Physics notes on specific heat capacity

Heat (thermal energy)

- It is a form of energy.

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Heat capacity (C)

- Is defined as the quantity of thermal energy (heat) required to produce unit

temperature rise in a substance.
- Its symbol is ‘C’.
- Its S.I unit is the joule per kelvin (J/K or JK-1)
- It is calculated as follows:

Thermal energy = heat capacity × temperature change in substance

In symbol: E = CΔθ
Where: E = thermal energy in joule (J)
C = heat capacity of substance in joule per kelvin (J/K or JK-1)
and Δθ = temperature change in kelvin or degrees Celsius (K or ℃)

In addition, since E = CΔθ,

E
therefore, C=
Δθ

Specific heat capacity (c)

- It is defined as the quantity of thermal energy required to produce unit

temperature rise (1K) in unit mass (1kg) in a substance.
- Its symbol is ‘c’.
- Its unit is joule per kilogram per kelvin (Jkg-1K-1 or J/kgK)
- It is calculated as follows:
 Thermal energy = mass × specific heat capacity × temperature change

In symbol: E = mcΔθ
Where : E = thermal energy in joule (J)
m = mass of substance in kilogram (kg)
c = specific heat capacity in Jkg-1K-1 or J/kgK

and Δθ = temperature change in the substance in K or ℃

In addition, since E = mcΔθ,

E
therefore,c= mΔθ

The following table showing the values of the specific heat capacity for some
substances:

Name of Specific heat capacity in

substance Jkg-1K-1

Water 4200

Sea water 3900

Meths 2500

Ice 2100

Aluminum 900

Concrete 500

Granite 800

Glass 700

Steel 500

Copper 400

Mercury 150
 - The specific heat capacity gives an indication as to by how much
the temperature of a certain mass of a substance would change
when a quantity of thermal energy is supplied to it.

Relationship between heat capacity and specific heat capacity:

- When the quantity of heat required to cause unit temperature
change (1K or 1℃) in a substance is equal to the quantity of heat
required to change the temperature of a 1kg substance, by 1K or
1℃, the following would result:

E = CΔθ ……………………………. 1

E = mcΔθ …………………………….2

Equating the equations gives:

CΔθ = mcΔθ

CΔθ mcΔθ
=
Δθ Δθ

Notice that Δθ would cancel out to give:

C = mc
That is, heat capacity = mass × specific heat capacity

Differences between heat capacity and specific heat capacity:

 Heat capacity Specific heat capacity
1. Its symbol is ‘C’ Its symbol is ‘c’
2. Its S.I unit is JK-1 Its S.I unit is Jkg-1K-1
3. It is independent of the mass of the It is affected by the mass of the
substance. That is, it is not affected substance. In which, it is inversely
by the mass of the substance. proportional to the mass of the
E substance.
*REMEMBER : C= Δθ
E
*REMEMBER: c= mΔθ

Examples:

1. What amount of thermal energy is required to raise the temperature of

certain substance from 40 ℃ to 95 ℃ if its heat capacity is 1800 J/K?
2. Evaluate the heat capacity of a substance given that 145 kJ of heat is
supplied to its structure which causes its temperature to rise from 30 ℃
to 80 ℃.
3. A given substance of heat capacity 320 J/K is initially at a temperature
of 25.4 ℃. Calculate the temperature this substance would be at when
19.2 kJ of heat is applied to it.
4. How much thermal energy is required to raise the temperature of 3 kg of
aluminium foil of specific heat capacity 900 Jkg-1K-1, from 15 ℃ to
25 ℃?
5. 30 000 J of thermal energy is needed to raise the temperature by 10 ℃ of
5 kg of a substance. What is the specific heat capacity of this substance?
6. Aluminium has a specific heat capacity of 900 Jkg-1K-1. A 10 kg block
of aluminium went from 100℃ to 40 ℃ . How much energy is given
off from this block?

Calculations involving the specific heat capacity using the method of

mixtures:

NB:
 - In thermally insulated container there is no heat exchange with the
surrounding (i.e. no heat leaves or enter the container). Hence, the heat lost
by one substance at the higher temperature, inside of the thermally insulated
container is equal to the heat gained by the other substance at the lower
temperature.

