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Number Theory

SYNOPSIS

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Abhishek Sharma
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Number Theory

SYNOPSIS

Uploaded by

Abhishek Sharma
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Synopsis: Number Theory

Introduction

Number Theory is a branch of pure mathematics concerned primarily with the properties of
integers. It is one of the oldest areas of mathematics and has been studied since ancient times.
From the early works of Euclid and Diophantus to modern cryptography, number theory has
played a critical role in both theoretical and applied mathematics.

Number Theory can be broadly classified into elementary number theory, algebraic number
theory, analytic number theory, and computational number theory. This synopsis will focus
mainly on elementary number theory, touching upon the essential concepts and developments.

1. Divisibility and the Integers

1.1 Integers and Division Algorithm

The integers are the set of whole numbers and their negatives:

Z={...,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,...}

Division Algorithm:
For any integers aa and bb with b≠0 there exist unique integers q and r such that:

a=bq+r,0≤r<∣b∣

1.2 Divisibility and GCD

• If a divides b, we write a∣b.

• Greatest Common Divisor (GCD): The largest integer that divides both aa and bb.

Euclidean Algorithm: A method to compute the GCD of two integers efficiently.

2. Prime Numbers and Factorization

2.1 Definition of a Prime Number

A prime number is an integer greater than 1 that has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself.

2.2 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

Every integer greater than 1 is either a prime or can be uniquely factorized as a product of
primes (up to the order of the factors).

2.3 Sieve of Eratosthenes

An ancient algorithm to find all primes up to a given number by systematically eliminating the
multiples of each prime starting from 2.

3. Congruences
3.1 Basic Congruence Notation

For integers a,ba, b, and n>0n > 0, we say:

a≡b (mod n) ⟺ n∣(a−b)

3.2 Properties of Congruences

• If a≡b(mod n) and c≡d(mod n) then:

o a+c≡b+d(mod n)

o ac≡bd(mod n)

3.3 Linear Congruences

The equation:

has a solution if and only if gcd(a, n) \b.

4. Modular Arithmetic

4.1 Modular Inverses

An integer aa has a modular inverse modulo n if there exists an integer x such that:

This exists if gcd(a, n) = 1.

4.2 Fermat’s Little Theorem

If pp is a prime number and a≢ 0(mod p) then:

4.3 Euler’s Theorem

If gcd(a,n)=1 = 1, then:

Where ϕ(n)is Euler's totient function, counting integers less than n that are coprime to n.

5. Diophantine Equations

5.1 Linear Diophantine Equations

The equation:

ax+by=cax + by = c

has integer solutions if gcd (a,b)∣c

5.2 Pell’s Equation


A classic quadratic Diophantine equation:

has infinitely many integer solutions for non-square DD.

6. Arithmetic Functions

6.1 Divisor Function d(n)d(n)

Counts the number of positive divisors of n.

6.2 Sum of Divisors Function σ(n)

Gives the sum of all positive divisors of n.

6.3 Euler's Totient Function ϕ(n)

Gives the count of integers less than n that are coprime to n.

6.4 Mobius Function μ(n)

Defined as:

7. Quadratic Residues and Non-residues

7.1 Definition

An integer aa is a quadratic residue modulo pp (where pp is an odd prime) if there exists an


integer xx such that:

7.2 Legendre Symbol

7.3 Law of Quadratic Reciprocity

For distinct odd primes pp and qq:


8. Continued Fractions

8.1 Definition

A continued fraction is an expression of the form:

Used to approximate irrational numbers and solve Diophantine equations like Pell’s equation.

9. Applications of Number Theory

9.1 Cryptography

• RSA Algorithm: Based on the difficulty of factoring large integers.

• Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange: Based on discrete logarithms.

9.2 Error Detection

• Checksums and parity checks use modular arithmetic to detect transmission errors.

9.3 Hash Functions and Random Number Generators

• Number-theoretic functions form the basis of secure hashing and PRNGs.

9.4 Computer Science

• Algorithms like Euclidean algorithm, modular exponentiation, primality testing (e.g.,


Miller–Rabin), and integer factorization are core components in theoretical CS.

10. Modern Advances in Number Theory

• Elliptic Curves: Used in cryptography and for solving Diophantine equations.

• Modular Forms: Important in the proof of Fermat's Last Theorem by Andrew Wiles.

• Algebraic Number Theory: Studies roots of polynomials in the field of algebraic


numbers.

Conclusion

Number Theory continues to be a central area of research in modern mathematics. It has not
only revealed beautiful and deep mathematical structures but has also led to practical
applications in the digital world. From solving ancient mathematical riddles to securing the
internet, number theory exemplifies the profound unity of pure and applied mathematics.
Its study enhances problem-solving skills, logical reasoning, and appreciation for mathematical
aesthetics. As our digital landscape grows more complex, the relevance of number theory
becomes even more significant, ensuring it remains a vital and evolving field.

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