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Operational Psychology
A New Field to Support National Security
and Public Safety
Mark A. Staal and Sally C. Harvey, Editors
Foreword by Colonel (Ret.) Thomas J. Williams, PhD
Copyright © 2019 by ABC-CLIO, LLC
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for
the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in
writing from the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Control Number: 2019941122
ISBN: 978-1-4 408-6620-3 (print)
978-1-4 408-6621-0 (ebook)
23 22 21 20 19 1 2 3 4 5
This book is also available as an eBook.
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To the souls who serve our nation and public safety, in the open
when they can, and in the shadows when they must.
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Contents
Foreword ix
Colonel (Ret) Thomas J. Williams, PhD
Acknowledgments xiii
Part One Foundations of Operational Psychology 1
Chapter 1 History, Goals, and Applications of Operational
Psychology3
Mark A. Staal and Sally C. Harvey
Chapter 2 Cross-Cultural Issues in Operational Psychology 17
Mark A. Staal and Brendon Bluestein
Chapter 3 The Ethics of Operational Psychology 35
Mark A. Staal and Sally C. Harvey
Part Two Human Performance Optimization and
Consultation 53
Chapter 4 Personnel Suitability Screening 55
Barbara Thompson, Chad E. Morrow, and
Mark A. Staal
Chapter 5 Operational Psychology Consultation within
Special Operations Units 79
Sally C. Harvey
Chapter 6 Consultation to Leadership and Organizational
Development101
Mark A. Staal
viiiContents
Chapter 7 Operational Psychology Consultation to Aviation 123
Shawnna Chee and Mark A. Staal
Part Three Consultation to Operations 155
Chapter 8 Operational Psychology in Insider Threat 157
Christopher Myers and Amanda Trent
Chapter 9 Investigative Psychology: Applying Psychological
Science to Military Criminal Investigations 185
Heather L. Morris and David G. Ray
Chapter 10 Foundations of Indirect Assessment 211
Daniel J. Neller
Chapter 11 Behavioral Science Consultation to Military
Interrogations241
Mark A. Staal
Part Four Operations Research 261
Chapter 12 The High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group
(HIG): Inception, Evolution, and Outcomes 263
Susan E. Brandon, Joeanna C. Arthur, David G. Ray,
Christian A. Meissner, Steven M. Kleinman,
Melissa B. Russano, and Simon Wells
Chapter 13 A Scientific Perspective on the 2006 U.S. Army
Field Manual 2–22.3 287
Susan E. Brandon, Steven M. Kleinman, and
Joeanna C. Arthur
Chapter 14 Psychology of Terrorism and Self-R adicalization 327
Mark A. Staal and Christopher Myers
Part Five Future Directions in Operational Psychological
Applications 349
Chapter 15 Operational Psychology: A Bridge from the
Past to Future Applications351
Mark A. Staal and Sally C. Harvey
About the Editors and Contributors 369
Index 373
Foreword
This book offers a tour de force on the profound contributions of opera-
tional psychology, bringing forth with clarity, context, and vision how
psychologists help fulfill their obligations in supporting national security
and public safety. At its core, this timely and authoritative book rests
upon the foundation of actions taken just prior to World War I that helped
establish the very profession of psychology as a science—psychology’s
contributions to support national security in times of war. This support
provided early psychologists the opportunity to demonstrate the impor-
tance of the science of psychology. It also demonstrated that psychologists
of that age were fully aware of, and committed to, the full expression
of their professional and scientific responsibilities to society.
We are indeed fortunate that the two editors of this book, Mark Staal
and Sally Harvey, both of whom have been unparalleled in their leader-
ship to advance (and frequently defend) operational psychology within
our profession, are leading this effort. They have tirelessly represented
both our profession and our society. Their leadership, actions, and service
are repeatedly made evident through their scholarship, dedication, and
sacrifice in helping the profession of psychology realize the full expres-
sion of its responsibilities to society. Within this important contribution,
Sally and Mark have assembled a number of operational psychology
science-practitioners who help them bring forth and give expression to
the full scope, breadth, and depth of what operational psychologists con-
tribute to society through their professional practice and service. It is
within this broad scope for the application of psychology to real-life
threats, and in recognition of the opportunity to provide direct, overall
benefits to the welfare of our society, that operational psychologists find
themselves drawn to such service. Few practice areas are more challeng-
ing; and perhaps none are as rewarding! At times, and of necessity, that
xForeword
reward is in knowing what was avoided (e.g., lives were saved, disasters
averted, threats to society reduced). At other times, the efforts are focused
on those who defend us against threats (e.g., via assessment and selection,
suitability screening, cross-cultural training, consultations). Perhaps an
even greater reward is when psychologists who provide support to
national security quickly realize how leveraging the science of psychology
helps them bring forth and leverage knowledge in protecting our values
and our citizens. It might be said that operational psychologists confront
the reality of how the world really is: avoiding the illusions of the shadows
on the cave wall by using their professional expertise to see the real causes
of the shadows that pose risks to all of society. This reality and this dedi-
cation to learn from all specialty areas within the profession to help
reduce risks to our society is what ensures operational psychology does
not lose its foundational grasp on the reality (and need) to protect and
advance the interests of both our profession and our society.