That is, heat lost = heat gained

- Heat would stop flowing from the substance at the higher temperature to the
substance at the lower temperature, when both substances arrive at the same
temperature known as the equilibrium temperature.

Examples:

1. A piece of aluminium of mass 0.75 kg is heated to 90 ℃, and then placed in

0.4 kg of water at 20 ℃. If the resulting temperature of the mixture is 40 ℃,
what is the specific heat capacity of aluminium if that of water is
4200 Jkg-1K-1.
2. A 0.5 kg block of aluminium at a temperature of 100 ℃ is placed in 1 kg of
water at 20 ℃. Assuming that no thermal energy is lost to the surroundings,
what would be the final temperature of aluminium and water when they
come to the same temperature?
The specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg-1K-1

Calculations involving the specific heat capacity using an electrical method:

Electrical energy = voltage × current × time

In symbol: E = VIt
 Where: E = electrical energy in joule (J)

V = voltage in volts (V)

and t = time in seconds (s)

NB:

In the transformation of electrical energy into thermal energy as in the case of the
heating element in a water heater, an electric iron or kettle, etc, we have:

E = VIt …………………………………….… 1

E = mcΔθ ……………………………………..2

Hence, when electrical energy = thermal energy, we get the following:

mcΔθ = VIt
VIt
and c=
mΔθ

Also, electrical power, P = VI

Where: P = power in watt (W)

V = voltage in volts (V)

And I = current in ampere (A)

VIt
Hence, c= mΔθ gives:

Pt
c=
mΔθ

Where: P = power of the heating element of the heater in watt (W).

Notice, E = Pt
Examples:

1. A p.d of 240 V is applied across a heating element for 2 minutes when a

current of 10 A is flowing. This heating element is located inside a thermally
 insulated container containing 4.2 kg of a liquid initially at 35 ℃. Find the
specific heat capacity of this liquid if its temperature rose to 90 ℃ after
absorbing all of the heat from the heating element.
2. A 30 kW heater is switched on for 20 minutes which raises the temperature
of water from 15 ℃ to 65 ℃. What mass of water is present?

Importance of high specific heat capacity of water:

- The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 Jkg-1K-1 and that of soil is about
800 Jkg-1K-1. As a result, the temperature of the seas rises and falls more
slowly than that of the land. A certain mass of water needs five times more
heat for its temperature to rise by 1 ℃ than does the same mass of soil.
Water also has to give out more heat for its temperature to fall by 1 ℃.
Since islands are surrounded by water, they therefore experience much small
changes of temperature from summer to winter than large land masses such
as Central Asia.
- Winds are caused by unequal heating of different parts of the earth.
- The high specific heat capacity of water (as well as its cheapness and
availability ) accounts for its use to cool car engines.

Latent heat (L):

- Is defined as the quantity of heat required to cause a change of phase in a

substance without changing the temperature of the substance.
- This heat is used to overcome the intermolecular forces. It does not affect
the average kinetic energy of the molecules. But rather it increases the
molecular potential energy. Hence the reason why the temperature of the
substance remains constant during the process.
- In the case of water, the latent heat is used to change ice at 0 ℃ to into
liquid water at 0 ℃, and vice versa. Also, it is used in changing water at
100 ℃ into steam (gaseous form of water) at 100 ℃, and vice versa.

Types of phase change:

 - Solidification/freezing – a change from a liquid to a solid
- Fusion/melting – a change from a solid to a liquid
- Vaporization – a change from a liquid to a gas
- Condensation – a change from a gas to a liquid
- Sublimation – a change from a solid directly into a gas without passing
through the liquid phase.
Examples of substances that sublime are:
1. Carbon dioxide
2. Iodine

- Deposition - a phase transition/change in which gas transforms into solid

without passing through the liquid phase.
The reverse of deposition is sublimation and hence sometimes deposition is
called desublimation.
One example of deposition is the process by which, in sub-freezing air,
water vapor changes directly to ice without first becoming a liquid. This
process often occurs on windows during the winter months.

