa Kasap
Product Developer, and Raghu Srinivasan, my Saskatoon, March, 2017

“The important thing in science is not so much to obtain new facts as to discover new ways of
thinking about them.”

Sir William Lawrence Bragg

To Nicolette
 Left: GaAs ingots and wafers. GaAs is a III–V compound semiconductor
because Ga and As are from Groups III and V, respectively.
Right: An InxGa1−xAs (a III–V compound semiconductor)-based
photodetector.
Left: Courtesy of Sumitomo Electric Industries. Right: Courtesy of
Thorlabs.

Left: A detector structure that will be used to detect dark matter particles. Each individual cylindrical detector has a CaWO4 single crystal,
similar to that shown on the bottom right. These crystals are called scintillators, and convert high-energy radiation to light. The Czochralski
technique is used to grow the crystal shown on top right, which is a CaWO4 ingot. The detector crystal is cut from this ingot.
Left: Courtesy of Max Planck Institute for Physics. Right: Reproduced from Andreas Erb and Jean-Come Lanfranchi, CrystEngCom, 15,
2301, 2015, by permission of the Royal Society of Chemistry. All rights reserved.
 CHAPTER

1
Elementary Materials
Science Concepts1

Understanding the basic building blocks of matter has been one of the most intrigu-
ing endeavors of humankind. Our understanding of interatomic interactions has now
reached a point where we can quite comfortably explain the macroscopic properties
of matter, based on quantum mechanics and electrostatic interactions between elec-
trons and ionic nuclei in the material. There are many properties of materials that
can be explained by a classical treatment of the subject. In this chapter, as well as
in Chapter 2, we treat the interactions in a material from a classical perspective and
introduce a number of elementary concepts. These concepts do not invoke any quantum
mechanics, which is a subject of modern physics and is introduced in Chapter 3.
Although many useful engineering properties of materials can be treated with hardly
any quantum mechanics, it is impossible to develop the science of electronic materials
and devices without modern physics.

1.1  ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND ATOMIC NUMBER

The model of the atom that we must use to understand the atom’s general behavior
involves quantum mechanics, a topic we will study in detail in Chapter 3. For the
present, we will simply accept the following facts about a simplified, but intuitively
satisfactory, atomic model called the shell model, based on the Bohr model (1913).
The mass of the atom is concentrated at the nucleus, which contains protons and
neutrons. Protons are positively charged particles, whereas neutrons are neutral par-
ticles, and both have about the same mass. Although there is a Coulombic repulsion

1
This chapter may be skipped by readers who have already been exposed to an elementary course in
materials science.

3
4 CHAPTER 1 ∙ Elementary Materials Science Concepts

L shell with
two subshells

Nucleus

1s
K 2s
L 2p
Figure 1.1 The shell model of the carbon atom, in
which the electrons are confined to certain shells
and subshells within shells. 1s22s22p2 or [He]2s22p2

between the protons, all the protons and neutrons are held together in the nucleus
by the strong force, which is a powerful, fundamental, natural force between par-
ticles. This force has a very short range of influence, typically less than 10−15 m.
When the protons and neutrons are brought together very closely, the strong force
overcomes the electrostatic repulsion between the protons and keeps the nucleus
intact. The number of protons in the nucleus is the atomic number Z of the element.
The electrons are assumed to be orbiting the nucleus at very large distances
compared to the size of the nucleus. There are as many orbiting electrons as there
are protons in the nucleus. An important assumption in the Bohr model is that only
certain orbits with fixed radii are stable around the nucleus. For example, the closest
orbit of the electron in the hydrogen atom can only have a radius of 0.053 nm. Since
the electron is constantly moving around an orbit with a given radius, over a long
time period (perhaps ∼10−12 seconds on the atomic time scale), the electron would
appear as a spherical negative-charge cloud around the nucleus and not as a single
dot representing a finite particle. We can therefore view the electron as a charge
contained within a spherical shell of a given radius.
Due to the requirement of stable orbits, the electrons therefore do not randomly
occupy the whole region around the nucleus. Instead, they occupy various well-
defined spherical regions. They are distributed in various shells and subshells within
the shells, obeying certain occupation (or seating) rules.2 The example for the carbon
atom is shown in Figure 1.1.
The shells and subshells that define the whereabouts of the electrons are labeled
using two sets of integers, n and ℓ. These integers are called the principal and
orbital angular momentum quantum numbers, respectively. (The meanings of
these names are not critical at this point.) The integers n and ℓ have the values
n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , and ℓ = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1, and ℓ < n. For each choice of n,
there are n values of ℓ, so higher-order shells contain more subshells. The shells
corresponding to n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . are labeled by the capital letters K, L, M, N, . . . ,
and the subshells denoted by ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . are labeled s, p, d, f . . . . The

2
In Chapter 3, in which we discuss the quantum mechanical model of the atom, we will see that these shells
and subshells are spatial regions around the nucleus where the electrons are most likely to be found.
 1 .1 Atomic Structure and Atomic Number 5

Table 1.1 M
 aximum possible number of electrons in the shells
and subshells of an atom

