NOTE

P H Y S I C S

SOLIDS
INTRODUCTION OF SOLIDS

What you already know What you will learn

• Standard thermodynamic process • Carnot cycle

• Adiabatic process • Refrigerator
• Cyclic process • Coefficient of performance (β)
• Molar heat capacity • Free expansion
• Efficiency of cycle • Second law of thermodynamics
• Solids and properties of solids

MAIN
Carnot Cycle

The Carnot engine consists of a piston-cylinder arrangement P

filled with gas. The base of the container is a perfect conductor A
of heat. As the engine works, the working substance of the
engine undergoes a cyclic process known as the Carnot B
cycle.
D
Processes in Carnot cycle: C
We know that,
V
1. Isothermal expansion from A to B
PAVA = PBVB ...….(i)

2. Adiabatic expansion from B to C Source (TH )

γ γ
PBVB = PCVC ...….(ii)
Q1

3. Isothermal compression from C to D H.E. W

PCVC = PDVD ...….(iii) Q2
4. Adiabatic compression from D to A Sink (TL)
γ γ
PDVD = PAVA ...….(ii)

Let us discuss them in detail.

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 02

Isothermal expansion from A to B

In this part of the cycle, the system (cylinder) is placed on the source at temperature TH due to
which the heat is added to the system and the gas is allowed to expand by a slow, outward motion
of the piston. It absorbs a Q1 amount of heat from the source and the work done is W1. The gas
expands isothermally (i.e., ∆T = 0), the pressure decreases from PA to PB, and the volume increases
from VA from VB.
From the first law of thermodynamics,
P (TH, VA , PA )
∆Q = ∆U + W A
Q1 W1 [=
⇒= ∆U 0 for the isothermal process] B (T , V , P )
H B B
The work done is given by,
VB

W1 = ∫ P dV
VA

VB V
⇒ Q1 = W1 = nRTH ln
VA

Adiabatic expansion from B to C

Now, the system (cylinder) is removed from the source and placed on an insulating pad, and the gas
is allowed to expand further. Hence, the system is thermally insulated from all the sides, resulting
in no heat transfer (i.e., ∆Q = 0). Therefore, the temperature of the system drops from TH to TL . The
gas expands adiabatically, the pressure further decreases from PB to PC , and the volume increases
from VB to VC.
P (TH, VA , PA)
From the first law of thermodynamics,
A
∆Q = ∆U + W
B (T , V , P )
The work done in an adiabatic process is given by, H B B

nR (TL − TH ) (TL , VC , PC )
W2 =
1−γ C

Isothermal compression from C to D

P (TH, VA , PA)
Now, the system (cylinder) is removed from the insulating A
pad and placed on the sink. At TL , the piston is slowly
moved inwards until the pressure increases from PC to B (T , V , P )
PD and the volume decreases from VC to VD. Since the H B B

system is placed on the sink and the base is conducting, D

the heat produced in the compression, Q2, will pass to (TL , VC , PC )
(TL , VD, PD) C
the sink. Therefore, the temperature remains constant
(i.e., ∆T = 0).
V

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 03

From the first law of thermodynamics,

Q2 W3 [=
⇒= ∆U 0]
The work done is given by,
VD
⇒ Q2 = W3 = nRTL ln
VC

Adiabatic compression from D to A

Now, the system (cylinder) is removed from the sink and is again placed on an insulating pad, and
the piston is moved further inwards. Since the system is thermally insulated from all the sides,
there is no heat transfer (i.e., ∆Q = 0). Therefore, the gas is compressed adiabatically and the heat
produced in the compression raises the temperature of the system temperature from TL to TH.
The gas is compressed adiabatically, the pressure increases from PD to PA , and the volume further
decreases from VD to VA .
The work done is given by, P (TH, VA , PA)
nR (TH − TL ) A
W4 =
1−γ B (T , V , P )
H B B

The net work done by the Carnot cycle is as follows:

D (TL , VC , PC )
Wnet = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4 (TL , VD, PD) C
⇒ Wnet = W1 + W3 (∵ W2 = –W4)
The heat supplied by the source (during process A to B) is given by, V

VB
Q1 W
= =1 nRTH ln
VA
The heat rejected from the sink (during process C to D) is given by,
VD
Q
=2 W
=3 nRTL ln
VC
By multiplying equations (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv), we get,
( PAVA ) ( PBVBγ ) ( PCVC ) ( PDVDγ ) = ( PBVB ) ( PCVCγ ) ( PDVD ) ( PAVAγ )
VB VC
⇒ = ..... ( v )
VA VD

The efficiency of the Carnot engine is given by,

W
η = net
Q1
W + W3
⇒ η =1
W1
VD
nRTL ln
VC
⇒η =1 +
V
nRTH ln B
VA
VB
By substituting the value of from equation ( v ) in the given expression of η , we get,
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 W1
04 VD
nRTL ln
VC
⇒η =1 +
V
nRTH ln B
VA
VB
By substituting the value of from equation ( v ) in the given expression of η , we get,
VA
VD
TL ln
VC
⇒η =1 +
V
TH ln C
VD
TL
⇒η =1 −
TH

It is the desired expression for the efficiency of the Carnot engine. On comparing it with the earlier
 Q 
expression of efficiency η= 1 − 2  , we get,
 Q1 
TL Q
= 2
TH Q1

To sum up, the Carnot engine receives heat during the expansion at a constant high temperature,
delivers work during the adiabatic expansion, rejects heat during the compression at constant low
temperature, and receives work during the reversible adiabatic compression.

Carnot’s Theorem

• N
 o heat engine working between two given temperatures of the source and the sink can be
more efficient than a reversible Carnot engine operating between the same two temperatures.
• A
 ll reversible engines working between the same two temperatures have the same efficiency
regardless of the nature of the substance.

• T
 he efficiency of a heat engine depends only on the temperatures of the source and
the sink.
• A
 ll reversible heat engines working between the same temperatures are equally
efficient. No heat engine can be more efficient than a Carnot engine.
 ince TH and TL are positive and finite with TH > TL , the efficiency of a heat engine is
• S
always less than unity.

MAIN BOARDS
Refrigerator

It works on the principle of a reverse heat engine. A refrigerator takes

Reservoir (TH )
up the heat from the system at a lower temperature and disperses it at a
temperature higher than that of the system. Q1
It has three key components: (i) expansion valve, (ii) evaporator, and R W
(iii) compressor. The expansion valve regulates the refrigerant flow and
allows the evaporator to cause a sudden expansion of the refrigerant, Q2
and the gas gets cooled. The compressor compresses the gas (adiabatic)
Sink (TL)
and removes it at a higher temperature by causing a pressure increase.

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Heat extracted
β =
Work done
Q
⇒ β =2
W
For these processes to work, the surroundings have to do work on the system.
Q
⇒β = 2
Q1 = W + Q2 Q1 − Q2
Q2
Coefficient of performance (β) Q
⇒β = 1
Q2
It is the ratio of the desired effect to the input to the system.1 − Q
1

Heat extracted For a Carnot cycle,

β =
Work done TL
Q2 T
⇒β = ⇒β = H
W T
Q2 1− L
⇒β = TH
Q1 − Q2
T
Q2 ⇒β = L
TH − TL
Q1 Q2
⇒β = β=
Q2 Q1 − Q2
1−
Q1 Q2
For a Carnot cycle, Q
⇒β = 1
Q
RelationTLbetween coefficient of performance and η 1− 2
Q1
TH
⇒β = Also,
Q2 TL
β= 1−
Q1 − Q2 TH Q
η= 1 − 2
QT2 Q1
⇒β = L Q
⇒β = THQ1− TL ⇒ 2 =1 − η
Q Q1
1− 2
Q1 1 −η
∴β =
Also, η
Q
η= 1 − 2
Q1
Q2 Free Expansion
⇒ =1 − η
Q1
Free expansion
1 −η (also known as Joule expansion) is an irreversible process in thermodynamics in
∴ β =
which an ideal gas is kept in one side of a thermally isolated container and the other side of the
η
container is evacuated. The partition between the two parts of the container is set free and the gas
fills the whole container.
For the free expansion of gas,
ΔQ = 0 (Adiabatic)
W = 0 (Work done against vacuum is zero) Vaccum
P=0
ΔU = 0
ΔV ≠ 0 𝜇 = 0
ΔP ≠ 0

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Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics

• It only talks about the conservation of energy for a thermodynamic system.
• It does not predict the natural direction of the flow of energy for a process, i.e., the spontaneity
of a process. For example, heat always flows from a body at a higher temperature to a body at
a lower temperature, similar to how water always flows from a higher-altitude region to a lower-
altitude region.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics establishes the direction of the flow of energy.

