Nuclear Detectors

Perfect detector might have the following characteristics

1. 100% detection efficiency
2. High-speed counting
3. Good energy resolution (Two events even with small energy differences should
be measured. That means they have to counted two instead of one.)
4. Linearity of response (More radiation produced more should be the detection)
5. Application to virtually to all types of particles and radiations (One single
detector should capable of detecting all types of particles. Though it’s not
possible.)
6. Virtually no limit to the highest energy detectable
7. Reasonably large solid angles of acceptance (The detector should be rotated in
all possible direction so that no event gets missed.)
8. Discrimination between types of particles. (All particles should be classified
once it detected.)

1. Gas Filled Detectors

This instrument works on the principle that as radiation passes through air or a
specific gas, ionization of the molecules in the air occurs.

When a high voltage is placed between two areas of the gas filled space, the positive
ions will be attracted to the negative side of the detector (the cathode) and the free
electrons will travel to the positive side (the anode).

These charges are collected by the anode and cathode which then form a very small
current in the wires going to the detector. By placing a very sensitive current
measuring device between the wires from the cathode and anode, the small current is
measured and displayed as a signal. The more radiation which enters the chamber,
the more current is displayed by the instrument.
 Many types of gas-filled detectors exist, but the two most common are the ion
chamber used for measuring large amounts of radiation and the Geiger-Muller or GM
detector used to measure very small amounts of radiation.

Geiger-Muller Counter, (GM counter)

It is an instrument used for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation, α, β and γ

radiation. charged particles ionize the gas through which they pass , the electrons
produced during ionization get accelerated under high potential and further produce
ionization.

The main advantages are that they are relatively inexpensive, durable and easily
portable. But they have very low efficiency in determining the exact energy of the
detected radiation.

Construction

A Geiger tube which is nothing but a charged capacitor with a region between them
occupied by a gas. The apparatus consists of two parts, the tube and the (counter +
power supply). The Geiger-Mueller tube is usually cylindrical, with a wire down the
center. The (counter + power supply) have voltage controls and timer options. A high
voltage is established across the cylinder and the wire.

The anodes are usually thin metal wires, which are held at a positive potential with
respect to the rest of the detector.

• The cathode is cylinder arranged in a co-axial manner. The metal wire is at the center
surrounding that the cathode cylinder.

• A voltage source (This will create an electric field between the electrodes)

• An electrometer circuit

Working Principle
When ionizing radiation such as an α, β or γ particle enters the tube, it can ionize some
of the gas molecules in the tube.

From these ionized atoms, an electron is knocked out of the atom, and the remaining
atom is positively charged.

The high voltage in the tube produces an electric field inside the tube. The electrons
that were knocked out of the atom are attracted to the positive electrode, and the
positively charged ions are attracted to the negative electrode.

This produces a pulse of current in the wires connecting the electrodes, and this pulse
is counted.
After the pulse is counted, the charged ions become neutralized, and the Geiger
counter is ready to record another pulse.

In order for the Geiger counter tube to restore itself quickly to its original state after
radiation has entered, a gas is added to the tube.

This gas is called as a quench gas to ensure each pulse discharge terminates; a
common mixture is 90% argon, 10% methane.

For low voltages, no counts are recorded. This is because the electric field is too weak

for even one pulse to be recorded. As the voltage is increased, eventually one obtains
a counting rate.

The voltage at which the G-M tube just begins to count is called the starting potential.
The counting rate quickly rises as the voltage is increased. The rise is so fast, that the
graph looks like a step potential.

After the quick rise, the counting rate levels off. This range of voltages is termed the
plateau region. Eventually, the voltage becomes too high and we have continuous
discharge. The threshold voltage is the voltage where the plateau region begins.
Proper operation is when the voltage is in the plateau region of the curve.

Dead Time: After a count has been recorded, it takes the G-M tube a certain amount
of time to reset itself to be ready to record the next count. The resolving time or dead
time, T, of a detector is the time it takes for the detector to reset itself.

2. Scintillation Detectors
The basic principle behind this instrument is the use of a special material which glows
or "scintillates" when radiation interacts with it.
The most common type of material is a type of salt called sodium-iodide. The light
produced from the scintillation process is reflected through a clear window where it
interacts with device called a photomultiplier tube.

The first part of the photomultiplier tube is made of another special material called a
photocathode.

The photocathode produces electrons when light strikes its surface.

These electrons are then pulled towards a series of plates called dynodes through the
application of a positive high voltage.

When electrons from the photocathode hit the first dynode, several electrons are
produced for each initial electron hitting its surface. This "bunch" of electrons is then
pulled towards the next dynode, where more electron "multiplication" occurs. The
sequence continues until the last dynode is reached, where the electron pulse is now
millions of times larger than it was at the beginning of the tube.

At this point the electrons are collected by an anode at the end of the tube forming an
electronic pulse. The pulse is then detected and displayed by the instrument.

Availability of scintillators in various physical forms (i.e. solid, liquid and gaseous),

While detecting ionizing radiation the following sequential events take place:

The absorption of nuclear radiation in the scintillator, resulting in excitation and

ionization within it.

The conversion of the energy dissipated in the scintillator to light energy through the

luminescence process.

The transfer of light photons to the photo cathode of the photo multiplier tube.
The absorption of the light photons at the photo cathode and the emission of the
photoelectrons and subsequent electron multiplication process within the photo
multiplier tube.

The analysis of the current pulses furnished by the photo multiplier tube through the

use of the succeeding electronic equipment like an electronic counter or a multi-

channel analyzer.
Organic scintillators
Naphthalene, anthracene low density (ρ ≈ 1.3)

Organic scintillators give fast scintillation light, Organic scintillators are cheap ? large
area panels
Inorganic scintillators
NaI activated (doped) with Thallium, semi-conductor, high density: ρ(NaI) = 3.6,

High density of inorganic crystals.

slower then organic scintillators

3. Semiconductor Radiation Detectors

In many radiation detector applications, the use of solid detection medium is of great

advantage.

Since semiconductor material densities are much higher compared to gas media, the
physical dimension of detector required for measurement of higher energy electrons
and gamma rays will be much smaller.

The use of semiconductor material as a radiation detector can result in a much large
number of information carriers for a given incident radiation unit than is possible with
any other type of detector.

Consequently, the best resolution achievable today is realized through the use of such
detectors.

Of the available semiconductor materials silicon predominates in the diode detectors

used primarily for changed particle spectroscopy while germanium is more widely
used in ion-drift detectors or intrinsic detectors for gamma ray measurements.