Subshell

ℓ = 0 1 2 3
n Shell s p d f

1 K 2
2 L 2 6
3 M 2 6 10
4 N 2 6 10 14

subshell with ℓ = 1 in the n = 2 shell is thus labeled the 2p subshell, based on the
standard notation nℓ.
There is a definite rule to filling up the subshells with electrons; we cannot
simply put all the electrons in one subshell. The number of electrons a given subshell
can take is fixed by nature to be3 2(2ℓ + 1). For the s subshell (ℓ = 0), there are
two electrons, whereas for the p subshell, there are six electrons, and so on. Table 1.1
summarizes the most number of electrons that can be put into various subshells and
shells of an atom. Obviously, the larger the shell, the more electrons it can take,
simply because it contains more subshells. The shells and subshells are filled start-
ing with those closest to the nucleus as explained next.
The number of electrons in a subshell is indicated by a superscript on the sub-
shell symbol, so the electronic structure, or configuration, of the carbon atom (atomic
number 6) shown in Figure 1.1 becomes 1s22s22p2. The K shell has only one sub-
shell, which is full with two electrons. This is the structure of the inert element He.
We can therefore write the electronic configuration more simply as [He]2s22p2. The
general rule is to put the nearest previous inert element, in this case He, in square
brackets and write the subshells thereafter.
The electrons occupying the outer subshells are the farthest away from the
nucleus and have the most important role in atomic interactions, as in chemical reac-
tions, because these electrons are the first to interact with outer electrons on neigh-
boring atoms. The outermost electrons are called valence electrons and they
determine the valency of the atom. Figure 1.1 shows that carbon has four valence
electrons in the L shell.
When a subshell is full of electrons, it cannot accept any more electrons and it
is said to have acquired a stable configuration. This is the case with the inert ele-
ments at the right-hand side of the Periodic Table, all of which have completely
filled subshells and are rarely involved in chemical reactions. The majority of such
elements are gases inasmuch as the atoms do not bond together easily to form a
liquid or solid. They are sometimes used to provide an inert atmosphere instead of
air for certain reactive materials.

3
We will actually show this in Chapter 3 using quantum mechanics.
6 CHAPTER 1 ∙ Elementary Materials Science Concepts

In an atom such as the Li atom, there are two electrons in the 1s subshell and
one electron in the 2s subshell. The atomic structure of Li is 1s22s1. The third elec-
tron is in the 2s subshell, rather than any other subshell, because this is the arrange-
ment of the electrons that results in the lowest overall energy for the whole atom. It
requires energy (work) to take the third electron from the 2s to the 2p or higher
subshells as will be shown in Chapter 3. Normally the zero energy reference cor-
responds to the electron being at infinity, that is, isolated from the atom. When the
electron is inside the atom, its energy is negative, which is due to the attraction of
the positive nucleus. An electron that is closer to the nucleus has a lower energy.
The electrons nearer the nucleus are more closely bound and have higher binding
energies. The 1s22s1 configuration of electrons corresponds to the lowest energy
structure for Li and, at the same time, obeys the occupation rules for the subshells.
If the 2s electron is somehow excited to another outer subshell, the energy of the
atom increases, and the atom is said to be excited.
The smallest energy required to remove a single electron from a neutral atom
and thereby create a positive ion (cation) and an isolated electron is defined as the
ionization energy of the atom. The Na atom has only a single valence electron in
its outer shell, which is the easiest to remove. The energy required to remove this
electron is 5.1 electron volts (eV), which is the Na atom’s ionization energy. The
electron affinity represents the energy that is needed, or released, when we add an
electron to a neutral atom to create a negative ion (anion). Notice that the ionization
term implies the generation of a positive ion, whereas the electron affinity implies
that we have created a negative ion. Certain atoms, notably the halogens (such as F,
Cl, Br, and I), can actually attract an electron to form a negative ion. Their electron
affinities are negative. When we place an electron into a Cl atom, we find that an
energy of 3.6 eV is released. The Cl− ion has a lower energy than the Cl atom,
which means that it is energetically favorable to form a Cl− ion by introducing an
electron into the Cl atom.
There is a very useful theorem in physics, called the Virial theorem, that
allows us to relate the average kinetic energy KE, average potential energy PE, and
average total or overall energy E of an electron in an atom, or electrons and nuclei
in a molecule, through two remarkably simple relationships,4
Virial 1
E = KE + PE and KE = − PE [1.1]
theorem 2
For example, if we define zero energy for the H atom as the H+ ion and the elec-
tron infinitely separated, then the energy of the electron in the H atom is −13.6 eV. It
takes 13.6 eV to ionize the H atom. The average PE of the electron, due to its
Coulombic interaction with the positive nucleus, is −27.2 eV. Its average KE turns
out to be 13.6 eV. Example 1.1 uses the Virial theorem to calculate the radius of
the hydrogen atom, the velocity of the electron, and its frequency of rotation.

4
While the final result stated in Equation 1.1 is elegantly simple, the actual proof is quite involved and certainly
not trivial. As stated here, the Virial theorem applies to a system of charges that interact through electrostatic
forces only.
 1 .1 Atomic Structure and Atomic Number 7

VIRIAL THEOREM AND THE BOHR ATOM Consider the hydrogen atom in Figure 1.2 in EXAMPLE 1.1
which the electron is in the stable 1s orbit with a radius ro. The ionization energy of the
hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV.
a. It takes 13.6 eV to ionize the hydrogen atom, i.e., to remove the electron to infinity.
If the condition when the electron is far removed from the hydrogen nucleus defines
the zero reference of energy, then the total energy of the electron within the H atom is
−13.6 eV. Calculate the average PE and average KE of the electron.
b. Assume that the electron is in a stable orbit of radius ro around the positive nucleus.
What is the Coulombic PE of the electron? Hence, what is the radius ro of the elec-
tron orbit?
c. What is the velocity of the electron?
d. What is the frequency of rotation (oscillation) of the electron around the nucleus?

SOLUTION

a. From Equation 1.1 we obtain

1
E = PE + KE = PE
2
or PE = 2E = 2 × (−13.6 eV) = −27.2 eV
The average kinetic energy is
1
KE = − PE = 13.6 eV
2
b. The Coulombic PE of interaction between two charges Q1 and Q2 separated by a distance
ro, from elementary electrostatics, is given by
Q1Q2 (−e) (+e) e2
PE = = =−
4πεoro 4πεoro 4πεoro
where we substituted Q1 = −e (electron’s charge), and Q2 = +e (charge of the nucleus).
Thus the radius ro is
(1.6 × 10−19 C) 2
ro = − −12
4π(8.85 × 10 F m−1 ) (−27.2 eV × 1.6 × 10−19 J/eV)
= 5.29 × 10−11 m or 0.0529 nm
which is called the Bohr radius (also denoted ao).

Stable orbit has radius ro Figure 1.2 The planetary model of the hydrogen atom in
which the negatively charged electron orbits the positively
charged nucleus.

+e
v
ro

–e
8 CHAPTER 1 ∙ Elementary Materials Science Concepts

c. Since KE = 12 mev 2 , the average velocity is

13.6 eV × 1.6 × 10−19 J/eV

v = √1 = √
KE
1
= 2.19 × 106 m s−1
m2 e (9.1 × 10−31 kg)
2

d. The period of orbital rotation T is

2πro 2π(0.0529 × 10−9 m)

T= = = 1.52 × 10−16 seconds
v 2.19 × 106 m s−1
The orbital frequency f = 1∕T = 6.59 × 1015 s−1 (Hz).

ATOMIC MASS AND MOLE

1.2  
We had defined the atomic number Z as the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom. The atomic mass number A is simply the total number of protons and neu-
trons in the nucleus. It may be thought that we can use the atomic mass number A
of an atom to gauge its atomic mass, but this is done slightly differently to account
for the existence of different isotopes of an element; isotopes are atoms of a given
element that have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons in
the nucleus. The atomic mass unit (amu) u is a convenient atomic mass unit that
is equal to 121 of the mass of a neutral carbon atom that has a mass number A = 12
(6 protons and 6 neutrons). It has been found that u = 1.66054 × 10−27 kg.
The atomic mass or relative atomic mass or simply atomic weight Mat of an
element is the average atomic mass, in atomic mass units, of all the naturally occurring
isotopes of the element. Atomic masses are listed in the Periodic Table. Avogadro’s
number NA is the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12, which is
6.022 × 1023 to three decimal places. Since the atomic mass Mat is defined as 121 of
the mass of the carbon-12 atom, it is straightforward to show that NA number of atoms
of any substance have a mass equal to the atomic mass Mat in grams.
A mole of a substance is that amount of the substance that contains exactly
Avogadro’s number NA of atoms or molecules that make up the substance. One
mole of a substance has a mass as much as its atomic (molecular) mass in grams.
For example, 1 mole of copper contains 6.022 × 1023 number of copper atoms and
has a mass of 63.55 grams. Thus, an amount of an element that has 6.022 × 1023
atoms has a mass in grams equal to the atomic mass. This means we can express
the atomic mass as grams per unit mole (g mol−1). The atomic mass of Au is
196.97 amu or g mol−1. Thus, a 10 gram bar of gold has (10 g)∕(196.97 g mol−1)
or 0.0507 moles.
Frequently we have to convert the composition of a substance from atomic per-
centage to weight percentage, and vice versa. Compositions in materials engineering
generally use weight percentages, whereas chemical formulas are given in terms of
atomic composition. Suppose that a substance (an alloy or a compound) is composed
of two elements, A and B. Let the weight fractions of A and B be wA and wB,
respectively. Let nA and nB be the atomic or molar fractions of A and B; that is, nA
represents the fraction of type A atoms, nB represents the fraction of type B atoms
 1.3 Bonding and Types of Solids 9

in the whole substance, and nA + nB = 1. Suppose that the atomic masses of A and
B are MA and MB. Then nA and nB are given by
Weight to
wA∕MA
nA = and nB = 1 − nA [1.2] atomic
wA∕MA + wB∕MB percentage
where wA + wB = 1. Equation 1.2 can be readily rearranged to obtain wA and wB in
terms of nA and nB.