Clausius statement:
No process is possible whose sole result is transferring heat from a colder object to a hotter object.
In other words, a cyclic transformation whose only effect is to transfer heat from a body at lower
temperature to another body at a higher temperature is impossible.

Kelvin-Planck statement: H W≠Q

A
No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of
heat from a reservoir and the complete conversion of the heat Q
into work. Alternatively, a cyclic transformation whose only
effect is to transform heat extracted from a source at the same Hot body
temperature throughout into work is impossible.
Hence, the work obtained by the system (W) will always be less than the amount of heat supplied
(Q) to the system.

Solids

Rigid vs Real Solid Body

• In a rigid body, the distance between any two particles is permanently fixed (ideal system).
• W
 hen the external forces are applied to a real solid body, the body may get deformed (real
system).
Ideal rigid body

l
Consider a cuboid-shaped rigid body and a real solid body. Let l be
the distance between two particles in the cuboid shape in both the Real solid body
rigid and the real body as shown in the figure.

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Ideal rigid body

Case 1: A pair of compressive forces act on the cuboid shape of

the rigid and the real solid body as shown in the figure. F
F l
In the ideal rigid body, the distances between the particles do not
change. Therefore, the distance between the particles remains Real solid body
the same (l).
In the real solid body, due to compression, the distance between
the particles becomes l1 (< l). F
F l1

Case 2: A pair of tensile forces act on the cuboid-shaped rigid Ideal rigid body
and the real solid body as shown in the figure.
Similar to the previous case, the distance between the F l F
particles of the rigid body does not change. Due to stretching,
the distance between the particles of the real solid body Real solid body
becomes l2 (> l).
From cases 1 and 2, we get the following: F
F l2
l1 (Compression) < l < l2 (Extension)

Elasticity

Elasticity is the property of a material to restore the natural shape or to oppose the change in its
original shape. Upon being acted on by the deforming forces, the interatomic/intermolecular forces
of the real solid body act in a way to regain its natural shape and size.

Consider a real solid in the shape of a cuboid. Initially, there is no

external force on the body and the distance between the particles of
the body is l as shown in the figure. l

After applying a pair of external forces on the body, the

distance between the particles of the body becomes l2 as
shown in the figure. F l2 F

On removing the external forces from the body, the distance

between the particles of the body becomes l3. l3

Perfectly elastic body:

When a body completely regains its natural shape after removing the deforming forces, it is known
as a perfectly elastic body (l3 = l).

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Partially elastic body:

When a body partially regains its natural shape after removing the deforming forces, it is known as
a partially elastic body (l3 ≠ l).
Perfectly inelastic or plastic body:
When a body remains deformed and does not even partially regain its original shape after removing
the deforming forces, it is known as a perfectly inelastic body or a plastic body. (l3 = l2)

Mechanical Properties of Solids

Types of stress: Types of strain:

• Longitudinal/Normal stress • Longitudinal strain
• Shear stress • Shear strain
• Volumetric stress • Volumetric strain

Stress

Under the influence of external longitudinal forces, the restoring forces are produced, which tend
to bring the body to its original shape. The restoring force per unit area of the deformed body is
known as stress.
Restoring Force F
Stress, σ
= = F F
Area A F
F l
The SI unit of stress is Nm . –2

For elastic bodies, the restoring force equals the deforming (external) forces.
In which of the cases is stress developed in the rod?

F F

Case (i) Case (ii)

In case (ii), the rod is free at both the ends. Due to force F, it will start accelerating in its
direction. Therefore, the stress developed in that case will be minimal. On the other hand,
in case (i), the rod is fixed at one end and is being pulled by force F on another end. The
fixed end provides an equal and opposite force (F) on the rod to keep it in equilibrium.
This creates tension (or stress) in the rod. Always remember that in order to develop
stress in the rod, it is necessary to have deforming forces acting in both the directions.

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