Transport in Human
Adaptation of red blood cell:
Biconcave disc shape → A larger surface area to volume ratio (X short distance for the
diffusion of gas X) → allows oxygen to reach and leave the haemoglobin rapidly +
Haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen to carry oxygen in the red blood cells.
White blood cells
-Phagocytes engulf pathogens by phagocytosis.
-Lymphocytes produce antibodies to attack pathogens.
Adaptation of arteries / Occurence of pulse:
Blood is pumped out by the heart muscles of the right ventricle to the aorta. This exerts a
high blood pressure against the wall of the arteries.
The elastic tissues in the wall of the aorta allow it to distend.
The vessel recoils and pushes the blood to flow forward when the heart muscles relax.
Adaptation of arterioles:
-In the arterioles, the thick layer of muscles contract or relax to change the size of the lumen.
This helps regulate [explain regulate] the amount of blood flow to different parts of the body.
Adaptation of veins:
-Large lumen reduces the resistance to the blood flow inside the veins.
-Valves are present in veins to prevent the backflow of blood.
-Force of blood flow is mainly provided by the contraction of the skeletal muscles lying next
to the veins. (Veins are squeezed and blood is forced to flow forward)
*睇題目有冇俾條血管由邊去緊邊，有機會要寫埋vein嘅具體名字(e.g. pulmonary vein)
Artery VS Vein
The lumen of the artery is smaller than the vein and its wall is thicker than vein.
The thick muscular wall of the artery can withstand a higher blood pressure and regulate the
amount of blood flowing to different organs.
The wall of artery also contains a thick layer of elastic fibre, which can distend and recoil so
as to maintain a continuous blood flow.
Adaptations for capillaries:
-The wall (endothelium) of capillaries is one-cell thick. This shortens the distance for
exchange for material between the blood and body cells.
-Many branches are found in capillaries forming a network. This increases the surface area
for rapid exchange of materials.
-The total cross-sectional area is very large in each section capillaries. This reduces the
velocity of blood and provides more time for gas exchange.
-Differentially permeable and have no muscle layer.
Blood pressure and Blood velocity
Blood pressure is affected by
-Resistance to blood flow exerted by the surface of blood vessels
-Distance from heart
-Loss of fluid into tissue fluid
Blood velocity is affected by
-Pumping action of heart [artery]
-Total cross-sectional area of blood vessels
-Contraction of skeletal muscles [vein]
- (Blood pressure)
-Presence of valves (prevent backflow)
Rhythmic changes in blood pressure:
-When the ventricle of the heart contracts, blood is forced into the aorta, resulting in the
increase of blood pressure.
-Blood in the artery flows forward along the blood vessels while the ventricle of the heart
relaxes, as a result the blood pressure drops.
Blood velocity increases again in vein:
The blood velocity is maintained by the contraction of skeletal muscles lying next to the
veins.
The total cross-sectional area of the veins is smaller than that of the capillaries. Since the
volume of blood passing through each section of the blood vessel per unit time is the same,
blood velocity increases.
Valves are present in veins to prevent the backflow of blood.
Q: Explain the difference between blood pressure in the aorta and pulmonary artery.
-Blood pressure in the aorta is higher than that in the pulmonary artery.
-Blood in the aorta is pumped from the left ventricle while blood in the pulmonary artery is
pumped from the right ventricle.
-Left ventricle has a thicker muscular wall and generates a higher pressure during its
contraction.
Case study: coronary heart disease (related to heart attack)
-Due to the narrowing of coronary arteries by accumulation of cholesterol, less blood
carrying oxygen will be transported to the heart muscles. Blockage of coronary arteries leads
to coronary heart disease.
Case study: heart attack
-Q: In a patient, the coronary artery becomes blocked. Explain how this may cause heart
attack when the patient performs vigorous exercise.
-During vigorous exercise, heart muscles require a large amount of energy for contractions.
-When the coronary artery is blocked, less blood flows to heart muscles, less oxygen and
glucose (needed for aerobic respiration) is supplied to the heart muscles.
-Some of the heart muscles die.
Case study: septal defect
*Explain step by step！Pay attention to logic flow！
-If there is a hole in the septem, oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood in the two sides
of the heart will mix together.
-The oxygen content in the blood pumped out of the heart will decrease.
-The heart has to pump harder to meet the oxygen demand of body cells.
Double circulation (pulmonary circulation + systemic circulation)
-artery: carry oxygenated blood and nutrients to organs (exception: pulmonary artery)
-vein: carry deoxygenated blood from organs (ie as oxygen is used and carbon dioxide is
produced during aerobic respiration) (exception: pulmonary vein)
heart (chambers: left atrium/ventricle) > aorta > XXX artery > (arteriole) > organ(oxygen and
nutrients get out in capillaries stage)> XXX vein > vena cava > heart > pulmonary artery >
lung > pulmonary vein > heart
To kidney: renal
To lung: pulmonary
To intestine: intestinal
To liver: hepatic
Sending absorbed nutrients from small intestine to liver(entering the cycle): **hepatic portal
vein **
Absorption of fat from small intestine: small intestine > central lacteal > lymph vessel >
subclavian vein > vena cava > heart
Case study: swelling of feet
-Q: Explain why some passengers suffer swelling of feet during long distance flight.
-Passengers don't get many chances to move their legs.
-The lack of skeletal muscle contractions in legs reduces the flow rate of lymph
vessels/tissue fluid returning to veins.
-This leads to the accumulation of excess tissue fluid in the legs and hence the swelling of
feet.