COMPOSITIONS IN ATOMIC AND WEIGHT PERCENTAGES Consider a Pb–Sn solder that EXAMPLE 1.2
is 38.1 wt.% Pb and 61.9 wt.% Sn (this is the eutectic composition with the lowest melting
point). What are the atomic fractions of Pb and Sn in this solder?
SOLUTION

For Pb, the weight fraction and atomic mass are, respectively, wA = 0.381 and MA =
207.2 g mol−1 and for Sn, wB = 0.619 and MB = 118.71 g mol−1. Thus, Equation 1.2 gives
wA∕MA (0.381)∕(207.2)
nA = =
wA∕MA + wB∕MB 0.381∕207.2 + 0.619∕118.71
= 0.261 or 26.1 at.%
wB∕MB (0.619)∕(118.71)
and nB = =
wA∕MA + wB∕MB 0.381∕207.2 + 0.619∕118.71
= 0.739 or 73.9 at.%
Thus the alloy is 26.1 at.% Pb and 73.9 at.% Sn, which can be written as Pb0.261 Sn0.739.

BONDING AND TYPES OF SOLIDS

1.3  
1.3.1 Molecules and General Bonding Principles
When two atoms are brought together, the valence electrons interact with each other
and with the neighbor’s positively charged nucleus. The result of this interaction is
often the formation of a bond between the two atoms, producing a molecule. The
formation of a bond means that the energy of the system of two atoms together must
be less than that of the two atoms separated, so that the molecule formation is ener-
getically favorable, that is, more stable. The general principle of molecule formation
is illustrated in Figure 1.3a, showing two atoms brought together from infinity. As
the two atoms approach each other, the atoms exert attractive and repulsive forces
on each other as a result of mutual electrostatic interactions. Initially, the attractive
force FA dominates over the repulsive force FR. The net force FN is the sum of the two,
FN = FA + FR Net force
and this is initially attractive, as indicated in Figure 1.3a. Note that we have defined
the attractive force as negative and repulsive force as positive in Figure 1.3a.5

5
In some materials science books and in the third edition of this book, the attractive force is shown as positive,
which is an arbitrary choice. A positive attractive force is more appealing to our intuition.
10 CHAPTER 1 ∙ Elementary Materials Science Concepts

ro r=∞
Molecule

Separated atoms

ER = Repulsive energy
Repulsion

Repulsion
Potential Energy, E(r)
FR = Repulsive force E = Net energy
ro
Force

0 r 0 r
ro
Ebond
Attraction

Attraction
FA = Attractive force
FN = Net force

EA = Attractive PE

(a) Force versus r (b) Potential energy versus r

Figure 1.3 (a) Force versus interatomic separation and (b) potential energy versus interatomic separation. Note that the
negative sign represents attraction.

The potential energy E(r) of the two atoms can be found from6
Net force and
dE
potential FN = −
energy dr
by integrating the net force FN. Figure 1.3a and b show the variation of the net force
FN(r) and the overall potential energy E(r) with the interatomic separation r as the
two atoms are brought together from infinity. The lowering of energy corresponds
to an attractive interaction between the two atoms.
The variations of FA and FR with distance are different. Force FA varies slowly,
whereas FR varies strongly with separation and is strongest when the two atoms are
very close. When the atoms are so close that the individual electron shells overlap,
there is a very strong electron-to-electron shell repulsion and FR dominates. An
equilibrium will be reached when the attractive force just balances the repulsive force
Net force in and the net force is zero, or
bonding
between FN = FA + FR = 0 [1.3]

atoms In this state of equilibrium, the atoms are separated by a certain distance ro, as
shown in Figure 1.3. This distance is called the equilibrium separation and is effectively

6
Remember that the change dE in the PE is the work done by the force, dE = −FN dr. In Figure 1.3b, when the
atoms are far separated, dE/dr is negative, which represents an attractive force.
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 HINTS ON CHILD-TRAINING

HINTS ON CHILD-TRAINING
BY

H. CLAY TRUMBULL
EDITOR OF THE SUNDAY-SCHOOL TIMES; AUTHOR OF TEACHING AND
TEACHERS, YALE LECTURES ON THE SUNDAY-SCHOOL, ETC.

PHILADELPHIA
JOHN D. WATTLES, Publisher
1891

Copyright, 1890
BY
H. CLAY TRUMBULL
 PREFACE.
Hints on Child-Training may be helpful, where a formal treatise on
the subject would prove bewildering. It is easier to see how one
phase or another of children’s needs is to be met, than it is to define
the relation of that phase of the case to all other phases, or to a
system that includes them all. Therefore it is that this series of Hints
is ventured by me for the benefit of young parents, although I would
not dare attempt a systematic treatise on the entire subject here
touched upon.
Thirty years ago, when I was yet a young father, a friend, who knew
that I had for years been interested in the study of methods of
education, said to me, “Trumbull, what is your theory of child-
training?” “Theory?” I responded. “I have no theory in that matter. I
had lots of theories before I had any children; but now I do, with
fear and trembling, in every case just that which seems to be the
better thing for the hour, whether it agrees with any of my old
theories or not.”
Whatever theory of child-training may show itself in these Hints, has
been arrived at by induction in the process of my experiences with
children since I had to deal with the matter practically, apart from
any preconceived view of the principles involved. Every suggestion in
these Hints is an outcome of experiment and observation in my life
as a father and a grandfather, while it has been carefully considered
in the light of the best lessons of practical educators on every side.
These Hints were begun for the purpose of giving help to a friend.
They were continued because of the evident popular interest in
them. They are sent out in this completed form in the hope that they
will prove of service to parents who are feeling the need of
something more practical in the realm of child-training than untested
theories.
H. Clay Trumbull.
Philadelphia, September 15, 1890.
 CONTENTS.
PAGE