To fully appreciate and achieve these expressed aspirations and inter-
ests of our profession, we must ensure we are able to dislodge the opposi-
tion to operational psychology from within our profession. The most
vocal and frequent of this opposition is too often thinly veiled in the
shadows of distorted, disingenuous, and discredited diatribes that serve
to distort the knowledge and facts, undermining trust both within and
for our profession.
It is that threat, to both our profession and the society it serves, that
reinforces the extreme importance of this compilation of chapters that
present us with the wisdom and experience of operational psychologists.
It has been said that knowledge begins with trust, helping us move past
traditional biases and prejudices. The chapters within this extraordinarily
valuable edited volume bring forth that knowledge. Importantly, the vol-
ume also builds upon the foundation of the responsibility that helps
instill trust in our profession’s ability to advance both the science and
service that Robert Yerkes set in motion that helped establish psychology
as a science.
Mark and Sally now build upon Yerkes’s legacy, linking service and the
science of psychology by setting forth “Part I: Foundations of Operational
Psychology.” They address the history and evolution of operational psy-
chology, and its applications within the context of both cross-cultural
competence and the ethics debate that forced self-reflection upon the pro-
fession and its members.
Operational psychologists also readily embrace and engage in the chal-
lenge of confronting and mitigating threats to national security. These areas
coalesce around Human Performance Optimization and Consultation
Foreword xi
(Part II), ranging from security screening, consultations to special mission
units, leaders, and the support of aviation operations. The support provided
by these psychologists is also “operationalized,” addressed within the con-
text of consultative support provided to leaders and operators. Within Part
III, the editors bring forth chapters on Consultation to Operations, with
these chapters addressing some of the most often misunderstood, but criti-
cal, aspects of operational psychology. In consultations to operations, oper-
ational psychologists help to ensure the validity and reliability of
assessments in criminal investigations; they complete assessments of
insider threats; and they help plan, participate in, and provide oversight to
the training and operational activities associated with one of the most con-
troversial areas within operational psychology: interrogation support. The
final section addresses indirect assessments, which, in application, are very
much aligned to consultation reviews.
A science of psychology, and the applications brought forth within the
practice of operational psychology, also demands that other psychologists
share in the insights, legitimacy, and knowledge gained through this
practice and learn from each other. In short, we must ensure that the
criticisms of operational psychology are addressed head-on, as this book
does in its Operations Research (Part IV). It can be said that science is
most advanced by revealing a diversity of views, with the critical argu-
ments against the proper role of psychology more fruitful (and defensible)
only when we do not allow neither faith nor certainty to race ahead of the
facts and scientific evidence. Unfortunately, opposition against opera-
tional psychology has been long on crafting its use as moral questions,
reflecting more the states of mind and personal relations of those who
oppose it—too often revealing the lowest kind of distorted thinking.
Reactive opponents advance arguments cloaked in a shadowy, opinion-
ated ethical framework intent on silencing the contributions of opera-
tional psychology. Fortunately, there is a timely and important
contribution that helps frame an appropriate response offered to us by
one of the greatest minds and contributors to psychology:
No one of us ought to issue vetoes to the other, nor should we bandy words
of abuse. We ought, on the contrary, delicately and profoundly to respect
one another’s mental freedom: Then only shall we have that spirit of inner
tolerance without which all our outer tolerance is soulless.
William James (1896)
Mark Staal and Sally Harvey, and their contributors to this very important
and timely volume, have done us all a great service—they are advancing
xiiForeword
the relevance and reach of our profession into the soul of our profession—
leveraging science to serve society. Their contributions help advance our pro-
fession not only by the manner in which they share their wisdom and their
insights, but also in how they, through their own dedication and service,
help establish the scientific-practitioner basis of operational psychology.
