CHAPTER 3

HUMAN REPRODUCTION

 Human beings reproduce sexually and are viviparous.

 In humans, the reproductive phase starts after puberty.
 It involves:
o Gametogenesis - sperms in males and ovum in females.
o Insemination - transfer of sperms into the female genital tract.
o Fertilisation - fusion of male and female gametes leading to formation of
zygote.
o Implantation - formation and development of blastocyst and its attachment
to the uterine wall.
o Gestation – Period of embryonic development
o Parturition – Process of delivery of the baby.

The Male Reproductive System

 It is located in the pelvic region.
 It consists of:
o A pair of testes
o Accessory glands and ducts
o External genitalia

Testes
 Situated within the scrotum, which protects the testes and also helps in
maintaining the temperature of the testes (2–2.5o C lower than the
normal internal body temperature) necessary for spermatogenesis.
 Each testis is 4 to 5 cm in length, and 2 to 3 cm in width, and has about
250 compartments called testicular lobules.
 Testicular lobules have seminiferous tubules which are the sites of sperm
formation.
 Seminiferous tubules are lined by two types of cells:
o Male germ cells − They undergo meiosis to form sperms.
o Sertoli cells − They provide nourishment to the germ cells.

 Region outside the seminiferous tubules is called the interstitial space,

which contains Leydig cells (interstitial cells). The Leydig cells produce
androgens.

Accessory Ducts and Glands

 Accessory ducts include:
o Rete testis
o Vasa efferentia
o Epididymis
o Vas deferens
 The seminiferous tubules open into the vasa efferentia through the rete
testis.
 The vasa efferentia open into the epididymis, which leads to the vas
deferens. The vas deferens opens into the urethra along with a duct from
the seminal vesicle called the ejaculatory duct.
 The ejaculatory duct stores the sperms and transports them to the outside
 The urethra starts from the urinary bladder, extends through the penis
and opens via the urethral meatus.
 Accessory glands include:
 o A pair of seminal vesicles
o Prostate gland
o A pair of bulbourethral glands
 The secretions of these glands make up the seminal plasma, and provide
nutrition and a medium of motility to the sperms. The secretions of
bulbourethral glands also helps in the lubrication of the penis.

The Female Reproductive System

 It is located in the pelvic region:

 It includes:
o A pair of ovaries
o A pair of oviducts
o Uterus
o Cervix
o Vagina
o External genitalia
o Mammary glands (not part of the reproductive system, but aids in
child care)
Ovaries
 They are the primary female sex organs. They produce the ovum and other
ovarian hormones.
 They are located in the lower abdomen, and are 2 to 4 cm in length.
 They are connected by ligaments to the pelvic walls and to the uterus.
 Each ovary is covered by epithelium, and contains the ovarian stroma.
 The ovarian stroma is made up of:
o Peripheral cortex
o Inner medulla

Oviducts
 They are also called fallopian tubes.
 They are 10 to 12 cm long, and extend from the ovary to the uterus.
 The part of each oviduct lying towards the ovary is funnel shaped, and is
called infundibulum. It has finger-like projections called fimbriae.
 The infundibulum leads to the ampulla, and then to the isthmus, which
has a narrow lumen opening into the uterus.
Uterus
 It is also called womb, and is pear shaped.
 It is connected to the pelvic walls by ligaments.
 The uterine wall consists of:
o External perimetrium
o Middle myometrium
o Internal endometrium, which lines the uterine cavity
 The endometrium undergoes changes during the menstrual cycle.
Cervix and Vagina
 The cervix connects the uterus to the vagina.
 The cervix and the vagina constitute the birth canal.
External Genitalia
 Consists of:
o Mons pubis − Fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair
o Labia majora − Extends from mons pubis and surrounds the
vaginal opening
o Labia minora − Fold of skin beneath the labia majora
o Hymen − Partially covers the vaginal opening
o The hymen is often torn during the first coitus (intercourse).
o However, it can also be broken by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a
vaginal tampon, active participation in some sports like horseback
riding, cycling, etc.
o In some women the hymen persists even after coitus. In fact, the
presence or absence of hymen is not a reliable indicator of virginity
or sexual experience
o Clitoris − Lies at the junction of labia minora.

Mammary Glands
 Present in all female mammals
 It is paired and is glandular.
  Each breast contains 15 to 20 mammary lobes with alveoli which secrete
milk.
 The alveoli open into the mammary tubules, which unite to form a
mammary duct.
 Many mammary ducts constitute the mammary ampulla, which is
connected to the lactiferous duct.

Gametogenesis
The testis and ovary produce the male and female gametes respectively by
gametogenesis (spermatogenesis in males and oogenesis in females).

Spermatogenesis

 In males, sperms are produced by the spermatogonia (immature germ

cells), which are present in the inner walls of the seminiferous tubules.
 Spermatogonia increase in number by mitosis. These are diploid.
 Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes periodically
undergo meiosis.
 After the first meiotic division, two haploid and equal secondary
spermatocytes are formed.
 These further undergo meiosis to give rise to four haploid spermatids.
 These spermatids are converted into sperms by spermiogenesis.
 The sperm head gets embedded in the Sertoli cells after spermiogenesis
and is released from the seminiferous tubules by spermiation.
 Spermatogenesis starts at puberty by the action of the gonadotropin
releasing hormone (GnRH), which in turn causes the release of two
gonadotropins called Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle
Stimulating Hormone (FSH).
 LH acts on Leydig cells and causes them to release androgens, which
stimulate the process of spermatogenesis while the FSH acts on the Sertoli
cells, which help in spermiogenesis.
Structure of a Sperm

 A mature sperm consists of:

o Head
o Neck
o Middle piece
 o Tail
 The whole sperm is enclosed in a plasma membrane.
 The head consists of a haploid nucleus and a cap-like acrosome, which
contains enzymes that aid in fertilisation.
 The middle piece contains several mitochondria, which produce energy for
the motility of the sperm.
 Sperms released by the seminiferous tubules are transported by the
accessory ducts.
 Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and prostate are
essential for maturation and motility of sperms.

Oogenesis

 The ovum is formed by the process of oogenesis.

 It starts during embryonic growth and millions of gamete mother cells
(oogonia) are formed in the foetal ovary.
 These cells undergo meiosis, but get temporarily arrested at the prophase
and are called primary oocytes.
 Before reaching puberty, a large number of primary oocytes degenerate
and the remaining ones get surrounded by layers of granulosa cells and
new theca and are called secondary follicles.
 The secondary follicles are then converted into tertiary follicles that have
characteristic fluid-filled cavity called antrum. At this stage, the
primary oocyte present within the tertiary follicle completes meiosis,
which results in the formation of haploid secondary oocyte and a tiny
polar body.
 This tertiary follicle further changes into the Graafian follicle. The
secondary oocyte is surrounded by the zone pellucida.
 Then the Graafian follicle ruptures to release the ovum by ovulation.

Menstrual Cycle & Fertilisation

 Menstrual cycle is the reproductive cycle in all primates and begins at

puberty (menarche).
 In human females, menstruation occurs once in 28 to 29 days. The cycle
of events starting from one menstruation till the next one is called the
menstrual cycle.
 During the middle of the menstrual cycle, one ovum is released
(ovulation).
 The cycle starts with the menstrual flow (3 to 5 days), caused due to the
breakdown of the endometrium of the uterus. Blood vessels in liquid state
are discharged, but this occurs only when the ovum is not fertilised.
 It is followed by the follicular phase.In this phase, the primary follicles
mature into the Graffian follicles. This causes the regeneration of the
endometrium.
 These changes are brought about by ovarian and pituitary hormones. In
this phase, the release of gonadotropins (LH and FSH) increases. This
causes follicular growth and the growing follicles produce oestrogen.
 The LH and FSH are at their peak in the middle of the cycle (14 day),
th

and cause the rupture of the Graffian follicles to release ovum. This phase
is called the ovulatory phase.
 The remains of the Graffian follicles get converted into the corpus luteum,
which secretes progesterone for the maintenance of the endometrium.
 In the absence of fertilisation, the corpus luteum degenerates, thereby
causing the disintegration of the endometrium and the start of a new
cycle.
 In humans, the menstrual cycle ceases to operate at the age of 50 years.
This phase is known as the menopause.

Fertilisation and Implantation

 During coitus, the semen is released into the vagina, passes through the
cervix of the uterus and reaches the ampullary-isthmic junction of the
fallopian tube.
 The ovum is also released into the junction for fertilisation to occur.
 The process of fusion of the sperm and the ovum is known as fertilisation.

 During fertilisation, the sperm induces changes in the zona pellucida

and blocks the entry of other sperms. This ensures that only one sperm
fertilises an ovum.
 The enzymatic secretions of the acrosomes help the sperm enter the
cytoplasm of the ovum.
 This causes the completion of meiotic division of the secondary oocyte,
resulting in the formation of a haploid ovum (ootid) and a secondary
polar body.
 Then, the haploid sperm nucleus fuses with the haploid nucleus of the
ovum to form a diploid zygote.
 Mitosis starts as the zygote moves through the isthmus of the oviduct
(cleavage) and forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called blastomeres.
 The 8−16 cell embryo is called a morula, which continues to divide to
form the blastocyst. The morula moves further into the uterus.
 The cells in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer trophoblast and an
inner cell mass.
 The trophoblast gets attached to the uterine endometrium, and the process
is called implantation. This leads to pregnancy.
 The inner cell mass gets differentiated to form the embryo.
 As you know the chromosome pattern in the human female is XX and
that in the male is XY.
 Therefore, all the haploid gametes (ova) produced by the female have the
sex chromosome X whereas in the male gametes (sperms) the sex
chromosome could be either X or Y, hence, 50 per cent of sperms carry the
X chromosome while the other 50 per cent carry the Y.
 After fusion of the male and female gametes the zygote would carry
either XX or XY depending on whether the sperm carrying X or Y fertilised
the ovum. The zygote carrying XX would develop into a female baby and
XY would form a male.
 That is why, scientifically it is correct to say that the sex of the baby is
determined by the father and not by the mother.
 Pregnancy, Parturition and Lactation

Pregnancy
 After implantation, the trophoblast forms finger-like projections called
chorionic villi, surrounded by the uterine tissue and maternal blood.
 The chorionic villi and the uterine tissue get integrated to form the
placenta, which helps in supplying the developing embryo with oxygen
and nutrients, and is also involved in the removal of wastes.
 The placenta is connected to the embryo by the umbilical cord. The
placenta acts as an endocrine gland, and produces the human chorionic
gonadotropins, human placental lactogen, oestrogen, progesterone and
relaxin (later stages of pregnancy).
 These hormones support foetal growth and help in the maintenance of
pregnancy. Hormones like oestrogen, progestogen, cortisol, prolactin, etc.,
are increased several folds in the maternal blood.
 Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) gets
differentiated into the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, which give rise
to the different tissues. This ability of the inner cell mass is due to the
presence of multi-potent cells called stem cells.
 Most of the major organs are formed at the end of 12 weeks of pregnancy;
during the 5 month, the limbs and body hair are formed; by the 24
th th

week, the eyelids separate and eyelashes are formed. At the end of nine
months, the foetus is fully formed.
Parturition and Lactation
 Human pregnancy has the duration of 9 months. This duration is called
the gestation period.
 At the end of this period, vigorous uterine contractions lead to the delivery
of the foetus. This process is called parturition.
 Parturition is a neuro-endocrine mechanism, and is started by the
signals from the developed foetus and the placenta, which produce the
foetal ejection reflex.
 This causes the release of oxytocin from the pituitary, which causes
stronger uterine contractions.
 This leads to the expulsion of the baby along with the placenta.
 During pregnancy, the mammary glands undergo differentiation, and
milk is produced during the end of pregnancy.
 The milk produced during the first few days of lactation is known as
colostrums.It contains several antibodies that aid the newborn to develop
resistance.