2.

Fundamentals of Frequency
Modulation
2.1 Angle Modulation

A sine wave carrier can be modulated by varying its amplitude, frequency, or phase shift. The basic
equation for a carrier wave is

υ(t) = Vc sin(2π ft ± θ)

where Vc is peak amplitude, f5 is frequency, and θ is phase angle.

Impressing an information signal on a carrier by changing its frequency produces Frequency

2.2 Basic Principles of Frequency Modulation

In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant and the carrier frequency is changed by the
modulating signal. As the amplitude of the information signal varies, the carrier frequency shifts
proportionately. As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the carrier frequency increases. If the
amplitude of the modulating signal decreases, the carrier fre quency decreases. The reverse
relationship can also be implemented. The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the
modulating signal is known as the frequency deviation fd. Maximum frequency deviation occurs at
the maximum amplitude of the modulating signal.

Assume a carrier frequency of 150 MHz. If the peak amplitude of the modulating signal causes a
maximum frequency shift of 30 kHz, the carrier frequency will deviate up to 150.03 MHz and down
to 149.97 MHz.

The total frequency deviation is 150.03 − 149.97 = 0.06 MHz = 60 kHz.

Thus, the frequency deviation is represented as ±30 kHz.

In practice, however, the frequency deviation is expressed as the amount of frequency shift of the
carrier above or below the center frequency. Note that the frequency of the modulating signal has
no effect on the amount of deviation, which is strictly a function of the amplitude of the modulating
signal.
Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)

Frequently, the modulating signal is a pulse train or series of rectangular waves, e.g., serial binary
data. When the modulating signal has only two amplitudes namely symbol 1 and symbol 0. when the
modulating signal is a binary 0, the carrier frequency is the center frequency value. When the
modulating signal is a binary 1, the carrier frequency abruptly changes to a higher frequency level.
The amount of the shift depends on the amplitude of the binary signal. This kind of modulation,
called frequency-shift keying (FSK).

2.3 Principles of Phase Modulation

When the amount of phase shift of a constant-frequency carrier is varied in accordance with a
modulating signal, the resulting output is a phase modulation (PM) signal. The output of the
phase modulator is simply the carrier frequency that has been shifted in phase. As the modulating
signal goes positive, the amount of phase lag, and thus the delay of the carrier output, increases
with the amplitude of the modulating signal. The result at the output is the same as if the constant-
frequency carrier signal had been stretched out, or had its frequency lowered. When the modulating
signal goes negative, the phase shift becomes leading. This causes the carrier sine wave to be
effectively speeded up, or compressed. The result is the same as if the carrier frequency had been
increased.
Relationship between the Modulating Signal and Carrier Deviation

The frequency deviation of an FM signal is constant for any value of modulating frequency. Only the
amplitude of the modulating signal determines the amount of deviation. But the deviation varies in a
PM signal with different modulating signal frequencies. The higher the modulating signal frequency,
the shorter its period and the faster the voltage changes. Higher modulating voltages result in
greater phase shift, and this, in turn, produces greater frequency deviation. However, higher
modulating frequencies produce a faster rate of change of the modulating voltage and thus greater
frequency deviation. In PM, then, the carrier frequency deviation is proportional to both the
modulating frequency and the amplitude. In FM, frequency deviation is proportional only to the
amplitude of the modulating signal, regardless of its frequency.

Converting PM to FM (Indirect FM)

To make PM compatible with FM, the deviation produced by frequency variations in the modulating
signal must be compensated for. This can be done by passing the intelligence signal through a low-
pass RC network called a frequency-correcting network, predistorter, or I/f filter, causes the higher
modulating frequencies to be attenuated. Although the higher modulating frequencies produce a
greater rate of change and thus a greater frequency deviation, this is offset by the lower amplitude
of the modulating signal, which produces less phase shift and thus less frequency deviation. The
result is an output that is the same as an FM signal. The FM produced by a phase modulator is called
indirect FM.