I.
Child-Training: What Is It? 11

II.
The Duty of Training Children 17

III.
Scope and Limitations of Child-Training 23

IV.
Discerning a Child’s Special Need of Training 29

V.
Will-Training, Rather than Will-Breaking 37

VI.
The Place of “Must” in Training 53

VII.
Denying a Child Wisely 61

VIII.
Honoring a Child’s Individuality 71

IX.
Letting Alone as a Means of Child-Training 83

X.
Training a Child to Self-Control 93

XI.
Training a Child Not to Tease 101

XII.
Training a Child’s Appetite 109

XIII.
Training a Child as a Questioner 119

XIV.
Training a Child’s Faith 129

XV.
Training Children to Sabbath Observance 139

XVI.
Training a Child in Amusements 155

XVII.
Training a Child to Courtesy 165

XVIII.
Cultivating a Child’s Taste in Reading 175

XIX.
The Value of Table-Talk 187

XX.
Guiding a Child in Companionships 197

XXI.
Never Punish a Child in Anger 205

XXII.
Scolding is Never in Order 217

XXIII.
Dealing Tenderly with a Child’s Fears 223

XXIV.
The Sorrows of Children 239

XXV.
The Place of Sympathy in Child-Training 247
 XXVI.
Influence of the Home Atmosphere 257

XXVII.
The Power of a Mother’s Love 263

XXVIII.
Allowing Play to a Child’s Imagination 277

XXIX.
Giving Added Value to a Child’s Christmas 283

XXX.
Good-Night Words 291

INDEX 301
 I.

CHILD-TRAINING: WHAT IS IT?

The term “training,” like the term “teaching,” is used in various
senses; hence it is liable to be differently understood by different
persons, when applied to a single department of a parent’s duties in
the bringing up of his children. Indeed, the terms “training” and
“teaching” are often used interchangeably, as covering the entire
process of a child’s education. In this sense a child’s training is
understood to include his teaching; and, again, his teaching is
understood to include his training. But in its more restricted sense
the training of a child is the shaping, the developing, and the
controlling of his personal faculties and powers; while the teaching
of a child is the securing to him of knowledge from beyond himself.
It has been said that the essence of teaching is causing another to
know. It may similarly be said that the essence of training is causing
another to do. Teaching gives knowledge. Training gives skill.
Teaching fills the mind. Training shapes the habits. Teaching brings
to the child that which he did not have before. Training enables a
child to make use of that which is already his possession. We teach a
child the meaning of words. We train a child in speaking and
walking. We teach him the truths which we have learned for
ourselves. We train him in habits of study, that he may be able to
learn other truths for himself. Training and teaching must go on
together in the wise upbringing of any and every child. The one will
fail of its own best end if it be not accompanied by the other. He
who knows how to teach a child, is not competent for the oversight
of a child’s education unless he also knows how to train a child.
Training is a possibility long before teaching is. Before a child is old
enough to know what is said to it, it is capable of feeling, and of
conforming to, or of resisting, the pressure of efforts for its training.
A child can be trained to go to sleep in the arms of its mother or
nurse, or in a cradle, or on a bed; with rocking, or without it; in a
light room, or in a dark one; in a noisy room, or only in a quiet one;
to expect nourishment and to accept it only at fixed hours, or at its
own fancy,—while as yet it cannot understand any teaching
concerning the importance or the fitness of one of these things. A
very young child can be trained to cry for what it wants, or to keep
quiet, as a means of securing it. And, as a matter of fact, the
training of children is begun much earlier than their teaching. Many
a child is well started in its life-training by the time it is six weeks
old; even though its elementary teaching is not attempted until
months after that.
There is a lesson just at this point in the signification of the Hebrew
word translated “train” in our English Bible. It is a noteworthy fact,
that this word occurs only twice in the Old Testament, and it has no
equivalent in the New. Those who were brought up in the household
of Abraham, “the father of the faithful,” are said to have been
“trained” (Gen. 14: 14). A proverb of the ages gives emphasis to a
parent’s duty to “train up” his child with wise considerateness (Prov.
22: 6). And nowhere else in the inspired record does the original of
this word “train,” in any of its forms, appear.
The Hebrew word thus translated is a peculiar one. Its etymology
shows that its primary meaning is “to rub the gullet;” and its origin
seems to have been in the habit, still prevalent among primitive
peoples, of opening the throat of a new-born babe by the anointing
of it with blood, or with saliva, or with some sacred liquid, as a
means of giving the child a start in life by the help of another’s life.
The idea of the Hebrew word thus used seems to be that, as this
opening of the gullet of a child at its very birth is essential to the
habituating of the child to breathe and to swallow correctly, so the
right training of a child in all proper habits of life is to begin at the
child’s very birth. And the use of the word in the places where we
find it, would go to show that Abraham with all his faith, and
Solomon with all his wisdom, did not feel that it would be safe to put
off the start with a child’s training any later than this.
Child-training properly begins at a child’s birth, but it does not
properly end there. The first effort in the direction of child-training is
to train a child to breathe and to swallow; but that ought not to be
the last effort in the same direction. Child-training goes on as long
as a child is a child; and child-training covers every phase of a child’s
action and bearing in life. Child-training affects a child’s sleeping and
waking, his laughing and crying, his eating and drinking, his looks
and his movements, his self-control and his conduct toward others.
Child-training does not change a child’s nature, but it does change
his modes of giving expression to his nature. Child-training does not
give a child entirely new characteristics, but it brings him to the
repression and subdual of certain characteristics, and to the
expression and development of certain others, to such an extent
that the sum of his characteristics presents an aspect so different
from its original exhibit that it seems like another character. And so it
is that child-training is, in a sense, like the very making of a child
anew.
Child-training includes the directing and controlling and shaping of a
child’s feelings and thoughts and words and ways in every sphere of
his life-course, from his birth to the close of his childhood. And that
this is no unimportant part of a child’s upbringing, no intelligent
mind will venture to question.
 II.