Specific latent heat of fusion (lf)

- Is defined as the heat required to change 1 kg of a substance from a solid

into a liquid, and vice versa, without a change in the temperature.
- Its symbol is ‘lf’’
- Its S.I unit is the joule per kilogram (Jkg-1)

NB:

 The theoretical value for the specific latent heat of fusion of water is
336 000 Jkg-1
- It is calculated as follows:
 E = mlf

Where: E = thermal energy required to cause a change in phase at constant

temperature in joule (J)
m = mass of substance that experience a change in phase in
kilogram (kg)
lf = specific latent heat of fusion of substance in
joule per kilogram (Jkg-1)

Specific latent heat of vaporization (lv):

- Is defined as the quantity of thermal energy required to change unit

mass (1 kg) of a substance from a liquid to a gas and, vice versa, without a
change in temperature of the substance.
- Its symbol is ‘ lv’
- Its S.I unit is the joule per kilogram (Jkg-1)

NB:

 The theoretical value of the specific latent heat of vaporization of water is

about 2 260 000 Jkg-1.

- It is calculated as follows:

E = mlf

Where: E = thermal energy required to cause a change in phase at

constant temperature in joule (J)
m = mass of substance that experience a change in phase in
kilogram (kg)
lv = specific latent heat of vaporization of substance in
joule per kilogram (Jkg-1)

NB:
  lf’ = 336 000 Jkg-1
 lv = 2 260 000 Jkg-1

Observe that the specific latent heat of vaporization of water is much higher that
that of its specific latent heat of fusion. This is so, since more work has to be
done to push the molecules of water in liquid form into the gaseous form,
because of the large separation of gas molecules. However, the molecules are
relatively close together in a liquid. Therefore, not much work has to be done to
change ice into liquid. This explains why burn from steam is more severe that
burn from boiling water. Simply because a certain mass of steam possesses
more thermal energy than the same mass of boiling water.

Examples:

1. Calculate the quantity of heat required to increase the temperature of 3 kg of

ice at 0 °C into water at 60 °C.
‘The specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg-1’
‘The specific latent heat of fusion of water = 336 000 Jkg-1’

2. 4.6 kg of water at 50 °C was placed into a freezer where it was converted

into ice at – 5 °C in 1 ¼ hours. Calculate the rate of heat extraction form
the water by the freezer.
‘The specific heat capacity of water = 4 200 Jkg-1K-1’
‘The specific latent heat of fusion of water = 336 000 Jkg-1’
‘The specific heat capacity of ice = 2 100 Jkg-1K-1’

3. How long will it take a 50 W heater to melt 0.1 kg of ice at 0 °C into water
at 0°C?
‘The specific latent heat of fusion of water = 336 000 Jkg-1’

4. What quantity of heat is removed from 0.8 kg of steam at 100 °C to form ice
at 0 °C?
‘The specific heat capacity of water = 4 200 Jkg-1K-1’
‘The specific latent heat of fusion of water = 336 000 Jkg-1’
‘The specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2 260 000 Jkg-1’
 5. A 1 kW immersion heater takes 7 ½ minutes to boil away 0.2 kg of water at
100 °C. Evaluate the specific latent heat of fusion of water.

Latent heat and melting point:

Cooling curves:

- A cooling curve is a graph of temperature against time for a substance or an

object which is losing heat to its surroundings. Such a graph can be used for
the following purposes:
a. To compare the heat capacities of different objects (an object with a
larger heat capacity cools more slowly).
b. To compare the insulation properties of different materials or thickness of
materials (the better the insulation around a hot object the slower the
cooling).
c. To find the melting/freezing point of a substance.

Finding the melting/freezing point of a substance:

Method/Procedure:

a. Completely melt a portion of the substance using a test tube.

b. Remove the test tube from the flame and record the temperature every
minute. Leave the thermometer inside of the test tube. However, avoid the
bulb of the thermometer touching the test tube.
c. After the substance has cooled below its melting point, draw a graph of
temperature against time.

