INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS

DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS are rapidly replacing their analog counterparts.

The parameters of interest in a laboratory environment are
(i) Voltage
(ii) Current
(iii) Power
(iv) Frequency,
(v) Logic.
To enable digital systems to recognise information, inputs which are analog in nature must be
converted to digital form.
Hence any digital instrument would invariably consist of an analog to digital converter in its input
stage.

Building block of a digital instrument

The display block may be analog or digital in nature.

If an analog readout is desired, it becomes necessary to include a stage involving digital to analog
conversion.
Digital systems may consist of the following components.
1. Resistors
2. Capacitors
3. Transistors
4. Linear ICs
5. Digital ICs
6. Display devices
7. Analog to digital converters
8. Digital to analog converters

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 The digital form of measurement can be used to display the measured quantity numerically
instead of a deflection, as in conventional analog meters.
 Data in digital form facilitates various operations that are normally required in signal
processing.
 An increase in the availability and type of computer facilities and a decrease in the cost of
various modules required for digital systems is accelerating the development of digital
instrumentation for measurement and signal processing.
DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
Analog meters require no power supply, they give a better visual indication of changes and suffer
less from electric noise and isolation problems. These meters are simple and inexpensive.
Digital meters, on the other hand, offer high accuracy, have a high input impedance and are
smaller in size.
They gives an unambigious reading at greater viewing distances.
The output available is electrical (for interfacing with external equipment), in addition to a visual
readout.
The three major classes of digital meters are panel meters, bench type meters and system meters.
All digital meters employ some kind of analog to digital (A/D) converters (often dual slope
integrating type) and have a visible readout display at the converter output.
An attenuator is a device that reduces the power of a signal without significantly distorting its
Waveform.

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TACHOMETER
A tachometer is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or
other machine.
The device usually displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a calibrated analogue dial, but
digital displays are increasingly common.
Speed of a rotating shaft – Techniqque used in a conventional frequency counter.
 RPM stands for revolutions per minute, and is a unit of measurement for rotational speed
 RPM is a measure of how many times an object rotates around its axis in one minute. It's used to
measure the rotational speed of engines, turbines, CD players, and other rotating machines.
 One revolution per minute is equivalent to 160 hertz. Hertz is the unit used in the International
System of Measurement to measure rotational speed
 Rotating shaft R
 P Number of pulses

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 measurement
 Vehicle speedometer Engine speed

Tachometers are used in many applications, including:

 Automotive
Tachometers are used to measure the rotating speed of an engine's cylinder head in cars, aircraft,
and other vehicles. They help drivers determine the best gear to use and monitor the engine's
condition.
 Marine
Tachometers are used to monitor the rotating systems of boats, such as water pumps, generators,
and boat engines.
 Industrial

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Tachometers are used to control the speed of motors, pumps, blowers, and process machinery in
industries such as textile, printing, and paper.

 Aviation
Tachometers are used to display the RPM of aircraft engines, auxiliary power units, and other
rotating aircraft parts.
 Medical
Tachometers are used to keep track of rotations per minute for dental hand pieces, surgical drills,
and other medical implements.
 3D printing
Tachometers are used to regulate the printing speed for different filament materials in 3D printers.
 CNC machining
Tachometers are used to supervise the rotational speed of cutting tools in CNC machines.
 Traffic engineering
Tachometers are used to estimate traffic flow, volume, and speed.
 Audio recording
Tachometers are used to measure the speed of an audiotape in analogue audio recording.
Tachometers can be contact or non-contact types. Contact tachometers have attachments called
adaptors that rest against the rotating equipment. Non-contact tachometers use laser, infrared, or
other light sources to measure speed from a distance.
Tachometer Applications
 Vehicles and automotive.
 Boats and marine vehicles.
 Machinery and mechanical systems.
 Research and development.
 Laboratories, test and measurement.
 Maintenance and routine industrial operations.

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DIGITAL FREQUENCY METER:

Principle of Operation of Digital Frequency Meter

 The signal waveform is first converted into trigger pulses.

 These pulses are applied to an AND gate.
 A 1-second pulse is applied to the other terminal of the AND gate.
 The AND gate allows signal pulses to pass through only during the 1-second interval.
 The pulses passed through are counted by an electronic counter.
 Each pulse corresponds to one cycle of the unknown signal.
 Therefore, the number of pulses counted = frequency (in Hz) of the input signal.
 This method provides a direct frequency measurement.
 Since electronic counters have high-speed operation, high-frequency signals can be measured
accurately.

BASIC CIRCUIT OF A DIGITAL FREQUENCY METER:

The block diagram of a basic circuit of a digital frequency meter is shown in Fig.

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OPERATION USING SCHMITT TRIGGER AND START/STOP GATE

 The signal is optionally amplified before processing.

 It is then passed to a Schmitt trigger.
 The Schmitt trigger converts the signal into a square wave with fast rise and fall times.
 This square wave is differentiated and clipped to generate a train of pulses — one for each
cycle of the input signal.
 These pulses are fed to a START/STOP gate.
 When the gate is enabled, pulses pass through to an electronic counter.
 The counter counts the pulses, which represent each cycle of the input signal.
 When the gate is disabled, counting stops.
 The counter displays the number of pulses received during the known time interval.
 Knowing this time interval allows calculation of the unknown frequency.

BASIC CIRCUIT FOR FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT:

BASIC CIRCUIT FOR FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT

 The output of the unknown frequency is first applied to a Schmitt trigger, which generates
positive pulses.
 These pulses, known as counter signals, appear at point A of the main gate.
 Positive pulses from the time base selector go to point B of both the START and STOP
gates.

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Initial Conditions

 Flip-Flop 1 (F/F-1) starts in the logic 1 state.

 Output Y = 1 → Enables the STOP gate.
 Output Y̅ = 0 → Disables the START gate.

First Time Base Pulse

 STOP gate passes time base pulses to Set input of Flip-Flop 2 (F/F-2).
 F/F-2 is set to logic 1 and held in that state.
 Y̅ of F/F-2 = 0 → Disables the main gate → No unknown frequency pulses are counted yet.

Starting the Measurement

 A positive pulse is applied to the reset input of F/F-1.

o F/F-1 changes state: Y = 0, Y̅ = 1.
o STOP gate is disabled, START gate is enabled.
o Decade counters are reset to 0.

Gate Enabling

 The next pulse from the time base:

o Passes through the START gate, resets F/F-2.
o F/F-2 output Y̅ = 1 → This becomes the gating signal.
o Gating signal enables the main gate.

Counting Phase

 Pulses from the unknown frequency source now pass through the main gate.
 These pulses are counted by the counter.
 The same START pulse also:
o Sets F/F-1 to logic 1.
o Disables START gate, enables STOP gate.

Stopping the Measurement

 The next pulse from the time base selector:

o Passes through the STOP gate, sets F/F-2 to logic 1, causing Y̅ = 0.
o Main gate is now disabled → counting stops.

Final Measurement

 The counter displays the number of pulses that passed during the known time interval (e.g., 1
second).
 This value is the frequency in Hertz.

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THE ASSEMBLY CONSISTING OF TWO F/FS AND TWO GATES IS CALLED A GATE
CONTROL F/F. THE BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A DIGITAL FREQUENCY METER

Gate Control Flip-Flop Assembly

 The assembly includes two Flip-Flops (F/Fs) and two gates.

 This is referred to as a Gate Control Flip-Flop (F/F).

Signal Conditioning

 The input signal is amplified and then sent to a Schmitt trigger.

 The Schmitt trigger converts it into a square wave.
 The square wave is differentiated and clipped to create a train of pulses, one for each cycle of
the input.

Time Base Generation

 The time base selector output is derived from a stable oscillator.

 This output is also converted into positive pulses using a similar method.

Gate Control and Counting Process

 The first pulse from the time base:

o Activates the gate control F/F.
o Sends an enable signal to the AND gate.
 The trigger pulses from the input signal:
o Pass through the AND gate during the enabled time period.
o Are counted by an electronic counter.

Gate Closing and Display

 The second pulse from the decade frequency divider:

o Changes the state of the gate control F/F.
o Removes the enable signal, thus disabling the AND gate.
 The decimal counter and display unit:
o Shows the number of pulses counted during the enabled time period.
o This count directly represents the frequency of the input signal.

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Digital Measurement of Time:

 Measurement starts with a start pulse from Input 1.

 Measurement ends with a stop pulse from Input 2.
 A clock oscillator runs continuously in the background.
 Oscillator pulses are allowed to pass only when the control flip-flop (F/F) is in the logic 1 state.
 The number of pulses counted during this enabled period is proportional to the time interval
between start and stop.
 Hence, the total number of output pulses gives a direct measure of the time period.

Time Base Selector:

Time Base in Frequency Measurement

 To accurately measure frequency, the time interval between start and stop of the gate must be
precisely known.
 This known interval is referred to as the time base.

Components of the Time Base

 The time base is generated by a fixed frequency crystal oscillator, also called a clock oscillator.
 This oscillator must be highly accurate.
 To maintain accuracy, the crystal is housed in a constant temperature oven.

Pulse Generation and Division

 The output of the oscillator (a sine wave) is passed through a Schmitt trigger.
o This converts the sine wave into a train of square pulses.
o The pulse rate is equal to the frequency of the oscillator.

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 These pulses are passed through a series of frequency divider decade assemblies arranged in
cascade.
o Each decade divider includes a decade counter that divides the frequency by 10.

Selectable Output

 Outputs from various stages of the frequency divider chain can be accessed using a selector
switch.
 This allows selection of a suitable time interval for measurement (e.g., 1 μs, 10 μs, 1 ms, 1 s,
etc.).

Time Base Generation:

 The circuit includes a clock oscillator with a frequency of 1 MHz.

 The output of the Schmitt trigger is 10⁶ pulses/second, corresponding to a time interval of 1
μs.
 A 6-decade frequency divider is used to generate various time base intervals.
 The time base range that can be selected using a selector switch includes:
1 μs, 10 μs, 100 μs, 1 ms, 10 ms, 100 ms, and 1 s.

Measurement of Time (Period Measurement):

 In digital measurements, time (period) may need to be measured instead of frequency.

 This is especially important in the low-frequency range to achieve greater accuracy.
 At low frequencies, measuring the period gives more accurate results than measuring
frequency directly.
 The frequency measurement circuit can also be used for period measurement.
 To do this, the counted signal and gating signal are interchanged.

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Figure shows the Circuit for Digital Measurement of Time Period:

 Gating Signal Source:

o The gating signal is derived from the unknown input signal.
o This signal controls the enabling and disabling of the main gate.
 Counting Mechanism:
o The circuit counts the number of pulses occurring during one period of the unknown
signal.
o These pulses are displayed using decade counting assemblies (DCAs).
 Calculation of Frequency:
o The frequency must be calculated manually using the formula:
f=1Tf = \frac{1}{T}f=T1
o Example:
 For a signal of 60 Hz, the period displayed might be 16.6673 ms.
 The operator calculates frequency:
f=116.6673×10−3≈60 Hzf = \frac{1}{16.6673 \times 10^{-3}} \approx 60 \, \
text{Hz}f=16.6673×10−31≈60Hz

Accuracy Enhancement with Multiple Period Averaging:

 Improving Accuracy:
o Multiple period average mode is used to enhance measurement accuracy.
o In this mode, the main gate is enabled for more than one period of the signal.
 Use of Decade Divider Assemblies (DDAs):
o The input signal is passed through one or more DDAs.

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o This extends the measured period by a factor of 10,000 or more.

 Resulting Benefits:
o The digital display shows more digits, increasing resolution and accuracy.
o Despite measuring many cycles (e.g., 10,000+), the display is adjusted to show the
period of a single cycle.
o Decimal point location and units change automatically with each added DDA for
consistent interpretation.

Digital Measurement of Frequency (Mains):

Digital Measurement of Frequency (Mains):
Conventional Method:
 Measures frequency by counting the number of cycles of the input signal during a fixed
gate interval.
 Gate interval duration determines the resolution of the measurement:

o Shorter gate interval → lower resolution

o Longer gate interval → higher resolution
 For kHz and above, good resolution (e.g., 0.1%) is achievable with 1 second gate time.
 For low frequencies (e.g., 50 Hz):
o To get 0.1 Hz resolution, a 10 s gate interval is needed.
o For 0.01 Hz resolution, a 100 s gate interval is required.
o These long gate intervals are impractical for many applications.

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Disadvantages:

 Conventional counters are not suitable for low-frequency measurement due to long gate
times required for good resolution.

Mains Frequency Monitor (Improved Technique):

Key Characteristics:

 The frequency range of interest is narrow: 50 ± 5% Hz (i.e., 45–55 Hz).

 Calibration yields a parabolic curve, but within this range, it’s approximately flat:
o < 0.2% error at ±5% deviation from 50 Hz.
o 0.02% error at ±2% deviation.
o Zero error near 50 Hz.

Underlying Principle:

 Uses the relation:

f=1Tf = \frac{1}{T}f=T1
 Defines a new time unit (ku – kilounit):
o 20 ms (period for 50 Hz) = 50 ku
o Therefore, 1 s = 2500 ku

Conversion of Period to Frequency Using ku:

Frequency (Hz) Period (s) Period (ku)

45 1/45 55.55 ku

46 1/46 54.35 ku

47 1/47 53.19 ku

48 1/48 52.08 ku

49 1/49 51.02 ku

50 1/50 50.00 ku

51 1/51 49.02 ku

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Frequency (Hz) Period (s) Period (ku)

52 1/52 48.08 ku

53 1/53 47.16 ku

54 1/54 46.29 ku

55 1/55 44.44 ku

 Empirical Relation within 45–55 Hz range:

Fx=100−TxF_x = 100 - T_xFx=100−Tx
where FxF_xFx is the frequency (Hz) and TxT_xTx is the period (in ku).

Measuring Period in ku:

 For 1 Hz resolution, period TxT_xTx should be accurate to 1 ku.

 For 4-digit resolution, period TxT_xTx must be accurate to 0.01 ku.
 A stable crystal-controlled oscillator provides a reference signal with a period of 0.01 ku.
 The number of reference cycles during one input cycle gives TxT_xTx in ku.

Hardware Implementation:

 An UP/DOWN counter operates in down-count mode.

 This allows simultaneous counting of period and automatic subtraction from 100.
 Hence, frequency is directly displayed, avoiding the need for manual or separate
computation.

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Measurement of Frequency (Mains) – Circuit Description:

Main Components (as per schematic Fig. ):

 Input wave shaper – Conditions the incoming waveform.

 Reference clock generator – Provides a stable reference signal (1 MHz).
 Sequence control logic unit – Controls the timing and sequencing of operations.
 Counter display – Displays the measured frequency.
 Intermediate latch circuitry – Temporarily holds data for accurate display.

Working Principle (assuming input = 50 Hz):

Reference clock = 1 MHz ⇒ 1,000,000 pulses/sec

 Period of 50 Hz = 20 ms

o In 20 ms:
1,000,000×0.02=20,000 pulses1,000,000 \times 0.02 = 20,000 \
text{ pulses}1,000,000×0.02=20,000 pulses

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 Output of flip-flops divides this by 4: 20,000/4=5,000 pulses20,000 / 4 = 5,000 \

text{ pulses}20,000/4=5,000 pulses
 These pulses are counted down in a modulo-10000 counter.

10000−5000=5000⇒display = 50.00 Hz10000 - 5000 = 5000 ⇒ \text{display = 50.00

 For 50 Hz, display reads:

Hz}10000−5000=5000⇒display = 50.00 Hz

Example: Input Frequency = 48 Hz

 Period = 148=20.83\frac{1}{48} = 20.83481=20.83 ms

Down-counted display: 10000−5208=4792⇒display = 47.92 Hz10000 - 5208 = 4792 ⇒ \

 Pulses in 20.83 ms = 5208

text{display = 47.92 Hz}10000−5208=4792⇒display = 47.92 Hz

Digital Tachometer – Working Principle:

Basic Concept:

 Similar to frequency counters.

 Measures speed of a rotating shaft by counting pulses over a fixed gate period.

Definitions:

 Let:
o R = shaft speed in rpm
o P = pulses per revolution from the pickup
o G = gate period in seconds

Formulas:

 Pulses per minute = R×PR \times PR×P

 Frequency of pulses = R×P60\frac{R \times P}{60}60R×P
 Pulses counted in gate time GGG =
R×P×G60\frac{R \times P \times G}{60}60R×P×G

To Get Direct RPM Reading:

 Set counter to count RRR pulses directly.

 Gate time G=60PG = \frac{60}{P}G=P60
 Example:
o If gate time G=1G = 1G=1 second,
o Then pickup must generate 60 pulses per revolution

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Working Principle of Digital pH Meter

Basic Concept:

 Measures hydrogen ion activity (pH) in a solution.

 pH indicates acidity, neutrality, or alkalinity of a solution:
o pH < 7 → Acidic
o pH = 7 → Neutral
o pH > 7 → Alkaline (Basic)

Definition:

 pH is defined as:

pH=−log⁡[H+]\text{pH} = -\log [\text{H}^+]pH=−log[H+]

where [H+][H^+][H+] is the concentration of hydrogen ions.

Digital pH Meter vs. Analog pH Meter:

 In a digital pH meter, the analog measurement is converted to a digital form.

 Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) replaces the traditional analog meter.
 Common ADC used: Dual Slope ADC.

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Block Diagram Components (as in Fig. 6.20):

1. Electrode Sensor – Senses the hydrogen ion concentration.

2. Amplifier – Amplifies the small signal from the electrode.
3. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) – Converts analog voltage to digital.
4. Microcontroller or Logic Unit – Processes the digital data.
5. Digital Display Unit – Shows the pH value numerically.

 The dual slope circuit produces a pulse with a duration proportional to the input signal
voltage (T pulse width).

 This T pulse width represents the time taken for the integrator to return to zero voltage after
being charged by the input signal.

 The pulse width is used to turn an oscillator ON or OFF.

 The oscillator generates clock pulses only during the pulse width duration (T).

 These clock pulses are counted, generating a digital signal that is proportional to the input
voltage.

 The count is then:

 Stored in a counter,
 Converted into a parallel digital signal,
 And displayed using a digital display unit.

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Automation in Digital Instruments

General Features:

 Ease of operation is a major advantage of digital multimeters (DMMs).

 Digital readings minimize errors due to interpretation.
 Fewer ranges needed due to step increments of 10 (unlike analog meters which use √10
steps).
 User demands for simplified operation and advances in digital circuitry have led to
increased automation in DMMs.

Automated Functions in Digital Instruments:

1. Automatic Polarity Indication:

o Derived from the ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) information.
o In integrating ADCs, only the polarity of the integrated signal matters.
o Polarity is measured at the end of the integration period.
o The last clock counts may trigger polarity measurement.
o The output of the integrator sets the polarity flip-flop, which is stored in memory
for the next measurement.
2. Automatic Decimal Point Positioning:
o The instrument automatically positions the decimal point to match the value range,
enhancing readability.
3. Automatic Ranging:
o The meter automatically selects the appropriate range based on the input signal
magnitude.
o Reduces the need for manual range adjustment.
4. Automatic Zeroing:
o Zero corrections are made automatically to compensate for internal offset voltages.
o Ensures accurate readings even with no input signal.

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2. Automatic Ranging in Digital Instruments

 Purpose: To provide optimum resolution automatically for any input signal.

 Ensures that values like 170 mV are displayed as 170.0, not 0.170, maintaining clarity and
precision.

Example: 3½ Digit Display

 Maximum displayable value is 1999.

 If a value exceeds 1999, it must be scaled down by a factor of 10 to fit within display limits.
o e.g., 2010 mV → displayed as 0201 (after range adjustment).
 If a value is below 200, it allows for one more decimal place of resolution.
o e.g., 195 mV → displayed as 195.0.

Automatic Range Adjustment Logic

 If the measured value is less than 200, the meter automatically switches to a more sensitive
range to increase resolution.
 If the measured value is greater than 1999, the meter switches to a less sensitive range to
avoid overflow.
 This logic ensures the best possible resolution without manual intervention.

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Generally the lower

limit is Automatic Ranging – Overlap and Stability

 Issue Without Overlap:

o For voltages fluctuating around 2000, the display could jump between ranges:
 e.g., shown successively as 1999.9, 0200, and 0201, causing confusion and
unstable readings.
 Solution: Overlapping Ranges:
o Introduce range overlap so values around the boundary (e.g., 2000) are displayed
within the same range.
o Ensures stable display of closely fluctuating values.

Example:

 Voltage around 0180:

o Displayed stably as 1798, 1800, or 1807.
 Voltage around 2000:
o Displayed as 0199, 0200, or 0201 (within the same range).
 Purpose of Overlap:
o Prevents the display from switching ranges too often.
o Ensures smooth, consistent readings even when the input signal is near a range
boundary.
 Block Diagram Reference:
o The design of such a system is depicted in Fig. 6.23, showing how automatic ranging
is implemented with overlapping thresholds.

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Automatic Ranging – Control and Operation

 Counter Data from ADC:

o Generates control pulses:
 Down-ranging when count < 180
 Up-ranging when count > 1999
 Up/Down Counter Function:
o Responds to count information when a clock pulse is received (end of the measuring
period).
o Clock pulse also:
 Transfers new data to memory
 Triggers range adjustment via decoder
 Adjusts the decimal point in the display accordingly
 Multiple Range Steps:
o If the required range change is more than one step, multiple measuring periods are
needed to reach the correct range.
 Inhibition of Automatic Ranging:
o Automatic ranging can be inhibited by:
 Manual range hold command
 Signal exceeding maximum range (applies to up-counts only)
 Reaching the most sensitive range (applies to down-counts only)

3. Automatic Zeroing:
Each user of a voltmeter expects the instrument to indicate zero when the input is short-circuited. In a
digital voltmeter with a maximum reading of 1999, a zero error of 0.05% of full scale deflection is
sufficient to give a reading of 0001. For this reason, and in the interests of optimum accuracy with
low valued readings, a zero adjustment is necessary. To increase the ease of operation, many
instruments now contain an automatic zeroing circuit.

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Zero Error Measurement in Multimeters with Dual Slope ADC

 Zero Error Measurement:

o Measured before the actual measurement.
o Stored as an analog signal.
 Circuit Setup (Simplified Diagram in Fig. 6.24):
o Involves a dual slope ADC.
o Switches S3, S4, and S5 are closed for 50 ms.
 Grounds the input.
 Gives the integrator a short RC time.
 Connects the output of the comparator to capacitor C.
 Charging of Capacitor C:
o Capacitor C is charged by offset voltages from:
 Amplifier
 Integrator
 Comparator
 Real Measurement:
o When switches S3, S4, and S5 are opened:
 Zero error (offset voltage) is stored in capacitor C.
 Real input voltage is then measured correctly, accounting for the zero error.

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