THE DUTY OF TRAINING CHILDREN.

It is the mistake of many parents to suppose that their chief duty is
in loving and counseling their children, rather than in loving and
training them; that they are faithfully to show their children what
they ought to do, rather than to make them do it. The training
power of the parent is, as a rule, sadly undervalued.
Too many parents seem to take it for granted that because their
children are by nature very timid and retiring, or very bold and
forward; very extravagant in speech and manner, or quite disinclined
to express even a dutiful sense of gratitude and trust; reckless in
their generosity, or pitiably selfish; disposed to overstudy, or given
wholly to play; one-sided in this, or in that, or in the other, trait or
quality or characteristic,—therefore those children must remain so;
unless, indeed, they outgrow their faults, or are induced by wise
counsel and loving entreaty to overcome them.
“My boy is irrepressible,” says one father. “He is full of dash and
spirits. He makes havoc in the house while at home; and when he
goes out to a neighbor’s he either has things his own way, or he
doesn’t want to go there again. I really wish he had a quieter
nature; but, of course, I can’t change him. I have given him a great
many talks about this; and I hope he will outgrow the worst of it.
Still he is just what he is, and punishing him wouldn’t make him
anybody else.” A good mother, on the other hand, is exercised
because her little son is so bashful that he is always mortifying her
before strangers. He will put his finger in his mouth, and hang down
his head, and twist one foot over the other, and refuse to shake
hands, or to answer the visitor’s “How do you do, my boy?” or even
to say, “I thank you,” with distinctness, when anything is given to
him. And the same trouble is found with the tastes as with the
temperaments of children. One is always ready to hear stories read
or told, but will not sit quiet and look at pictures, or use a slate and
pencil. Another, a little older, will devour books of travel or
adventure, but has no patience with a simple story of home life, or a
book of instruction in matters of practical fact.
Now it is quite inevitable that children should have these
peculiarities; but it is not inevitable that they should continue to
exhibit them offensively. Children can be trained in almost any
direction. Their natural tendencies may be so curbed and guided as
no longer to show themselves in disagreeable prominence. It is a
parent’s privilege, and it is a parent’s duty, to make his children, by
God’s blessing, to be and to do what they should be and do, rather
than what they would like to be and do. If indeed this were not so, a
parent’s mission would be sadly limited in scope, and diminished in
importance and preciousness. The parent who does not recognize
the possibility of training his children as well as instructing them,
misses one of his highest privileges as a parent, and fails of his most
important work for his children.
The skilled physician in charge of a certain institution for the
treatment of feeble-minded and imperfectly developed children, has
said, that some children who are brought to him are lacking in just
one important trait or quality, while they possess a fair measure of
every other. Or it may be said, that they have an excess of the trait
or quality opposite to that which they lack.
One girl, for example, will be wholly without a sense of honesty; will
even be possessed with a love of stealing for stealing’s sake,
carrying it to such an extent that when seated at the table she will
snatch a ball of butter from a plate, and wrap it up in a fold of her
dress. If she should be unchecked in this propensity until she were a
grown woman, she might prove one of the fashionable ladies who
take books or dry goods from the stores where they are shopping,
under the influence of “kleptomania.”
Again, a boy has no sense of truth. He will tell lies without any
apparent temptation to do so, even against his own obvious
interests. All of us have seen persons of this sort in mature life.
Some of them are to-day in places of prominence in Christian work
and influence. Yet another child is without any sense of reverence,
or of modesty, or of natural affection. One lacks all control of his
temper, another of his nerves. And so on in great variety.
The physician of that institution is by no means in despair over any
of these cases. It is his mission to find out the child’s special lack,
and to meet it; to learn what traits are in excess, and to curb them;
to know the child’s needs, and to train him accordingly.
Every child is in a sense a partially developed, an imperfectly formed
child. There are no absolutely perfect children in this world. All of
them need restraining in some things and stimulating in others. And
every imperfect child can be helped toward a symmetrical character
by wise Christian training. Every home should be an institution for
the treatment of imperfectly developed children. Every father and
every mother should be a skilled physician in charge of such an
institution. There are glorious possibilities in this direction; and there
are weighty responsibilities also.
 III.

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF CHILD-TRAINING.

Child-training can compass much, but child-training cannot compass
everything, in determining the powers and the possibilities of a child
under training. Each child can be trained in the way he should go,
but not every child can be trained to go in the same way. Each child
can be trained to the highest and fullest exercise of his powers, but
no child can be trained to the exercise of powers which are not his.
Each child can be trained to his utmost possibilities, but not every
child can be trained to the utmost possibilities of every other child.
Child-training has the fullest scope of the capacity of the particular
child under treatment, and child-training is limited in every case by
the limitations of that child’s capacity.
A child born blind can be trained to such a use of his other senses
that he can do more in the world than many a poorly trained child
who has sight; but a blind child can never be trained to discern
differences in colors at a distance. A child who has by nature a dull
ear for music can be trained to more or less of musical skill; but a
child who is born without the sense of hearing can never be trained
to quickness in the discerning of sounds. A child can be trained to
facility in the use of every sense and faculty and limb and member
and muscle and nerve which he possesses; but no training will give
to a child a new sense, a new faculty, a new limb, a new member, a
new muscle, a new nerve. Child-training can make anything of a
child that can be made of that child, but child-training cannot
change a child’s nature and identity.
The limitations of child-training are more likely to be realized than its
extensive scope. Indeed, the supposed limitations of child-training
are very often unreal ones. Many a parent would say, for example,
that you cannot change a child’s form and features and expression
by training; yet, as a matter of fact, a child’s form and features and
expression can be, and often are, materially changed by training.
The chest is expanded, the waist is compressed, a curved spine is
straightened, or a deformity of limb is corrected, by persistent
training with the help of mechanical appliances. Among some
primitive peoples, the form of every child’s head is brought to a
conventional standard by a process of training; as, among other
primitive peoples, the feet or the ears or the eyes or the lips are thus
conventionally trained into—or out of—shape. And in all lands the
expression of the face steadily changes under the process of
persistent training.
As it is with the physical form, so it is with the mental and moral
characteristics of a child; the range is wide within the limitations of
possible results from the training process. A nervous temperament
cannot, it is true, be trained into a phlegmatic one, or a phlegmatic
temperament be trained into a nervous one; but a child who is quick
and impulsive can be trained into moderation and carefulness of
speech and of action, while a child who is sluggish and inactive can
be trained to rapidity of movement and to energy of endeavor. An
imbecile mind can never be trained into the possibilities of native
genius, nor can a moral nature of the lowest order be trained to the
same measure of high conscientiousness as a nature that is keenly
sensitive to every call of duty and to the rights and the feelings of
others; but training can give unsuspected power to the dormant
faculties of the dull-minded, and can marvelously develop the latent
moral sense of any child who is capable of discerning between right
and wrong in conduct.
The sure limitations of a child’s possibilities of training are obvious to
a parent. If one of the physical senses be lacking to the child, no
training will restore that sense, although wise training may enable
the child to overcome many of the difficulties that meet him as a
consequence of his native lack. And so, also, if the child have such
unmistakable defects of mind and of character as prove him to be
inferior to the ordinary grade of average humanity, the wisest
training cannot be expected to lift him above the ordinary level of
average humanity. But if a child be in the possession of the normal
physical senses, and the normal mental faculties, and the normal
moral capacities, of his race, he may, by God’s blessing, be trained to
the best and fullest use of his powers in these several spheres, in
spite of all the hindrances and drawbacks that are found in the
perversion or the imperfect development of those powers at his start
in life.
In other words, if the child be grievously deformed or defective at
birth, or by some early casualty, there is an inevitable limitation
accordingly to the possibilities of his training. But if a child be in
possession of an ordinary measure of faculties and capacity, his
training will decide the manner and method and extent of the use of
his God-given powers.
It is, therefore, largely a child’s training that settles the question
whether a child is graceful or awkward in his personal movements,
gentle or rough in his ways with his fellows, considerate or
thoughtless in his bearing toward others; whether he is captious or
tractable within the bounds of due restraint; whether he is
methodical and precise, or unsystematic and irregular, in the
discharge of his daily duties; whether he is faithful in his studies, or
is neglectful of them; whether he is industrious or indolent in his
habits; whether the tastes which he indulges in his diet and dress
and reading and amusements and companionships are refined, or
are low. In all these things his course indicates what his training has
been; or it suggests the training that he needed, but has missed.
 IV.

DISCERNING A CHILD’S SPECIAL NEED OF

TRAINING.
Some one has said, that a mother is quite right when she declares
enthusiastically of her little one, “There never was such a child as
this, in the world, before!” for in fact there never before was such a
child. Each child starts in life as if he were the only child in the
world, and the first one; and he is less like other people then than
ever he will be again. He is conformed to no regulation pattern at
the outset. He has, to begin with, no stock of ideas which have been
passed on and approved by others. He neither knows nor cares what
other people think. He is a law unto himself in all matters of thought
and taste and feeling. He is, so far, himself; and, just so far, he is
different from everybody else.
Left to himself, if that were a possibility, every child would continue
to be himself; but no child is left to himself: he is under training and
in training continually. And so it is that the training of a child is quite
as likely to change him from his best self to a poorer self, as it is to
develop and perfect that which is best in his distinctive self. Child-
training is, in many a case, the bringing of a child into purely
conventional ways, instead of bringing out into freest play, in the
child, those qualities and characteristics which mark him as a unique
and individual personality among the sons of men. How to learn
wherein a child’s real self needs stimulating, and wherein it needs
curbing or changing, is a question of questions in child-training.
No quality of a good physician is of more importance than skill in
making a diagnosis of a patient’s case. If a master-mind in this realm
were to pass with positiveness on the disease of every patient, the
treatment of that disease would be comparatively easy. A young
graduate from the medical school, or a trained nurse, would then, in
most instances, be capable of knowing and doing that which was
needful in the premises. But until the diagnosis is accurate, the best
efforts of the ablest physician are liable to be misdirected, and so to
be ineffective for good. As it is with the physician and his patient, so
it is with the parent and his child. An accurate diagnosis is an
essential prerequisite to wise and efficient treatment. The diagnosis
secured, the matter of treatment is a comparatively easy matter. A
parent’s diagnosis of his child’s case is in the discerning of his child’s
faults, as preliminary to a process of training for their cure. Until that
is secured, there is no hope of intelligent and well-directed
treatment.
Yet it is not the easiest thing in the world to say what are a child’s
peculiar faults, and what is, therefore, that child’s peculiar need of
training. Many a parent is disturbed by a child’s best traits, while he
underestimates or overlooks that child’s chief failings. And many
another parent who knows that his child is full of faults cannot say
just what they are, or classify them according to their relative
prominence and their power for evil. “That boy’s questions will worry
my life out. He is always asking questions; and such questions. I
can’t stand it!” This is said by many a father or mother whose child
is full of promise, largely because he is full of questions.
But if a boy has a bright mind and positive preferences, and is ready
to study or to work untiringly in the line of his own tastes, and in no
other line, it does not always occur to his parents that just here—in
this reluctance to apply himself in the line of wise expediency rather
than of personal fancy—there is a failing which, if not trained out of
that boy, will stand as a barrier to his truest manhood, and will make
him a second-rate man when he might be a first-rate one; a one-
sided man instead of a well-proportioned man. Such a boy is quite
likely to be looked upon as one who must be permitted to have his
own way, since that way is evidently not a bad way, and he shows
unusual power in its direction. So that boy may be left untrained in
this particular until he is hopelessly past training, merely because his
chief fault is unrecognized by those who could correct it, and who
would gladly do so if they saw it in its due proportions.
Careful study and a wise discrimination are needed on a parent’s
part to ascertain a child’s peculiar faults. Each parent would do well
to ask himself, or herself, the questions, “What are the special faults
of my child? Where is he weakest? In what direction is his greatest
strength liable to lead him astray, and when is it most likely to fail
him? Which of his faults is most prominent? Which of them is of
chief importance for immediate correction?” Such questions as these
should be considered at a time favorable to deliberate judgment,
when there is least temptation to be influenced by personal feeling,
either of preference or dissatisfaction. They should be pondered long
and well.
The unfriendly criticisms of neighbors, and the kind suggestions of
friends, are not to be despised by a parent in making up an estimate
of his child’s failings and faults. Rarely is a parent so discerning, so
impartial, and so wise, that he can know his children through and
through, and be able to weigh the several traits, and perceive the
every imperfection and exaggeration, of their characters, with
unerring accuracy and absolute fairness. A judge is supposed to be
disqualified for an impartial hearing of a case in which he has a
direct personal interest. A physician will not commonly make a
diagnosis of his own disorders, lest his fears or hopes should bias his
judgment. And a parent is as liable as a judge or a physician to be
swayed unduly by interest or affection, in an estimate of a case
which is before him for a decision.
Even though, therefore, every parent must decide for himself
concerning the interests and the treatment of his own children, he
ought to be glad to take into consideration what others think and
say of those children, while he is making up his mind as to his duty
in the premises. And what is written or said on this subject by
competent educators is worthy of attention from every parent who
would train his children understandingly. There is little danger that
any parent will give too much study to the question of his child’s
specific needs, or have too many helps to a wise conclusion on that
point. There is a great deal of danger that the whole subject will be
neglected or undervalued by a parent.
If a parent were explicitly to ask the question of a fair and plain-
speaking friend, familiar with that parent’s children, and competent
to judge them, What do you think is the chief fault—or the most
objectionable characteristic—of my son—or daughter? the frank
answer to that question would in very many cases be an utter
surprise to the parent, the fault or characteristic named not having
been suspected by the parent. A child may be so much like the
parent just here, that the parent’s blindness to his or her own chief
fault or lack may forbid the seeing of the child’s similar deformity. Or,
again, that child may be so totally unlike the parent, that the parent
will be unable to appreciate, or even to apprehend, that peculiarity
of the child which is apparent to every outside intelligent observer. A
child’s reticence from deep feeling has often been counted by an
over-demonstrative parent as a sign of want of sensitiveness; and so
vice versa.
Parents need help from others, from personal friends whom they can
trust to speak with impartiality and kindness, or from the teachers of
their children, in the gaining of a proper estimate and understanding
of their children’s characteristics and needs. The parent who does
not realize this truth, and act on it, will never do as well as might be
done for his or her child. God has given the responsibility of the
training of that child to the parent; but he has also laid on that
parent the duty of learning, by the aid of all proper means, what are
that child’s requirements, and how to meet them.
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