Results:
 - From A to B on the graph the substance is all in its liquid state. Loss of heat
to the surrounding air results in a fall of temperature.
- At B freezing begins. From B to C on the graph both solid and liquid states
exist. The melting point temperature is also present here. Loss of heat results
in more liquid freezing, but no fall in temperature until all of the substance
has frozen/solidified. Latent heat is being lost during this stage ( i.e. between
B and C)
- At C all of the latent heat has been given out. From C to D on the graph the
substance is all in its solid state. Loss of heat results in a further fall of
temperature towards room temperature (i.e. temperature of outside).

Note that temperature falls more gradually as it gets nearer to the surrounding air
temperature. This is because the rate of loss of heat from an object depends upon
how much hotter it is that its surroundings. In that, the closer the temperature of the
substance to that of the surrounding, the slower would be the rate of heat loss. The
rate of heat loss of the substance would be zero when its temperature reaches the
temperature of its surroundings.

Boiling and Evaporation:

Both boiling and evaporation involve a change of phase/state (in which a liquid
change into a vapour)

Boiling:

- Is the process by which a liquid is freely converted into a gas or vapour.

Boiling point:

- The boiling point is that temperature at which the saturated vapour pressure
of a liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
- The vapour associated with the liquid is said to be saturated when the
particles of the liquid leave and re-enter the liquid at the same rate.

Evaporation:

- Is defined as the process by which individual particles escape the surface of

a liquid.
- The escaping particles take with them a lot of energy, so evaporation leads
to cooling. This explains why someone feels chilly after water has
evaporated from their body as in the case of perspiration.

The rate of evaporation depends on:

1. The nature of the liquid:

-Volatile liquids have low boiling points and evaporate readily at room
temperature, especially when air is blown through them.
-An example of a volatile liquid is dichloromethane.

2. Temperature:
-The higher the temperature, the greater is the rate of evaporation.

3. The amount of expose surface:

-The larger the exposed surface, the greater is the rate of evaporation.
This is why evaporation is greater on the surface of the sea or lake than
the surface of a bucket of water.

4. The presence of wind/a draught:

 The stronger the wind, the greater is the rate of evaporation. This is
because the wind increases the kinetic energy of the liquid molecules
which in turn increases their temperature. This explains why clothing dry
faster on a hot windy day.

NB:

- Liquids with high vapour pressures boil at lower temperatures and evaporate
faster than liquids with low vapour pressures.

Differences between boiling and evaporation:

1. Boiling takes place at a particular temperature (i.e. at the boiling point).

However, evaporation takes place at any temperature.
2. Boiling occurs throughout the liquid. However, evaporation occurs on the
surface of a liquid.

Refrigerator:

- In a refrigerator heat is taken in at one place and given out at another by the
refrigerating substance as it is pumped round a circuit. This is shown below.
 - The cooling pipe round the freezer at the top of the refrigerator contains a
volatile liquid (in this case the freon). This evaporates and takes latent heat
from its surroundings so causing cooling. The electrically driven pump
removes the vapour ( so reducing the pressure, lowering the boiling point
and encouraging evaporation or even boiling) and forces it into the heat
exchanger( pipes with cooling fins outside the rear of the refrigerator). Here
the vapour is compressed and liquefied, giving out latent heat of
vaporization to the surrounding air. The liquid returns to the coils round the
freezer and the cycle is repeated.
An adjustable thermostat switches the pump on and off, controlling the rate
of evaporation and subsequently that of the temperature in the refrigerator.

Air conditioning:

Cooling by evaporation is also used in an air – condition unit. The principle is

shown as follows:
DIAGRAM OF AIR – CONDITIONING UNIT

Warm air is pulled in through a dust filter by a fan, and cooled by supplying latent
heat to the liquid by evaporating in the coiled pipe.

Heat transfer:

Transfer of thermal energy:

There are three (3) ways in which thermal energy can be transferred, namely:

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

Conduction:

- Is defined as the flow of thermal energy through matter from places of

higher to places of lower temperature without the movement of the matter.
- Conduction occurs via two(2) media, namely:
1. Lattice vibration
2. Conduction electrons

Lattice vibration:

- As the atoms at the hot end of the bar vibrate, they push and pull on the
atoms next to them. These in turn make the next atoms speed up and so on.
- Most non-metals conduct heat by this method only.
- A small quantity of thermal energy is passed along the bar by lattice
vibration, that is, lattice vibration is a much slower way of transferring
thermal energy.
Conduction electrons:

There is a sea of valence electrons (i.e. electrons in the outer most shell) on the
surface of metals. When one end of the metal bar is heated, these free electrons
start to move quickly. As they move through the metal, they collide with atoms and
make them vibrate more vigorously. In this way, thermal energy is rapidly
transferred to every part of the metal.

