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21CHS251T Basic Chemical Engineering

Unit III

Introduction

Chemical
Engineering

Unit Operation

Heat Mass
Transfer Transfer Transfer Kinetics

What is momentum transfer (fluid mechanics)?

The branch of engineering science that studies the behaviour of fluid.
Momentum transfer in a fluid involves the study of the motion of fluids and the forces that
produce these motions.
What is a fluid?
Fluid is a material that does not permanently resist distortion. Liquids and gases are called fluids.
Fluid mechanics has two branches, namely:

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Fluid Mechanics

Dynamics

Fluid statics treats fluid in the equilibrium state (no motion)

Fluid dynamics treats fluids when portion of the fluid are in motion (concerned with therelation between
the fluid velocity and the forces acting on it)
Properties of fluids:

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Viscosity
It is a measure of internal frictional resistance to flow. Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to
flow. It describes the internal friction of a moving fluid. A fluid with large viscosity resists motion
because its molecular makeup gives it a lot ofinternal friction. A fluid with low viscosity flows easily
because its molecular makeup results in very little friction when it is in motion. The viscosity of a
Newtonian fluid depends mainly on temperature and to a lesser degree on pressure. If we tip over a glass
of water on the dinner table, the water will spill out before we can stop it. If we tip over a jar of honey, we
can set it upright again before much honey flows out. This is possible because the honey has much more
resistance to flow.
For a given fluid, viscosity does not remain constant, but it varies with the temperature of the fluid. For
liquids, viscosity varies linearly with its temperature. For gases, the viscosity increases with temperature.

The gas viscosity increases with temperature according to the equation:

𝜇 𝑇 𝑛
= ( )
𝜇0 273

Where:
µ = viscosity at absolute temperature T, K
µo = viscosity at 0ᵒC (273 K)
n = complicated parameter and ranges in magnitude from 0.65 to 1
Viscosity of gases is almost independent of pressure in the region of pressure where the gas law applies
(i.e. low and moderate pressure).
At higher pressures (near the critical point), gas viscosity increases with pressure.
At high pressures (more than 40 atm.) the viscosity of liquid increases with pressure.

Units of viscosity are:

SI system: N s / m2
MKS system :kg/m s

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CGS
system: g/cm s (Poise)

1 poise = 100 centipoises (cp)

Kinematic viscosity:

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The ratio of the absolute viscosity (µ) to the fluid density is called kinematic viscosity and is
designated by .
𝜇
= 𝜌

For liquids, kinematic viscosities vary with temperature over a narrower range than absolute viscosities.
For gases, kinematic viscosity increases more rapidly with temperature than does the absolute viscosity.
Units of kinematic viscosity = m2/s or cm2/s (stoke)
Surface tension: Liquids behave as if they were surrounded by a skin that tends to shrink, or contract,
like a sheet of stretched rubber, a phenomenon known as surface tension. Surface tension is caused by
the attractive forces in liquids. The surface tension of the liquid is defined as the force acting per unit
length. The unit of surface tension is N/m. Two important effects attributable to surface tension are the
capillary rise of liquids in small tubes and porous wicks and the tendency of jets of liquid to break up
into drops(as from a garden hose).

Classification fluids:
(i) Ideal fluids and Real fluids
Ideal fluid: A fluid that is incompressible, having no viscosity, constant density, no internal friction. Ideal
fluid is only an imaginary fluid.
Real fluids: All the fluids in actual practice are real fluids. Real fluids possess viscosity.
(ii) Incompressible and compressible fluids
Incompressible fluids: If the density changes only slightly with moderate changes in temperature and
pressure, the fluid is said to be incompressible fluids.
Compressible fluids: If the density changes are significant, the fluid is said to be a compressible fluid.
Liquids are generally considered to be incompressible and gases are compressible fluids.

(iii) Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids

The fluids that obey Newton’s law of viscosity are Newtonian fluids and those that do not obey are Non-
Newtonian fluids.

Newton’s law of viscosity

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The shear stress of the fluid is directly proportional to the rate of shear (velocity gradient) and the
proportionality constant is absolute viscosity.
 = - μ du/dy
Where  = Shear stress, μ = absolute viscosity, and du/dy = velocity gradient.

Newtonian and non Newtonian fluids

According to Newton’s law of viscosity fluids are classified based on their rheological behaviour into two
categories:
(a) Newtonianfluids
(b) Non Newtonian fluids : Non-Newtonian fluids are either time dependent or time independent.
Time independent
(i) Bingham plastic
(ii) Pseudo plastic
(iii) Dilatent fluid
Time dependent
(i) Thixotropic fluid
(ii) Rheopectic fluid

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Time independent Non-Newtonina fluids:

The relation between shear stress and shear rate for Non-Newtonian fluids is shown in the below fig.

1. Curve (A)
All fluids that follow Newton’s law (i.e. there is a linear relationship between shear stress and velocity
gradient) are called Newtonian fluids. It includes gases and most liquids.
Curve (B)
These materials behave as a rigid body at low stresses and don’t flow at all until a minimum shear stress
is attained and is denoted by (𝑟𝑜) after which it flows linearly as a viscous fluid at high stress greater than
𝑟𝑜. Materials acting this way are called Bingham plastic fluids.
Examples: Paints, Tooth paste, Drilling mud.
Curve (C)
The curve passes through the origin is concave downward at low shears and becomes linear at high shears.
These types of fluids are called pseudoplastic fluids. In this type of fluid the viscosity decreases with
increasing the shear stress that is why it is called shear rate thinning. Examples: Paper pulp, Blood, Syrup,
Molasses.
Curve (D)
The curve passes through the origin is concave upward at low shears and becomes linear at high shears.
These types of fluids are called dilatant fluids. In this type of fluids the viscosity increases with increasing

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the shear stress that is why it is call shear rate thickening. Examples: sand in water (sand filled emulsion),
Suspension of corn starch.

Time dependent Non-Newtonian fluids

The relation between time and shear stress for the time dependent non-Newtonian fluids is shown in fig.

Rheopectic fluid:
It exhibits an increase in viscosity when subjected to shear stress over time. When agitated, it becomes
more viscous, When shear stress is removed, it returns to its original low viscosity. It has shear
thickening behaviour. Ex. Silly putty – silicon based polymer, lubricants
Thixotropic fluid:
It exhibits a time dependent decrease in viscosity under constant shear stress. When it is stirred or
agitated, it becomes less viscous and flows more readily. When the stress is removed, it returns to
original high viscosity state. It has shear rate thinning behaviour. Ex. Gelatin, Xanthan gum

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Hydrostatic equilibrium
In a stationary mass of single static fluid the pressure is constant in any cross section parallel to the earth’
surface but varies from height to height. Consider a vertical column of fluid as hsown in fig. Assume the
cross sectional area of the column as S. At a height z above the base of the column, let the pressure be p
abd the density be ρ. The resultant of all the forces on the small volume of fluid of height dz and cross
sectional area S must be zero.

The forces acting on the element are three namely;

1. Force from Pressure pS acting upward

2. Force from Pressure (p+dp)S in downward

3. Force from gravity acting downward which is g ρsdz

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Assume the force acting upward has a positive sign and that acting downward has a negative signBy
substitution in Newton’s law equation, then:
𝑝𝑆 − (𝑝 + 𝑑𝑃)𝑆- g ρsdz = 0
which can be reduced to:
dp + gρdz = 0

The above equation is used for liquids (incompressible) and gases (compressible) to calculate thefluid
pressure at any height:
For liquids (the density is constant)

𝑝 𝑏 𝑧𝑏
∫𝑝𝑎 𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔 ∫𝑧𝑎 𝑑𝑧 = 0

pb – pa = ρ g (za – zb)

This equation is applied only for liquids where the density is constant
For gases ( the density is a function of pressure and temperature)
For ideal gas:
ρ = PM/RT
Then equation (1) becomes:

𝑝𝑏 𝑧𝑏
𝑑𝑝 𝑔𝑀
∫ + ∫ 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑝 𝑅𝑇
𝑝𝑎 𝑧𝑎

Integrating the above equation, we get

ln (pb/pa) = - (gM/RT) (zb-za)

(pb/pa) = exp [- (gM/RT) (zb-za)]
The above equation is the barometric equation.

If the temperature T is a function of the height Z, then before integration you have to get therelation
between T and Z then substitute into equation (2).

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Pressure measurement
U-Tube manometer:

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What is a U-tube manometer?

Pressure measuring device consist mainly of a partially fluid-filled U-shaped tube.Suitable for gauge
pressure, vacuum, and differential pressure measurement. The manometer usually contains mercury (for
high pressure) or water (for low pressure).For industrial purposes we use different types of manometer.
The working principle is the same in all the manometer, but their method of xonstruction is different. The
important types of manometer are:
(1) Simple U tube manometer
(2) Differential U tube manometer
(3) Inverted U tube manometer
(4) Well type U tube manometer
(5) Inclined U tube manometer
The manometer requires a liquid to indicate the pressure or the pressure differential. Normally liquids
such as mercury, nitrobenzene, etc are used as the manometric liquid.
The desirable properties of manometric liquid:
(i) It must have density higher than the art of process fluid.
(ii) It should not stick to the sides of the manometer limbs. It must be free flowing.
(iii) It should not mix, dissolve or react with the process fluid.
(iv) It should not be toxic or corrosive.
(v) It must be low volatile.
(vi) It must be cheap and easily available.

Simple U tube Manometer

Figure shows the simple U tube manometer. One limb of the manometer is connected with a pipe in
which fluid B having density ρB is flowing and the other limb is open to atmosphere. Assume that the
shaded portion of the tube is filled with liquid A having density ρA . Pressure pa is exerted in one limb of
the manometer.

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(i) Gauge pressure

Datum line x -x
Pressure above the datum line in left side
p1 = pa + ρB g h1
Pressure above the datum line in right side
P2 = ρA g h2
Based on hydrostatic equilibrium
p1 = p2
pa + ρB g h1 = ρA g h2
pa = ρA g h2 - ρB g h1
(ii) Vacuum pressure
Datum line x -x
Pressure above the datum line in left side
p2 = pa + ρB g h1 + ρB g h2
Pressure above the datum line in right side
p3 = 0
Based on hydrostatic equilibrium
p2 = p3
pa = - (ρB g h1 + ρB g h2)
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Differential U- tube manometer:

Figure shows the simplest form of manometer. Both the limbs of the manometer are connected with a pipe
in which fluid B having density ρB is flowing. Assume that the shaded portion of the tube is filled with
liquid A having density ρA . Pressure pa is exerted in one limb of the manometer and pressure pb in the other
limb. As a result of the difference in pressure, the meniscus in one limb of the manometer is higher than in
the other, and the vertical distance between the two meniscus (Rm) is used to measure the difference in
pressure.

Above datum line on left limb:

p2 = pa + ρB g (Zm + Rm) (1)
Above dadtum line on right side:
p3 = pb + ρB g Zm + ρA g Rm (2)

Based on the principle of hydrostatic equilibrium,

p2 = p3
Therefore,
pa – pb = g Rm (ρA - ρB) (3)

Inverted U tube manometer

Above datum line on left limb:
P1= pa - ρB g (Zm + Rm) (1)
Above dadtum line on right side:
p3 = pb - ρB g Zm - ρA g Rm (2)

Based on the principle of hydrostatic

equilibrium,
P1 = p3
Therefore,
pa – pb = g Rm (ρB – ρA) (3)

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Inclined manometer
It is used for measuring small pressures or small pressure differences. In this type of manometers one
leg is inclined. The inclination angle decreases as thepressures decreases (directly proportional). 
denotes the angle of inclination of the limb with the horizontal plane. Rm is the level difference of the
liquid in the two limbs and R1 is the magnified manometer reading.
Rm / R1 = sin 
Rm = R1 sin 
Therefore,
Eqn (3) can written as

pa – pb = (ρA - ρB) g R1 sin 

Inclined U-tube manometer

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Fluid Flow
(1) Steady and unsteady state flow
Steady state : In this type of flow the conditions are independent to time (invariant with time)
Unsteady state : The conditions are dependent to time (change with time) (2) Uniform and non uniform
flow
(2)Uniform and Non-uniform flow
Uniform flow: In this type of flow the conditions (velocity) are independent to position (space
coordinate)
Non uniform flow: In this type of flow the conditions (velocity) are dependent to position (space
coordinate)
(3) One, two and three dimensional flow
One dimensional flow: in which the fluid velocity changes only in one direction x, y or z.
Ex: as in the case of flowing of ideal fluid through a pipe of variable cross sectional area. Thevelocity
change occurs in y direction only

Two dimensional flow:

If the fluid velocity changes in two directions (if the flow in the preceding pipe is real, the velocity
will change in both directions x and y)
Three dimensional flow:
The fluid velocity changes in three directions. The presence of any solid body in the fluid path makes
the flow three-dimensional

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(4) Laminar and turbulent flow

Laminar flow:
This type of flow exists at low velocities and assumes that the fluid adjacent layers slide past one
another like playing cards. This type of flow is characterized by:
There is no lateral mixing.
There is no cross current or eddies.
The velocity gradient is high.
Turbulent flow:
As and when the velocity of flow increases, the laminar flow will change into turbulent flow. It exists at
high velocities and is characterized by:
There is mixing and produce rotational currents resulting in the development of eddies.
The velocity gradient is lower than that of turbulent flowThere are two important parameters in laminar
flow:
Velocity gradient or rate of shear stress (du/dy)Assume the following:
Steady state-one dimensional flow of an incompressible fluid over a solid plane surface

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By plotting the velocity versus distance (in y-direction) you will find that: The velocity is zero at the wall.
As the distance increases the velocity increase (with a decreasing rate) until the maximum velocity is
reached after which the fluid will be not affected by the wall. The fluid velocity at which the fluid is not
affected by the wall is called the “free stream velocity”

Profile of velocity

Reynolds experiment

The purpose of the Reynolds experiment is to:

a. Illustrate laminar, transition and turbulent flow.
b. Determine the conditions under which these types of flow occur.The apparatus is shown in the

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figure below.
Reynolds found that at low flow rates the behaviour of the color band showed clearly that the water was
flowing in parallel straight lines and that the flow was laminar.
When the flow rate was increased a velocity called the critical velocity was reached at which the thread of
colors became wavy and gradually disappeared and that the flow was turbulent.

Reynolds number and transition from laminar to turbulent flow.

Reynold studied the conditions under which one type of flow exists and found that it depends on:
1. Diameter of the tube; D
2. Average velocity of fluid; u
3. Physical properties of the fluid; µ and ρ

Furthermore, he found that the above factors can be combined in a dimensionless group (form) called
Reynolds number (Re)
Re = D u ρ / μ

It represents the ratio between inertial force and viscous force.

For internal flow (flow in pipes): The flow is laminar when Re <2100 and turbulent when Re>4000
while in the range 2100 < Re < 4000 the flow is transitional.
For external flow (flow past flat plate): for Re < 2 х 105 the flow is laminar, for Re > 3 х 106 the flow is
turbulent and for 2 х 105 < Re < 3 х 106 the flow is transitional.

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Boundary layer
When a fluid flows past a solid surface, the velocity of the fluid in contact with the wall is zero (friction
because of viscosity) but rises with increasing distance from the surface and eventually approaches the
velocity of the bulk of the stream.
If the velocity profile is plotted at different distances from the leading edges (c, c’ and c’’), a sketch similar
to the one shown below will be obtained.

It is found that almost all the change in velocity occurs in a very thin layer of fluid adjacent to the solid
surface: this is known as a boundary layer. As a result, it is possible to treat the flow as two regions: the
boundary layer where viscosity has a significant effect, and the region outside the boundary layer, known
as the free stream, where viscosity has no direct influence on the flow.

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Basic equations of fluid flow

Continuity Equation:
The continuity equation is simply a mathematical expression of the principle of conservation of mass that
for steady-state flow, the mass flow rate into the system must equal the mass flow rateout.
The equation based on the principle of conservation of mass is called the continuity equation. Thus for a
fluid flowing through the pipe at all cross- sections, the quantity of fluid per second is constant. Consider
two cross- sections of a pipe.

This equation is applicable to the compressible as well as incompressible fluids and is called “Continuity
equation”. If the fluid is incompressible, then ρ1 = ρ2 and the continuity equation reduces to

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Applications of continuity equation:

One of the simplest applications of the continuity equation is determining the change in fluidvelocity
due to an expansion or contraction in the diameter of a pipe.

Bernoulli’s equation
Bernoulli’s equation is a special case of the general energy equation (mechanical energy balance) that is
probably the most widely-used tool for solving fluid flow problems. It provides an easy way to relate the
elevation head, velocity head, and pressure head of a fluid.
A. Bernoulli equation is derived based on momentum balance on a control volume. The momentum
balance equation states that the sum of all forces acting on the fluid in the direction of flow (one, two or
three dimensional flow) equals the rate of momentum change.
B. Bernoulli’s equation also results from the application of the general energy equation and thefirst
law of thermodynamics to a steady flow system.
The general form of the energy balance equation is:
∑(all energies in) = ∑ (all energies out) + ∑ (energy stored in system)
∑Ein = ∑Eout + ∑E storage
Bernoulli’s theorem states that in a steady ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy content
is constant at any point. The total energy content per unit mass of the fluid at any point along the flow
path is sum of the potential energy, kinetic energy, and mechanical work done by forces on the fluid or
the work recovered from the fluid leaving the tube.
Assumptions:
(i) Liquid is ideal and incompressible
(ii) Fluid flow is steady
(iii) Friction losses are neglected
Bernoulli’s equation results from the application of the general energy equation and the first lawof
thermodynamics to a steady flow system in which no work is done on or by the fluid, no heatis
transferred to or from the fluid, and no change occurs in the internal energy (i.e., notemperature
change) of the fluid. Under these conditions, the general energy equation issimplified to:
(Potential energy + Kinetic energy + Pressure energy)inlet = (Potential energy + Kinetic energy +
Pressure energy)outlet
(PE + KE + PV)1 = (PE + KE + PV)2

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Consider a small volume element of a stream tube within a large stream of fluid flowing in a pipe as
shown in figure flowing at a steady state. Let dL be the differential length, dz be the differential
elevation from the ground level and θ be the angle of inclination from the axis of the pipe.
A – cross sectional area
ρ – density of fluid
g – acceleration due to gravity
𝑚̇ – mass flow rate

Inlet conditions of stream tube:

p - pressure
u – velocity
z – Elevation from the ground level

Outlet conditions of stream tube:

P + dp – pressure
u + du – velocity
z + dz – Elevation from the ground level

The forces acting on the stream tube are:

Pressure from upward acting force = pA
Pressure from downward acting force = (p+dp)A
Gravitation force acting downward = mg = ρAdL cos θ g = ρA dz g
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Resultant forces = upward acting forces – downward acting forces

pA - (p+dp)A - ρAdz g
-dp A - ρAdz g
Rate of momentum in = 𝑚̇ 𝑢
Rate of momentum out = 𝑚̇ (𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢)
Rate of change of momentum = 𝑚̇ (𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢) − 𝑚̇ u = 𝑚̇ 𝑑𝑢

𝑚̇ can be written as ρ u A
Rate of change of momentum = - ρ A u du
Based on the principle of momentum balance:
Resultant forces = rate of change of momentum

-dp A - ρAdz g = ρ A u du

dividing the eqn by ρA and rearranging, we get

dp / ρ + g dz + u du = 0

By integrating the equation

𝑝𝑏 𝑧𝑏 𝑢𝑏
1
∫ 𝑑𝑝 + 𝑔 ∫ 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 0
𝜌
𝑝𝑎 𝑧𝑎 𝑢𝑎

(𝑝𝑏 − 𝑝𝑎 ) 𝑢𝑏2 − 𝑢𝑎2

(𝑧 )
+ 𝑔 𝑏 − 𝑧𝑎 + =0
𝜌 2
𝑝𝑎 𝑢𝑎2 𝑝𝑏 𝑢𝑏2
+ 𝑔 𝑧𝑎 + = + 𝑔𝑧𝑏 +
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
The above equation is the Bernoulli’s equation
The above equation is the simplified form of Bernoulli equation and is used for frictionless flow, no work
is applied on the fluid and no heat added or lost from the fluid.
Each term in Bernoulli equation represents a form of energy possessed by a moving fluid (potential, kinetic,
and pressure related energies). In essence, the equation physically represents abalance of the KE, PE, PV

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energies so that if one form of energy increases, one or more of the others will decrease to compensate and
vice versa.
Each of the energies possessed by a fluid can be expressed in terms of head.
➢ The elevation head represents the potential energy of a fluid due to its elevation above a reference
level.
➢ The velocity head represents the kinetic energy of the fluid. It is the height in feet that a flowing fluid
would rise in a column if all of its kinetic energy were converted to potential energy.
➢ The pressure head represents the flow energy of a column of fluid whose weight is equivalent to the
pressure of the fluid.
The sum of the elevation head, velocity head, and pressure head of a fluid is called the totalhead.
Thus, Bernoulli’s equation states that the total head of the fluid is constant.

Bernoulli’s equation for real fluids:

Modification for friction (correction of Bernoulli equation for fluid friction):
Bernoulli’s equation was derived based on the assumption ideal and the flow is potential and therefore
frictionless. However, the real fluids are viscous and offer resistant to flow. Therefore, there are always
some losses in fluid flow and hence these losses have to be taken into account to apply the Bernoulli’s
equation for real fluids.
The Bernoulli’s equation can be modified to take into account the friction losses in the fluid flowto be
in the form.
𝑝𝑎 𝑢𝑎2 𝑝𝑏 𝑢𝑏2
+ 𝑔 𝑧𝑎 + = + 𝑔𝑧𝑏 + + ℎ𝑓
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
Where:
h f is the friction loss in the piping system between the inlet and outlet considered including both skin
andform friction.

Application of Bernoulli’s equation:

It is applied in all the problems of incompressible fluid flow where energy considerations are involved
such as : pump work, orifice meter, venturimeter, pitot tube, etc.

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