They also contribute by demonstrating their clear alignment with Yerkes’s
vision for the profession of psychology and the importance for each mem-
ber of our profession to answer the important question each of these con-
tributors lives by each day: What am I doing today as a member of our
profession to ensure I am meeting the full expression of my professional and
scientific responsibilities to society? This book clearly demonstrates that each
of these authors has clear insight into the legitimate purpose by which
they meet their professional and scientific responsibilities to our society.
By reading their book—you will as well!
Colonel Thomas J. Williams, PhD
U.S. Army (Ret.)
Senior Operational Psychologist
Reference
James, W. (1896). The will to believe. The New World, 5, 327–347.
Acknowledgments
The birth of a book requires the contributions of many individuals besides
the editors, and we would be remiss if we did not acknowledge the work
and sacrifice of the chapters’ authors. It is their commitment and dedica-
tion, not only to the field of operational psychology, but also to the “com-
mon good,” that serves as the foundation for this text. We are also deeply
indebted to our families for their patience, encouragement, support, and
understanding, not only during the development of this book, but also
throughout our careers.
Disclaimer
The opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed or implied
within are those of the contributors and do not necessarily reflect the
views of the U.S. Department of Defense or any other agency or organiza-
tion of the federal government.
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PART I
Foundations of
Operational Psychology
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CHAPTER ONE
History, Goals, and Applications
of Operational Psychology
Mark A. Staal and Sally C. Harvey
In the present perilous situation, it is obviously desirable that the
psychologists of the country act unitedly in the interests of defense. Our
knowledge and our methods are of importance to the military service of
our country, and it is our duty to cooperate to the fullest extent and
immediately toward the increased efficiency of our Army and Navy.
—Robert Yerkes (1917)
Operational psychology traces its origins back to the profession’s involve-
ment in World Wars I and II. During that period in U.S. history, psy-
chologists were relied on to help assess, select, and place military service
members based on their suitability for various positions in national secu-
rity and defense (Brandon, 2011; Mangelsdorff, 2006). It was the former
American Psychological Association (APA) president (Robert Yerkes) who,
over 100 years ago, after witnessing the application of various hard sci-
ences to the military in World War I, commissioned several committees
to examine the potential role of psychology in the nation’s defense.
Between 1917 and 1919, two million military inductees were psycho-
logically screened for the Department of Defense (DoD) using intelligence
and aptitude tests. Psychologists found a rich trove of applied research in
the intersection of operational problems, national defense, and national
security requirements. Applied psychological research flourished in the
areas of war fighter personality, performance, and selection (Henmon,
1919; Paton, MacLake, & Hamilton, 1918; Rippon & Manuel, 1918) while
4 Operational Psychology
a parallel process was occurring in the application of psychological prin-
ciples in the post–Industrial Revolution workforce of America. The psy-
chological study of industrial and vocational activities expanded rapidly.
Intelligence testing, occupational interest, and job analysis methodology
were developed and employed throughout the workforce.
Within the defense and security sectors, the operational application of
behavioral science was levied against three broad problem sets: (1) perfor-
mance factors associated with individual differences used in the study of
personnel selection, pilot performance, human factors, and ergonomics;
(2) attempts to measure intelligence and aptitude, applied to personnel
suitability screening using traditional test batteries such as the Army
Alpha and Beta; and (3) a focus on personality differences, employing
tests measuring psychological fitness and adaptation (Staal & Stephen-
son, 2013).
The Office of Strategic Services
While much can be said about World War I as a catalyst for applied
psychology, most operational psychologists identify World War II and
the establishment of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) as the birth-
place of the specialty (Banks, 2006; OSS, 1948). It is well beyond the
scope of this chapter to discuss the activities of the OSS in full detail;
however, a brief overview of its history and employment of psychologists
is instructive. Most contemporary operational practitioners identify the
work of OSS psychologists as the modern progenitor for operational
psychology.
Following World War I, the German Wehrmacht (defense forces) estab-
lished a unique approach to assessing and selecting their officers. Known
later as an assessment center, the Germans conducted a three-day period of
assessment during which time officer candidates were provided psycho-
logical testing and naturalistic exercises to assess their aptitude and abili-
ties. A multidisciplinary board of evaluators (e.g., psychologists,
physicians, and military officers) rated each candidate. Members of the
British military observed Wehrmacht psychologists using observational
techniques and situational tests in German officer selection. The British
combined these German observational methods with the psychometric
approach of American psychology and called it an “assessment” to
describe their process. Following their observations, the British War
Office Selection Boards (WOSBs) began to use assessment centers for mil-
itary officer selection. During these assessments, British officer candidates
were subjected to psychiatric interviews, psychological testing, and a