Phase-Shift Keying

PM is also used with binary signals. When the binary modulating signal is 0 V, or binary 0, the PM
signal is simply the carrier frequency. When a binary 1 voltage level occurs, the modulator, which is a
phase shifter, simply changes the phase of the carrier by 180°. The process of phase-modulating a
carrier with binary data is called phase-shift keying (PSK) or binary phase-shift keying (BPSK).
2.4 Modulation Index and Sidebands

Any modulation process produces sidebands. When a constant-frequency sine wave modulates a
carrier, two side frequencies are produced. The side frequencies are the sum and difference of the
carrier and the modulating frequency. In FM and PM, as in AM, sum and difference sideband
frequencies are produced. In addition, a large number of pairs of upper and lower sidebands are
generated. As a result, the spectrum of an FM or a PM signal is usually wider than that of an
equivalent AM signal. It is also possible to generate a special narrowband FM signal whose
bandwidth is only slightly wider than that of an AM signal.

As the amplitude of the modulating signal varies, the frequency deviation changes. The number of
sidebands produced, and their amplitude and spacing, depends on the frequency deviation and
modulating frequency. Theoretically, the FM process produces an infinite number of upper and
lower side bands and, therefore, a theoretically infinitely large bandwidth. However, in practice, only
those sidebands with the largest amplitudes are signifi ant in carrying the information. Typically any
sideband whose amplitude is less than 1 percent of the unmodulated carrier is considered
insignificant.
Modulation Index

The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency is known as the modulation index.

Modulation index, mf = fd / fm ,

where fd is the frequency deviation and fm is the modulating frequency.

For example, if the maximum frequency deviation of the carrier is ±12 kHz and the maximum
modulating frequency is 2.5 kHz, the modulating index is mf = 12/2.5 = 4.8.

Example 2-2 : What is the deviation ratio of TV sound if the maximum deviation is 25 kHz and the
maximum modulating frequency is 15 kHz?

mf = fd / fm = 25 / 15 = 1.667

Bessel Functions

Given the modulation index, the number and amplitudes of the signifi cant sidebands can be
determined by solving the basic equation of an FM signal.

υFM(t) = Vc sin *2πfc t + mf sin (2πfmt)+, where υFM(t) is the instantaneous value of the FM signal and
mf is the modulation index.

This equation is solved with a complex mathematical process known as Bessel functions.

υFM(t) = Vc{ J0(sin ωct) + J1*sin (ωc + ωm)t - sin(ωc - ωm)t+ + J2*sin(ωc + 2ωm)t + sin(ωc - 2ωm)t+ +
J3*sin(ωc + 3ωm)t - sin(ωc - 3ωm)t+ + J4*sin(ωc + 4ωm)t + sin(ωc - 4ωm)t+ + J5*sin . . .+ + . . .},

where ωc = 2πfc , carrier frequency

ωm = 2πfm , modulating signal frequency

Vc = peak value of unmodulated carrier,

Jn, n=0,1 ,2… are the Bessel coefficients.

The FM wave is expressed as a composite of sine waves of different frequencies and amplitudes
that, when added, give an FM time-domain signal. The first term is the carrier with an amplitude
given by a Jn coefficient, in this case J0. The next term represents a pair of upper and lower side
frequencies equal to the sum and difference of the carrier and modulating signal frequency and so
on.

With no modulation, all the power is in the carrier. With modulation, the carrier amplitude
decreases while the amplitudes of the various sidebands increase.

The modulation index is 0.25, this is a special case of FM in which the modulation process produces
only a single pair of significant sidebands like those produced by AM. With a modulation index of
0.25, the FM signal occupies no more spectrum space than an AM signal. This type of FM is called
narrowband FM, or NBFM.
FM Signal Bandwidth

The higher the modulation index in FM, the greater the number of significant sidebands and the
wider the bandwidth of the signal. When spectrum conservation is necessary, the bandwidth of an
FM signal can be deliberately restricted by putting an upper limit on the modulation index.
One way to determine the bandwidth of an FM signal is to use Carson’s rule. This rule recognizes
only the power in the most significant sidebands with amplitudes greater than 2 percent of the
carrier.

BW = 2[ fd(max) + fm(max)].

Example 2.3:

2.5 Noise Suppression Effects of FM

Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors, automotive ignition systems, and any power
line switching that produces transient signals. Such noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with
very high frequencies. They add to a signal and interfere with it.
FM signals, however, have a constant modulated carrier amplitude, and FM receivers contain limiter
circuits that deliberately restrict the amplitude of the received signal. Any amplitude variations
occurring on the FM signal are effectively clipped off. This does not affect the information content of
the FM signal, since it is contained solely within the frequency variations of the carrier. Because of
the clipping action of the limiter circuits, noise is almost completely eliminated. One of the primary
benefits of FM over AM is its superior noise immunity.

Preemphasis

Noise can interfere with an FM signal, and particularly with the high-frequency components of the
modulating signal. Since noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy, it contains a lot of harmonics and
other high-frequency components. These frequencies can be larger in amplitude than the high-
frequency content of the modulating signal, causing frequency distortion that can make the signal
unintelligible.

Most of the content of a modulating signal, particularly voice, is at low frequencies. In voice
communication systems, the bandwidth of the signal is limited to about 3 kHz, which permits
acceptable intelligibility. In contrast, musical instruments typically generate signals at low
frequencies but contain many high-frequency harmonics that give them their unique sound and
must be passed if that sound is to be preserved. Since the high-frequency components are usually at
a very low level, noise can obliterate them.

To overcome this problem, most FM systems use a technique known as preem phasis that helps
offset high-frequency noise interference. At the transmitter, the mod ulating signal is passed
through a simple network that amplifi es the high- frequency components more than the low-
frequency components. The simplest form of such a circuit is a simple high-pass fi lter of the type
shown below.
Specifications dictate a time constant t of 75 μs, where t = RC.

Hence cut-off frequency of the filter chosen to be,

fL = 1/ 2π RC = 1 /2π t = 1 / 2π(75 μs) = 2123 Hz

Such a circuit has a cutoff frequency of 2122 Hz; frequencies higher than 2122 Hz will be linearly
enhanced. The output amplitude increases with frequency at a rate of 6 dB per octave. The
preemphasis circuit increases the energy content of the higher frequency signals so that they
become stronger than the high-frequency noise components.

The preemphasis circuit also has an upper break frequency fu, at which the signal enhancement
flattens out, which is computed with the formula

fu = (R1 + R2) / 2πR1R2C ,

The value of fu is usually set well beyond the audio range and is typically greater than 30 kHz.

To return the frequency response to its normal, “flat” level, a deemphasis circuit, a simple low-pass
filter with a time constant of 75 μs, is used at the receiver. Signals above its cutoff frequency of
2123Hz are attenuated at the rate of 6 dB per octave. As a result, the pre- emphasis at the
transmitter is exactly offset by the deemphasis circuit in the receiver, providing a flat frequency
response.
2.6 Frequency Modulation Versus Amplitude Modulation

Advantages of FM

Noise Immunity: The main benefit of FM over AM is its superior immunity to noise, made possible by
the clipper limiter circuits in the receiver, which effectively strip off all the noise variations, leaving a
constant-amplitude FM signal.

Capture Effect: Another major benefit of FM is that interfering signals on the same frequency are
effectively rejected. Because of the amplitude limiters and the demodulating methods used by FM
receivers, a phenomenon known as the capture effect takes place when two or more FM signals
occur simultaneously on the same frequency. If one signal is more than twice the amplitude of the
other, the stronger signal captures the channel, totally eliminating the weaker signal.

Transmitter Efficiency: FM signals have a constant amplitude, and it is therefore not necessary to use
linear amplifiers to increase their power level. In fact, FM signals are always generated at a lower
level and then amplified by a series of class C amplifiers to increase their power. The result is greater
use of available power because of the high level of efficiency of class C amplifiers.

Disadvantages of FM

Excessive Spectrum Use: The greatest disadvantage of FM is that it simply uses too much spectrum
space. The bandwidth of an FM signal is, in general, considerably wider than that of an AM signal
transmitting similar information. Although it is possible to keep the modulation index low to
minimize bandwidth, reducing the modulation index also reduces the noise immunity of an FM
signal.

Circuit Complexity: One major disadvantage of FM in the past involved the complex ity of the circuits
used for frequency modulation and demodulation in comparison with the simple circuits used for
amplitude modulation and demodulation. Today, this disadvantage has almost disappeared because
of the use of integrated circuits. Although the ICs used in FM transmission are still complex, they
require very little effort to use and their price is just as low as those of comparable AM circuits.
Practice Questions

1. Write the expression of the FM signal. How it can be expressed interms of Bessel
coefficients. Draw the spectrum of FM for modulation index of 0.25.
2. With a neat circuit explain the indirect way of generation FM signal.
3. With neat diagrams explain the working of preemphasis and deemphasis circuits.
4. Compare AM and FM with respect to their benefits and their limitations.

Reference:

1. Principles of Electronic Communication Systems, Luis E Frenzel