NB:

- The reason why non-metals do not conduct heat via conduction electrons is
because they do not have free electrons as metals do, since all of their
electrons are engaged in covalent bonding.

Good and bad conductors of thermal energy:

Good conductors:

- Substances with high values of thermal conductivities are described as good

thermal conductors. They allow the rapid rate of thermal transmission
throughout their structures. They generally have low values of heat
capacities.
- All metals are good conductors, example: copper, aluminium, iron.
- Some examples of good conductors which are not metals are silicon and
graphite.

Bad conductors:

- Substances with low values of thermal conductivities are described as bad

conductors or thermal insulators. They allow thermal energy to be slowly
passed through their structure. They generally have higher values of heat
capacities than good conductors.
- Examples of bad conductors are:
Glass, water, rubber, wood, materials containing trapped air, such as:
fibre glass, wool and expanding polystyrene ,etc.
NB:

- Air is one of the best insulators of thermal energy. This is why hallow
blocks are used to build the walls of houses that would keep cool in hot
weather and warm in cold weather.

Convection:

- Is defined as the flow of heat through a fluid from places of higher to places
of lower temperatures by the movement of the fluid itself.
- Convection is one of the main ways of transferring heat in a fluid.
- Convection occurs as a result of a change in the density of a liquid.

Illustration:

DIAGRAM OF CONVECTION!!!

Convection in air:

Natural convection currents:

Coastal Breeze
Day :

During the day the temperature of the land increases more quickly than that of the
sea because the specific heat capacity of the land is much smaller than that of the
sea. The hot air above the land rises and is replaced by cooler air from above the
sea. Hence, a sea breeze results.

Night:

At nights the opposite happens. The land loses heat more rapidly than the sea.
Warmer air now rises above the sea and is replaced by the cooler air from the land.
Hence, a land breeze results.

Radiation:

- Is defined as the flow of heat from one place to another by means of waves.
- Radiation can be transmitted in a vacuum, that is, it does not need a medium
for transmission, unlike conduction and convection which do.

Evidence supporting the fact that radiation does not need a medium for
transmission:

1. In some electric lamps, the radiation emitted as light by the filament travels
across a vacuum in the glass to get out.
2. Light reaches us from the Sun. The path taken is mostly through a vacuum.

Good and bad absorbers of radiation:

- Some surfaces are better absorbers of thermal radiation than others

- Dull dark surfaces are better absorbers of radiation that white shinny
surfaces.
 - The inside of a black car warms up more rapidly than a white one on a sunny
day. White clothing are often worn in hot countries to reduce the amount of
radiation absorb.

Good and bad emitters of radiation:

- Some surfaces are better emitters of thermal radiation than others.

- Good emitters of thermal radiation are also good absorbers of radiation.
While poor emitters are poor absorbers, and are therefore good reflectors of
radiation.
- Dull black surfaces are the best emitters of radiation. Silvery surfaces are the
poorest.

Factors affecting the amount of radiation emitted per second:

1. The area of the surface.

2. The temperature of the surface.
- By increasing either of these factors will increase the amount of radiation
emitted by a surface, object, etc.

The greenhouse effect:

- Glass is transparent to the light and short wavelength infrared radiation

emitted by very hot objects. On the other hand, glass won’t transmit the long
wavelength infrared given out by cooler objects. The radiation is either
reflected or absorbed. These properties of glass are used in a greenhouse to
‘trap’ heat on a sunny day.
- Light, and short wavelength infrared radiation from the Sun passes easily
through the glass roof of a greenhouse, and warms the air and other
materials inside. These warmed materials also give off thermal radiation.
The wavelengths are larger however, and much of the radiation is reflected
back into the greenhouse when it strikes the glass. This is shown as follows: