BACHELOR OF ARTS IN EDUCATION

SEMESTER – III

CORE - 5: EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT AND

EVALUATION

CREDIT: 6
BLOCK:1,2,3,4

AUTHOR:
PROF.RAMAKANTA MOHALIK

UTKAL UNIVERSITY,
Accredited with Grade – A+ by NAAC
VANIVIHAR, BHUBANESWAR, ODISHA-751004
 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

CENTRE FOR DISTANCE AND ONLINE EDUCATION (CDOE), UTKAL

UNIVERSITY, VANIVIHAR, BHUBANESWAR

Programme Name: Bachelor of Arts in Education, Programme Code -010105

Course Name: EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

SEMESTER: - III CREDIT – 4 BLOCK – 1 TO 4 UNIT NO- 1 to 20

EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. S. P. Mishra
Retd. Professor, Regional Institute of Education, NCERT, Bhubaneswar
Prof. Krutibash Rath
Retd. Professor, Regional Institute of Education, NCERT, Bhubaneswar
Prof. Smita Mishra
Retd. Professor, Former Principal, Radhanath Institute of Advanced Studies in Education,
Cuttack
Dr. Dhiren Kumar Mohapatra
Retd. Associate Professor, B.J.B Autonomous College, Bhubaneswar

COURSE WRITER

PROF. RAMAKANTA MOHALIK

PROFESSOR, REGIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION, NCERT, NEW DELHI.

COURSE STRCTUR EDITORS

Dr. Diptansu Bhusan Pati, Faculty, Department of Education, CDOE, Utkal University,
Vanivihar, Bhubaneswara
Ms. Anita Nath, Faculty, Department of Education, CDOE, Utkal University, Vanivihar,
Bhubaneswara

MATERIAL PRPDUCTION

BY CDOE, UTKAL UNIVERSITY

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

DDCE,
EDUCATION FOR ALL
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE AND ONLINE EDUCATION (CDOE),
UTKAL UNIVERSITY, VANIVIHAR, BHUBANESWAR-751007
From the Director’s Desk
The Centre for Distance and Online Education, originally established as the University
Evening College way back in 1962 has travelled a long way in the last 62 years.
‘EDUCATION FOR ALL’ is our motto. Increasingly the Open and Distance Learning
institutions are aspiring to provide education for anyone, anytime and anywhere.CDOE,
Utkal University has been constantly striving to rise up to the challenges of Open Distance
Learning system. Nearly ninety thousand students have passed through the portals of this
great temple of learning. We may not have numerous great tales of outstanding academic
achievements but we have great tales of success in life, of recovering lost opportunities,
tremendous satisfaction in life, turning points in career and those who feel that without us
they would not be where they are today. There are also flashes when our students figure in
best ten in their honours subjects. In 2014 we have as many as fifteen students within top
ten of honours merit list of Education, Sanskrit, English and Public Administration,
Accounting and Management Honours. Our students must be free from despair and
negative attitude. They must be enthusiastic, full of energy and confident of their future. To
meet the needs of quality enhancement and to address the quality concerns of our stake
holders over the years, we are switching over to self-instructional material printed
courseware. Now we have entered into public private partnership to bring out quality SIM
pattern courseware. Leading publishers have come forward to share their expertise with
us. A number of reputed authors have now prepared the course ware. Self-Instructional
Material in printed book format continues to be the core learning material for distance
learners. We are sure that students would go beyond the course ware provided by us. We
are aware that most of you are working and have also family responsibility. Please
remember that only a busy person has time for everything and a lazy person has none. We
are sure you will be able to chalk out a well-planned programme to study the courseware.
By choosing to pursue a course in distance mode, you have made a commitment for self-
improvement and acquiring higher educational qualification. You should rise up to your
commitment. Every student must go beyond the standard books and self-instructional
course material. You should read number of books and use ICT learning resources like the
internet, television and radio programmes etc. As only limited number of classes will be
held, a student should come to the personal contact programme well prepared. The PCP
should be used for clarification of doubt and counselling. This can only happen if you read
the course material before PCP. You can always mail your feedback on the course ware to
us. It is very important that you discuss the contents of the course materials with other
fellow learners.
We wish you happy reading.
DIRECTOR

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

CORE 5- EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

Brief Content
Block Block Unit Unit
No No
1 ASSESSMENT AND 1 Understanding the meaning and purpose of test,
EVALUATION IN measurement, assessment and evaluation
EDUCATION 2 Scales of measurement- nominal, ordinal, interval
and ratio
3 Types of test- teacher made and standardized,
Approaches to evaluation placement, formative,
diagnostic and summative
4. Types of evaluation- norm referenced and criterion
referenced
5. Concept and nature of continuous and compressive
evaluation
Block Block Unit Unit
No No
2 INSTRUCTIONAL 6. Taxonomy of instructional learning objectives with
LEARNING OBJECTIVES special reference to cognitive domain
7. Criteria of selecting appropriate learning objectives
8. stating of general and specific instructional learning
objectives
9. Relationship of evaluation procedure with learning
objectives
10. Difference between objective based objective type
test and objective based essay type test
Block Block Unit Unit
No No
3 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES 11. Steps of test construction: planning, preparing, trying
OF ASSESSMENT AND out and evaluation
CONSTRUCTION OF TEST 12. Principles of construction of objective type test
items, matching, multiple choice, completion and
true – false
13. Principles of construction of essay type test
14. Non- standardized tools: Observation schedule,
interview schedule, , check list,
15. Non- standardized tools: portfolio and rubrics, rating
scale
Block Block Unit Unit
No No
4 Characteristics of a good 16. Validity-concept, types and methods of validation
Test 17. Reliability- concept and methods of estimating
reliability
18. Objectivity- concept and methods of estimating
objectivity
19. Usability- concept

20. Usability- factors ensuring usability

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

CORE 5- EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

Contents
BLOCKS/UNITS Page No

BLOCK 01: ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION IN EDUCATION 1-52

Unit 01: Understanding the meaning and purpose of test, measurement, assessment
and evaluation
Unit 02: Scales of measurement- nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio
Unit 03: Types of test- teacher made and standardized , Approaches to evaluation-
placement, formative, diagnostic and summative
Unit 04: - Types of evaluation- norm referenced and criterion referenced
Unit 05: - Concept and nature of continuous and compressive evaluation
BLOCK 02: INSTRUCTIONAL LEARNING OBJECTIVES 53-87

Unit 06: Taxonomy of instructional learning objectives with special reference to

cognitive domain
Unit 07: Criteria of selecting appropriate learning objectives
Unit 08: stating of general and specific instructional learning objectives
Unit 09: Relationship of evaluation procedure with learning objectives
Unit 10: Difference between objective based objective type test and objective based
essay type test

BLOCK 03: TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF ASSESSMENT AND CONSTRUCTION OF 88-164

TEST

Unit 11: Steps of test construction: planning, preparing, trying out and evaluation
Unit 12: Principles of construction of objective type test items, matching, multiple
choice, completion and true – false
Unit 13: Principles of construction of essay type test
Unit 14: Non- standardized tools: Observation schedule, interview schedule, , check
list,
Unit 15: Non- standardized tools: portfolio and rubrics, rating scale

BLOCK 04: CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST 165-

201
Unit 16: Validity-concept, types and methods of validation
Unit 17: Reliability- concept and methods of estimating reliability
Unit 18: Objectivity- concept and methods of estimating objectivity
Unit 19: Usability- concept
Unit 20: Usability- factors ensuring usability

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

BLOCK-I
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION IN EDUCATION

Unit 01: Understanding the meaning and purpose of test,

measurement, assessment and evaluation
Unit 02: Scales of measurement- nominal, ordinal, interval and
ratio
Unit 03: Types of test- teacher made and standardized,
Approaches to evaluation- placement, formative, diagnostic and
summative
Unit 04: - Types of evaluation- norm referenced and criterion
referenced
Unit 05: - Concept and nature of continuous and compressive
evaluation

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UNIT-1
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION IN EDUCATION
STRUCTURE

1.1.Learning Objectives
1.2.Introduction
1.3. Concept, Scope and Need of Measurement and Assessment
1.3.1. Concept of Measurement
1.3.2. Scope of Measurement
1.3.3. Concept of Assessment
1.3.4. Concept of Evaluation
1.3.5. Need of measurement and assessment
1.3.6. Characteristics of Assessment
1.3.7. Scope of Assessment
1.3.8. Scope of Assessment based on roles in teaching learning process
1.3.9. Interrelationship between measurement and assessment
1.3.10. Norm-referenced and criterion referenced measurement
1.4. Summary/Key Points
1.5.Unit End Exercises
1.6.Further Reading

1.1.LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading the unit, the learners shall be able to;

● Define the term measurement and assessment.

● Differentiate between measurement and assessment.
● Explain different types of assessment and its uses.
● Distinguish between uses of norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests.

1.2.INTRODUCTION
One of the significant aspects of formal education is measurement and evaluation which
gives feedback to the entire system of education for its quality improvement. Hence, all the
stakeholders of education starting from parents to education administrators are very much

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concerned about the assessment practices followed in school and colleges. It is very much
essential for teachers and educators to make reliable and valid assessments and communicate
results to parents and students. To conduct assessment in a qualitative manner, educators are
required to have knowledge of theory and practices of assessment and related concepts. In
this unit, the basic concepts of assessment such as measurement, assessment, types of
assessment, role of educational objectives etc. are discussed with real examples. It also
contains the nature, principles and functions of different types of assessment relevant to
formal education.

1.3.CONCEPT, SCOPE AND NEED OF MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT

1.3.1. Concept of Measurement

Measurement is the process of assigning numerical values or quantifying attributes,

characteristics, quantities, or qualities of objects, events, phenomena, or individuals based on
established standards, criteria, or units. Measurement involves comparing an unknown
quantity with a known quantity. For example, when we measure the width of a block, we
compare the unknown quantity which is the width of the block with a known one which is the
measuring tape.

Measurement in the educational context refers to the process of quantifying or assigning

numerical values to various attributes, characteristics, or aspects related to teaching, learning,
and educational outcomes. For example, a student scored 60 in mathematics. Here we are
quantifying the student’s achievement in one subject. Effective measurement in education is
crucial for understanding student progress, evaluating the effectiveness of educational
programs, and making informed decisions to improve the learning environment.

Various experts have provided different definitions based on their perspectives and areas
of expertise. Here are some notable definitions of measurement:

● “Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to objects or events in such a way

as to represent quantities of attributes.” - Gronlund
● Measurement is the description of data in terms of numbers. -Guildford
● “Measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to rules.”-
Stevens
● "Measurement is the quantification of attributes of an object or event, which can be
used to compare with other objects or events." - Nunnally

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

● “Measurement is the process of assigning symbols to dimensions or phenomena in

order to characterize the status of the phenomenon as precisely as possible”. –
Bradfield & Moredock

To sum up we can say that educational measurement is a descriptive process that involves
the assignment of numbers to express the degree to which a student possesses a certain trait
or characteristics in numerical terms. Hence it is always quantitative in nature.

1.3.2. Scope of measurement

Measurement is the process of quantifying the characteristics/ attributes of individual

learners on the basis of certain rules. It is the first step in the assessment process of formal
education. It provides quantitative evidence to the assessor/teacher for making qualitative
judgment or taking some decisions. The scope of the measurement covers the entire
education system. Broadly, the scope can be explained in three levels as follows.

● Direct measurement- Direct measurement in education refers to assessing student

learning or performance using tools and methods that directly measure the intended
learning outcomes. It involves the straightforward evaluation of what a student knows
or can do. For example, direct measurement methods are usually not used in
educational setting as most of traits of learners can’t be measured directly. These
measurement methods are used in physical sciences where standard tools are available
and can be directly used to measure traits. For example; weight can be measured by
using the standard of kilogram. But in educational context some of the physical
characteristics of learners such as Hight, weight etc. can be measured with direct
measurement.
● Indirect measurement- Indirect measurement in education involves assessing
students through methods that require interpretation or inference based on multiple
pieces of evidence or criteria. For example, while assessing some psychological traits
of students cannot be measured directly, rather they are measured indirectly by
inferring from the observable behaviour.
● Relative measurement- Relative measurement in education involves comparison of
the performance or achievement of a student to that of peers or a group of reference
students. It assesses how the performance of a student relates to the performance of
others. Grading on a curve, norm-referenced tests, and percentile rankings are

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examples of relative measurements in education. These methods gauge a student's

standing within a specific reference group.
The measurement can be direct, indirect and relative depending on qualities to be measured.
But in education, most of the measurement is indirect and relative in nature as it deals with
human qualitative which can not be observed directly.

Self-check Exercise-1.1
Write three examples of measurement from a school situation as a teacher.
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1.3.3. Concept of Assessment

Assessment refers to the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting the

information about students’ performance by using testing and non-testing devices. It is a tool
that provides teachers with data to improve their teaching methods and guide and motivate
students to actively participate in their learning. It offers crucial feedback to both teachers
and pupils, giving them essential information on what the pupils are learning and how well
teachers are achieving their teaching goals. The real potential of assessments lies in utilizing
them to give feedback to students. Enhancing the standard of education in courses means not
just assessing how proficiently students have comprehended course material at the end of the
academic year, but also tracking their advancement throughout the year. Assessment should
not only provide teachers with valuable information about pupils’ learning, but also assist
pupils diagnose their own learning. That is, assessment should assist pupils “become more
effective, self-assessing, self-directed learners” (Angelo & Cross, 1993). In reality,
assessment is a planned and systematic procedure of collecting and utilizing factual data to
measure students' knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and convictions to make informed teaching
decisions. It gives comprehensive, valid, and reliable information that facilitates decision-
making about students’ progress. Assessment can be done during as well as at the conclusion
of the academic session in the form of formative assessment and summative assessment by
using both conventional and unconventional tools.
1.3.4. Concept of Evaluation
Evaluation is an act or process of assigning value judgment to a student's performance
on the basis of certain criteria. It means to find out the value of or to judge the worth of. It

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

involves the process of comparing with certain standards or with a group of students. It is
always based on measurement or quantification of students’ performance in subjects or
courses. Evaluation is a comprehensive term that encompasses all the techniques used to
determine the outcomes of a particular intervention or teaching. It involves the methodical
assessment of the value or significance of an object. Evaluation also involves the systematic
gathering and analysis of data to offer constructive feedback regarding the performance of
students.
Evaluation adds value judgment to assessment. It often involves providing suggestions for
constructive action. It is a qualitative measure of effectiveness, suitability, and goodness.
Evaluation is the process of assessing whether a program's parts, processes, or outcomes meet
its stated objectives or an established standard of excellence. Evaluation involves inferring
from the data collected through multiple sources. It is defined as “the process of collecting,
interpreting and synthesising information in order to make decisions” (Gage and Berliner,
1991). The concept of evaluation can be articulated as follows:

Quantitative measure Qualitative description

Value
Evaluation = of + of + Judgement
Student’s achievement student’s achievement by

1.3.5. Need of Measurement and Assessment

The main purpose of measurement and assessment is to improve the quality of teaching
learning. According to Oguniyi (1984), educational assessment and evaluation is carried out
from time to time in the school for the following purposes:
● To determine the effectiveness of the curriculum, textbooks, and other learning
resources in terms of students’ behavioral output.
● To make valid and reliable decisions about educational planning.
● To determine the value of time, energy, and resources dedicated to the teaching-
learning process.
● To recognize pupils’ growth or absence of growth in acquisition of desired
knowledge, skills, perceptions, and values.
● To support educators in assessing the efficiency of their teaching methods and
educational resources.

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

● To motivate students to enhance their learning by recognizing their advancements or

areas where improvement is needed in a particular subject.
● To cultivate discipline and adopt systematic study habits among students.
● To furnish educational administrators with sufficient information regarding teachers'
performance and the requirements of the school.
● To familiarize parents or guardians with their children’s performances in various
learning areas.
● To predict the general trend in the development of the teaching-learning process.
● To offer an impartial basis for deciding the promotion of pupils from one grade to
another and the issuance of certificates.
Measurement and assessment are an essential component of the teaching-learning process. It
determines the extent to which learning objectives are achieved by the learners and provides
feedback to teachers about the effectiveness of teaching. Many instructional decisions such as
admission, grouping, scholarship, promotion, remediation, certification, and curriculum
renewal are based on the assessment and evaluation results.

Self-check Exercise-1.2
What are the differences between assessment and evaluation?
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1.3.6. Characteristics of Assessment

Assessment in education has several key characteristics defining its nature and purpose
within the educational context. Understanding these characteristics is essential for making
informed decisions about teaching and learning. Here are some of the prominent
characteristics of assessment in education:

● Purposeful: Assessment in education serves specific purposes, such as evaluating

student learning, informing instruction, providing feedback, and making decisions
about curriculum and instructional improvement.
● Multifaceted: Educational assessment takes many forms, including quizzes, tests,
projects, presentations, observations, and portfolios. These various assessment

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methods allow educators to measure different aspects of student learning and

performance.
● Systematic: Assessment is conducted systematically, often aligned with educational
objectives and standards. It follows established procedures and criteria to ensure
fairness, consistency, and reliability.
● Ongoing: Assessment is not limited to end-of-term exams but includes formative
assessments conducted throughout the learning process. These ongoing assessments
help teachers gauge student progress and adapt their teaching accordingly.
● Diagnostic: Assessments are used diagnostically to identify students' strengths and
weaknesses in specific areas of knowledge or skills. This information guides
instructional planning and support.
● Objective: Educational assessments aim to be as objective as possible, reducing
subjectivity in grading and evaluation. Clear criteria and rubrics are often used to
ensure consistency.
● Valid: Validity is a crucial characteristic of educational assessment. Valid
assessments accurately measure the intended educational constructs or objectives,
ensuring that the results are meaningful.
● Reliable: Reliability ensures that assessments produce consistent results when
administered multiple times or by different assessors. Reliable assessments are
trustworthy and dependable.
● Feedback-Oriented: Assessment provides feedback to both teachers and students. It
helps teachers understand their students' needs and informs instructional decisions.
Students receive feedback on their performance, allowing them to identify areas for
improvement.
● Continuous Improvement: Assessment is a tool for continuous improvement in
education. Data from assessments help identify areas in need of enhancement and
inform strategies for educational improvement.

Understanding these characteristics helps educators and stakeholders use assessment

effectively as a means of promoting learning, supporting educational goals, and ensuring the
quality of education provided to students.

1.3.7. Scope of Assessment

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Assessment is a very comprehensive and detailed process of gathering, analyzing,

interpreting, and using test results for the improvement of learning. Its scope is very broad
and all inclusive. It can start before the academic session, can continue throughout the
teaching and end at the end of the academic session. Hence, scope of assessment covers the
entire education system. Assessment in education can be categorized into different categories
based on different criteria. Here are some common types of assessment based on different
criteria in education:

Scope of Assessment on the Basis of Purpose

Placement Assessment

Placement assessment, also referred to as initial assessment, serves as a crucial tool in

education, especially at the commencement of a course or educational program. Its primary
objective is to gauge a student's foundational knowledge, skills, and competencies within a
particular subject area. This evaluation holds paramount significance as it ensures that
students are positioned appropriately in courses that align with their current abilities, thereby
preventing situations of either over-challenging or under-challenging students throughout
their learning journey. Placement assessments provide educators with invaluable insights to
make informed decisions about class placement, course selection, and instructional
differentiation, all of which should be tailored to individual student readiness. The
importance of this assessment lies in the creation of an optimal learning environment, where
students receive instruction aligned with their current level of proficiency, reducing
frustration and fostering a positive and productive learning experience. For instance, a typical
placement assessment example includes the administration of a mathematics placement test
to determine a student's readiness for advanced math courses, exemplifying its role in
ensuring students are appropriately positioned for their educational endeavors.

Formative assessment

Formative assessment is a dynamic and interactive process that plays a pivotal role in
education. It is an ongoing practice of collecting information during the learning journey,
with the primary aim of providing valuable feedback and guiding instructional strategies.
This assessment type holds the key purpose of not only monitoring student progress but also
delivering timely feedback to both educators and students. By doing so, it enables real-time
adjustments to teaching and learning strategies, ensuring that the educational journey is fine-
tuned to the specific needs of each student. The significance of formative assessment lies in

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its capacity to promote self-regulation of learning and empower students to recognize their
strengths and areas that require improvement. Furthermore, it equips educators with the tools
to make precise instructional adjustments, ultimately resulting in improved learning
outcomes. In practice, formative assessment takes the form of in-class quizzes, classroom
discussions, peer feedback, and teacher observations. For example, a teacher may conduct a
brief quiz following a lesson to gauge student comprehension, thus allowing for tailored
adjustments to the next day's lesson based on the outcomes, thus exemplifying the value of
formative assessment in educational progress.

Diagnostic Assessment

Diagnostic assessment stands as a comprehensive and indispensable element in the

educational realm. Unlike placement and formative assessments, diagnostic assessments
delve deeper into the students' specific strengths and weaknesses within particular subject
areas or skills. The primary aim of this assessment type is to unearth individual learning
needs, misconceptions, and areas that necessitate precise support or remediation. The wealth
of insights provided by diagnostic assessments fuels the development of personalized
learning plans tailored to the unique requirements of each student. These assessments are
administered at various points in the learning process, delivering essential information for
educators to offer highly precise instruction and targeted intervention. The importance of
diagnostic assessment lies in its ability to ensure students receive tailored support to
overcome their distinctive learning challenges. It empowers educators to provide the most
effective instruction, thus optimizing student success. For example, when a teacher conducts
pre-assessments at the start of a unit or course to determine what students know and need to
learn are diagnostic in nature. In-depth interviews and surveys may also reveal students' prior
knowledge and misconceptions.

Summative Assessment

Summative assessment holds a pivotal role in the educational landscape, serving as a

conclusive evaluation conducted at the culmination of a specific instructional period. Its
primary objective is to offer a comprehensive overview of a student's overall performance in
a particular subject or course. The purpose of summative assessment is multifaceted, aiming
to make judgments about student progress, assign grades, assess the effectiveness of
educational programs, and uphold accountability. These assessments are typically
administered at the end of a course, term, or academic year, serving as significant

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benchmarks for making decisions regarding student promotion or graduation. The importance
of summative assessment is profound; it supports the grading process, aids in evaluating
program effectiveness, and ensures educational accountability. By providing a holistic view
of student achievement, summative assessments offer an indispensable tool for educators and
institutions. Common examples of summative assessment include final exams, end-of-year
standardized tests, term papers, and comprehensive projects. For instance, a final exam in a
science course not only evaluates a student's overall knowledge of the subject but also
contributes significantly to their final grade, exemplifying the critical role of summative
assessment in education.

Educational assessment encompasses a range of functions and types, each contributing to the
understanding and improvement of student learning. Placement assessment ensures students
start their educational journey at an appropriate level, while formative assessment guides
ongoing learning and adjustment. Diagnostic assessment uncovers individual learning needs,
and summative assessment provides a comprehensive evaluation of overall achievement. The
four types of assessment is presented graphically below.

Placement

Types of
Summative Formative
assessment

Dignostic

Self-check Exercise: 1.3

What are the purposes of formative assessment?
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Difference between Formative and Summative Assessment

Formative Assessment Summative Assessment

Formative assessment takes place Summative assessment takes place at

throughout the teaching learning process. the end of a specific time period.

Its primary purpose is to provide feedback, Its primary purpose is to evaluate

guidance for future teaching strategies to overall performance, assigning grades
support the ongoing learning process. and assess the effectiveness of a
programme.

The feedback provided during assessment The feedback provided does not allow
allows for real time adjustment to the real time adjustments but helps in future
teaching learning strategies. planning and programme evaluation.

The frequency of such assessment is regular The frequency of summative assessment

and frequent. is less than formative assessment as it is
done after the learning period is over.

Example-: In-class quiz, classroom Example-: Final exams, term papers,

discussion, peer feedback, teacher comprehensive projects etc.
observations etc.

Teacher made test and informal tools are Teacher made test/school made test and
used for formative assessment test developed by the schools are used.

1.3.8. Scope of Assessment Based on Roles in Teaching-learning Process

Assessment of learning, assessment for learning, and assessment as learning are categorized
based on their primary purposes and the roles they play in the teaching and learning process.
These categorizations are primarily focused on the educational objectives and the roles of
assessments in achieving those objectives:

● Assessment of learning

Assessment of learning is frequently referred to as summative assessment and it

generally takes place at the end of the academic year. The main purpose is to promote or
certify learners on the basis of assessment results. It gives an overall picture of students’
performance at the end of the academic session. It also informs about the effectiveness of

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curriculum, textbooks, and other resource materials so that initiatives can be taken by
educational administrators for improvement. It provides the concluding marks for the
students which are given by the teachers to the students. Through these parents know how
qualitatively and quantitatively each student has scored in various tasks and activities of
learning. It provides important information about student achievement; it often has little
impact on learning. Assessment of Learning is performance-based and overall judgment,
multi-tasking observation of a single student, providing certificate/ grade sheet, giving award
or promotion from an existing class, shows final efforts of students in all subjects.
Both teacher-made tests as well as standardized tests can be used for assessment for
learning. It uses both written and practical tests covering the curriculum of the entire
academic year. The results of the student's performances are reported to different
stakeholders such as teachers, school administrators, policymakers, and students. Assessment
of learning has grave and extensive consequences and affects the future of students. That's
why, it is of utmost importance that the tests are designed with care to measure the student’s
learning systematically and the results are far from undue influence and bias.
Assessment for learning
The assessment done during the instruction is known as assessment for learning. It is an
ongoing assessment process that allows teachers to monitor students on day-to-day basis
tasks and modify their teaching needs to be successful. It provides students with specific
feedback at a specific time that they need to make adjustments for their learning.
It is the process of seeking and interpreting evidence for use by learners and teachers to
decide where learners are in their learning, where they need to go, and how best to get there
(Assessment Reform Group, 2002). The aim of assessment for learning is to investigate what
students have learned so far. Assessment for learning is very beneficial for teachers as it
informs and impacts their decisions and instruction to decide their future teaching strategies
for enhanced learning outcomes. It empowers students throughout the learning process and
makes them the proprietors of their work. Students are encouraged and motivated for their
attempts to complete challenging cognitive tasks. A healthy classroom environment is
developed in which the instructor and students work together to achieve the learning
objectives. Its primary goal is to improve teaching and learning through facilitating learners.
It occurs concurrently with the teaching-learning process in the classroom. It is increasingly
common and usually unstructured, frequently referred to as "formative assessment."
Assessment for learning is school-based and essential to the teaching-learning process. It
relies on diverse evidence, emphasizes a comprehensive assessment approach, is attuned to
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individual learning requirements, monitors changes in learning progression over time, aids
teachers in reviewing and adjusting the teaching-learning process, and contributes to
addressing learning disparities.
Assessment as Learning

Assessment as learning focuses on the advancement of learners' metacognitive skills.

Writing is not a simple activity; rather, it requires a variety of cognitive and metacognitive
abilities to produce a piece of writing. The goal of assessment as learning is to develop
writers into critical assessors of their work integrating assessment and learning. Students
learn how to organize their thoughts in a particular context.

Students are taught to make sense of current information and to combine it with past
knowledge to create new information and new concepts. This assessment method emphasizes
reflection and examination of one's own work. An essential purpose of assessment as learning
is to nourish learning habits of mind in order to use crucial cognitive skills such as synthesis,
analysis, restructuring, and so on. This instills confidence in learners, and they learn to guide
their own learning and make decisions after reflecting on their work. However, instructors'
responsibilities grow as they must now supply adequate examples of practice to pupils in
molding their brains to develop the specific critical talents of mind. As a consequence,
children become more adaptive, flexible, and self-sufficient learners.

When learners assess their performance on their own, they use a variety of assessment
techniques and strategies that help learners to identify their knowledge gaps, adopt
appropriate learning strategies, and use assessment as a tool for new learning.
In the realm of education, the integration of these three types of assessment ensures a
well-rounded and effective approach to supporting students in their learning journeys. They
not only serve to evaluate performance but also to drive improvements, encourage
independent learning, and foster the development of critical cognitive skills. Ultimately, the
convergence of these assessment approaches aims to enhance the overall quality of education
and students' educational experiences.

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1.3.9. Interrelationship between Measurement and Assessment

The interrelationship between assessment and measurement is fundamental in the field of

education, where both concepts are closely intertwined to evaluate and enhance student
learning and instructional effectiveness.

Assessment encompasses the broader process of collecting, analyzing, and

interpreting information about students' knowledge, skills, and abilities. It involves
determining what should be assessed, the methods used, and the purpose of assessment.
Assessment focuses on making informed judgments about student performance, both in terms
of formative assessment to improve ongoing learning and summative assessment to gauge
overall achievement.

Measurement, on the other hand, is the systematic process of quantifying the

attributes assessed in a reliable and valid manner. It involves using specific tools and
instruments to assign numerical or qualitative values to the outcomes of assessment.
Measurement provides the data necessary for educators to make objective and informed
decisions about students' achievements. It helps ensure that assessments are standardized,
consistent, and fair.

The relationship between assessment and measurement is reciprocal. Assessment

guides the need for measurement by defining what aspects of student performance should be
evaluated and why. It sets the educational objectives and learning outcomes that need to be
measured. In this way, assessment serves as the driving force behind the measurement
process, specifying what should be measured and what methods are appropriate for the task.
Conversely, measurement informs the assessment process by providing the means to collect
data and make sense of it. It transforms abstract educational objectives into concrete data that
can be analyzed and interpreted. The data generated through measurement inform the

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assessment process, allowing educators to make informed decisions about students' progress,
identify areas for improvement, and adapt their teaching strategies accordingly.

In essence, assessment and measurement are inextricably linked in education. They

work together to ensure that the evaluation of student learning is accurate, reliable, and
aligned with educational objectives. This symbiotic relationship is essential for driving
educational improvement, enhancing teaching and learning, and ultimately, achieving the
goals of education systems around the world. In fact measurement is the starting point of
assessment which provides quantitative information about students learning progress and
performance. Assessment goes beyond measurement in and adds qualitative descriptions by
gathering information from multiple sources like teachers rating, peer views, laboratory
works etc. The difference between measurement and assessment is presented in the tabular
form.

Difference Between Measurement and Assessment

Measurement Assessment

It is the systematic process of quantifying It is the broader process of collecting,

attributes in a reliable and valid manner, analyzing, and interpreting information
using specific tools and instruments. about students' knowledge, skills, and
abilities.

It aims to assign numerical or qualitative It aims to make informed judgments

values to the outcomes of assessment. about student performance and progress.

Measurement is a smaller concept and part Assessment is the broader concept and
of the assessment process. uses the information collected through
measurement.

Assessment includes both quantitative

Measurement focuses on quantitative data, and qualitative data, such as scores,
typically numeric values. observations, and feedback.

It uses standardized tools and instruments, It utilizes a variety of methods, including

like tests and scales tests, assignments, observations, and self-
assessments.

Measurement contributes to objective and Assessment supports understanding,

data-driven decision-making, such as improvement, and feedback, guiding
grading educational decisions and strategies.

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Measurement

In the realm of education, measurement plays a pivotal role in gauging individual

performance and determining the effectiveness of educational endeavors. Measurement can
be classified as norm-referenced measurement and criterion-referenced measurement on the
basis of the interpretation. These two approaches serve divergent purposes and shed light on
varying facets of an individual's abilities and achievements in relation to the content and
norms.

Norm-Referenced Measurement

A norm-referenced measurement is an assessment approach that evaluates an individual's

performance by comparing it to a larger group, known as the reference group. In this type of
measurement performance of an individual is interpreted in terms or in reference with the
norm. A norm is nothing but the typical or average performance of a group. So, through the
lens of norm-referenced measurement, individuals are positioned relative to their peers, with
scores commonly expressed in percentiles or standardized units. In this regard following
definitions may be taken into consideration.

Gronlund (1976) stated that Norm-referenced tests are “designed to rank students in order of
achievement, from high to low so that decisions based on relative achievements (selection,
grading, grouping) can be made with greater confidence.” According to Bormuth it is
designed “to measure the growth in a student’s attainment and to compare his level of
attainment with the levels reached by other students and norm groups.

Example: Consider the UGC-NET examination which is a nationwide standardized

assessment for master’s students. The test is administered to a large group of students across
the nation. After the test, each student receives a percentile score, which indicates their
ranking relative to the reference group master’s students who took the same test. For
example, if Lisa got a percentile score of 90 then she performed better than 90% of the
reference group.

Characteristics of Norm-Referenced Measurement

Comparative Assessment: Norm-referenced assessment primarily focuses on comparing an

individual's performance to that of a reference group. This group is usually a representative
sample of individuals who have previously taken the same test or assessment.

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

Standardized Scores:

Test scores in norm-referenced assessments are often transformed into standardized units
such as percentiles, z-scores, or T-scores. These standardized scores indicate where the
individual's performance falls in comparison to the reference group.

Bell Curve Distribution: In norm-referenced testing, scores tend to follow a bell curve
distribution, also known as a normal distribution. This means that there will be a few high
achievers, a majority of average performers, and a few low achievers.

Ranking and Selection: Norm-referenced measurement is frequently used in situations

where ranking or selection is crucial. For example, it is commonly employed in standardized
tests for college admissions, employment assessments, or competitive exams.

No Fixed Passing Score: Norm-referenced assessments typically do not have a fixed passing
score. Instead, performance is evaluated relative to others in the reference group. The cutoff
scores for different categories (e.g., "above average," "average," and "below average") are
determined based on the distribution of scores in the reference group.

Advantages of Norm-Referenced Measurement

Norm-referenced measurement provides an array of advantages such as:

● Norm-referenced measurement allows for the comparison of an individual's

performance to that of a larger group, providing valuable insights into how they rank
relative to their peers. This can be particularly useful in competitive contexts.
● It offers a standardized way to benchmark an individual's performance against
national or regional averages, helping to identify strengths and weaknesses in
educational systems.
● Norm-referenced tests can be helpful in situations where selection and differentiation
are essential, such as college admissions, job recruitment, or awarding scholarships.
They allow organizations to choose top performers from a pool of candidates.
● In some cases, norm-referenced assessments can serve as a quality control measure by
comparing the performance of individuals or groups over time, identifying trends, and
making improvements accordingly.

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

Limitations of Norm-Referenced Measurement

Norm-referenced measurement offers valuable comparative information but has some

limitations such as

● Norm-referenced measurement only provides information about how an individual's

performance compares to others. It doesn't provide an absolute measure of their
knowledge or skills. This can be limiting in understanding an individual's true
proficiency.
● Norm-referenced tests often focus on a specific subset of content or skills, which may
not align with the full range of educational objectives. This can lead to a narrow
curriculum and neglect of important topics.
● High-stakes norm-referenced tests can create pressure and stress for individuals,
especially in situations where their future opportunities are contingent on their
performance. This can lead to test anxiety and may not accurately reflect their
abilities.
● Depending on the performance of the reference group, norm-referenced assessments
can result in grade inflation (if the reference group performs poorly) or grade
deflation (if the reference group performs exceptionally well), which can distort the
interpretation of scores.
● Norm-referenced tests typically do not provide diagnostic information about specific
areas of strength or weakness, making it challenging for educators to tailor instruction
to individual needs

While norm-referenced measurement offers several advantages, it is also important to

recognize its limitations. Therefore, it should be used judiciously and in conjunction with
other assessment methods to provide a more comprehensive view of an individual's
abilities and skills.

Criterion-Referenced Measurement

Criterion-referenced measurement is rooted in the assessment of absolute mastery. Here,

individuals' performances are evaluated based on predetermined criteria or standards that
reflect specific learning objectives or content proficiency. This approach, prevalent in
classroom assessments and skill-based evaluations, answers the fundamental question of
whether a learner has achieved the predefined goals. In this regard following definitions can
be taken into consideration.

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

According to Glaser (1963), Criterion-referenced tests are designed as procedures which

allow educators to monitor an individual's strengths and weaknesses in a given area, even
though the tests may be administered in a group situation. According to Gronlund (1985),
Criterion-referenced test is “a test designed to provide a measure of performance that is
interpretable in terms of a clearly defined and delimited domain of learning tasks.”

Example: Let's consider a criterion-referenced test in the context of a high school biology
class. The test is designed to assess whether students have mastered specific learning
objectives related to cellular biology, such as understanding the process of mitosis and
identifying the structures involved. The test questions are directly aligned with these
objectives, and students are assessed on their ability to meet these criteria. A student who
correctly answers all questions related to mitosis is considered to have met the criterion for
that topic.

Characteristics of Criterion-Referenced Measurement

● Criterion-referenced measurements are designed to measure whether a test-taker has

met predetermined criteria or standards, often aligned with learning objectives or
content standards.
● The primary focus is on determining whether an individual has mastered specific
content or skills rather than comparing them to others.
● Results are often reported as "pass" or "fail" or different categories. These categories
indicate the degree to which the criteria have been met.
● The assessment criteria are typically well-defined and objective, making it clear what
a person needs to achieve to meet the standard.
● Results can help identify areas where students need additional support or enrichment.

Advantages of Criterion-Referenced Measurement

● Criterion-referenced tests directly assess whether learning objectives have been

achieved. This information is valuable for educators in gauging the effectiveness of
instruction.
● Results from criterion-referenced tests provide clear and actionable feedback to
students and educators. It highlights areas where students have succeeded and areas
that require further attention.
● Criterion-referenced assessments are closely aligned with curriculum goals and
content standards, ensuring content validity and relevance.
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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

● Based on the results of criterion-referenced tests, educators can tailor instruction to

address specific areas of weakness or provide enrichment for areas of strength.

Limitation of Criterion-Referenced Measurement

Criterion-referenced tests have some disadvantages such as:

● Creating valid and reliable tests can be time-consuming and expensive.

● Moreover, generalizing results beyond the particular course or program is not

possible.

● The integrity of these tests may be compromised if students gain access to exam
questions beforehand.

● Criterion-referenced tests are tailored to a specific program, making them unsuitable

for assessing the performance of large groups.

● Criterion-referenced assessments do not support comparisons among individuals or

groups as their emphasis is on absolute mastery.

In summary, criterion-referenced tests are designed to determine whether individuals have

met specific learning objectives or criteria. They provide clear and objective feedback on
mastery but may not capture the complexity of real-world skills and can be challenging to
develop with precision. These assessments are valuable tools for aligning instruction with
educational goals and measuring content proficiency.

Self-check Exercise:1.4
What are the uses of criterion-referenced measurement?
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Our educational system uses both norms referenced and criteria referenced measurement as
per the requirements. The classroom test used criteria referenced measurement whereas
school board used norm referenced measurement. The differences between both are explained
in the following table.

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

Difference between Criterion-Referenced Measurement and Norm-Referenced

Measurement

Norm-Referenced Measurement Criterion-Referenced Measurement

Compare individuals' performance to a

group or norm Determine if individuals meet specific
criteria or standards.

Focus is on relative performance (how Focus is on absolute performance

one performs compared to others). (whether predefined criteria are met).

No specific benchmark or standard. Pre-defined benchmarks or standards

are set

Often used for grading on normal

probability curve Typically used for pass/fail or
mastery-based grading.

A high score may not represent mastery if A high score indicates mastery,
the reference group performs poorly. regardless of others' performance.

Typically designed to differentiate

between test-takers Designed to measure whether a person
meets predetermined criteria.

1.4.SUMMARY/KEY POINTS
Assessment is an essential component of the teaching learning process. It is a process of
collecting, analyzing, interpreting the students' performance to make instructional decisions.
It starts with the measurement which is a process of quantifying students' performance in
terms of certain rules. Measurement can be direct, indirect and relative depending on the
characteristics to be measured. But in educational measurement, we use indirect and relative
measurement as measuring qualities are not observable. Assessment is of many types as per
the criteria. The assessment can be divided into four types such as placement, formative,
diagnostic, and summative on the basis of purpose. Further, assessment can be assessment for
learning, assessment of learning and assessment as learning. The scope of assessment is
continuous and regular. Some key points are given below.

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

Measurement - Measurement is the process of assigning numerical values or quantifying

attributes, characteristics, quantities, or qualities of objects, events, phenomena, or
individuals based on established standards, criteria, or units.

Assessment - Assessment refers to the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting the
information about students’ performance by using testing and non-testing devices. It is a tool
that provides teachers with data to improve their teaching methods and guide and motivate
students to actively participate in their learning

Evaluation - is an act or process of assigning value judgment to a student's performance on

the basis of certain criteria. It means to find out the value of or to judge the worth of. It
involves the process of comparing with certain standards or with a group of students.

Formative assessment takes place throughout the teaching learning process.

Summative assessment takes place at the end of a specific time period.

Assessment as learning focuses on the advancement of learners' metacognitive skills.

Assessment for Learning - The assessment done during the instruction is known as
assessment for learning. It is an ongoing assessment process that allows teachers to monitor
students on day-to-day basis tasks and modify their teaching needs to be successful.

Norm reference group - Through the lens of norm-referenced measurement, individuals are
positioned relative to their peers, with scores commonly expressed in percentiles or
standardized units.

Norm - A norm is nothing but the typical or average performance of a group.

Criterion-referenced measurement is rooted in the assessment of absolute mastery. Here,

individuals' performances are evaluated based on predetermined criteria or standards that
reflect specific learning objectives or content proficiency.

1.5.UNIT END EXERCISE

• Defining meaning and scope and need of measurement. Explain
• Discuss about difference between assessment and measurement. Explain
• What are the scopes of assessment based on roles in teaching learning process?
• Differentiate between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced measurement. Discuss its
relevance.

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1.6.FURTHER READING
• Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208
• Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education
• Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810
• Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030

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UNIT -II

FUNCTIONS AND BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT

Structure
2.1. Learning Objectives
2.2. Introduction
2.3. Functions of Assessment
2.3.1. Evaluation of learning
2.3.2. Diagnosis of learning Needs
2.3.3. Feedback for improvement
2.3.4. Monitoring Progress
2.3.5. Accountability and Quality Assurance
2.3.6. Curriculum and Improvement
2.3.7. Motivation and Goal Setting
2.3.8. Placement and Differentiation
2.3.9. Research and Education Policy
2.3.10. Self-Assessment
2.4. Basic Principles of Assessment
2.4.1. Validity
2.4.2. Authenticity
2.4.3. Fairness
2.4.4. Flexibility
2.4.5. Transparency
2.4.6. Feedback and Improvement
2.4.7. Ethical Consideration
2.5. Summary
2.6. Unit End Exercise
2.7. Further Reading

2.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading the unit, the learners shall be able to;

● Elaborate the functions of assessment.

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● Explain basic principles of assessment.

● Define the implications of assessment
2.2. INTRODUCTION
Assessment in education plays very critical role for improvement of education system in
general. In particular it focuses on evaluation of learning, diagnosis of the learning needs,
kinds of feedback received for improvement, monitoring progress, ensuring accountability
and quality assurance, curriculum development, and motivation and goal setting. Overall
improvement of education system depends on the proper assessment which ensures
credibility. True assessment makes effort to develop every component of the system. It
details all aspects given below.

2.3. FUNCTIONS OF ASSESSMENT

Assessment in education is a multifaceted process that goes beyond merely assigning grades.
It serves a wide range of functions, each contributing to the improvement of teaching and
learning. This section will explore the diverse functions of assessment in education,
highlighting their significance for students, educators, and the educational system as a whole.

2.3.1. Evaluation of Learning

One of the fundamental functions of assessment is to evaluate what students have learned. It
provides a structured and systematic way to measure their knowledge, skills, and
understanding of specific content or concepts. Through various assessment methods such as
tests, quizzes, and assignments, educators gauge students' comprehension and mastery of the
subject matter. This evaluation helps determine whether instructional objectives have been
met and to what extent.

2.3.2. Diagnosis of Learning Needs

Assessment serves as a diagnostic tool to identify individual student learning needs. By

analyzing assessment results, educators can pinpoint areas of strength and weakness for each
student. This information goes beyond the mere quantification of performance; it reveals why
a student may be struggling in a particular area or excelling in another. With this insight,
educators can develop personalized instructional plans to address specific learning gaps and
challenges effectively.

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2.3.3. Feedback for Improvement

Assessment provides timely and constructive feedback to both students and educators.
Students receive feedback on their performance, allowing them to reflect on their strengths
and areas requiring improvement. This feedback loop is essential for promoting
metacognition and self-regulation in learners, as they become more aware of their learning
processes. For educators, assessment data offer insights into the effectiveness of their
instructional strategies. It allows them to make informed decisions about adjusting their
teaching methods, curriculum, and instructional materials to better meet the needs of their
students.

2.3.4. Monitoring Progress

Assessment functions as a means to monitor student progress over time. Formative

assessments, conducted throughout the learning process, allow educators to track how
students are progressing toward learning goals. This ongoing monitoring serves several
purposes, including identifying students who may need additional support, adapting
instruction as needed, and providing students with a sense of their own growth and
development.

2.3.5. Accountability and Quality Assurance

Assessment is a tool for accountability at various levels of the education system. It ensures
that educational institutions and educators are responsible for the quality of education they
provide. High-stakes assessments, such as standardized tests, are often used for accountability
purposes to assess school and system-wide performance. By holding stakeholders
accountable for their roles in education, assessment contributes to maintaining and improving
the overall quality of education.

2.3.6. Curriculum Development and Improvement

Educational assessments help inform the development and improvement of curricula and
instructional materials. By analyzing assessment results and identifying areas where students
struggle, curriculum developers can refine educational content to enhance its effectiveness.
This iterative process ensures that curricula align with educational goals and adapt to the
evolving needs of students.

2.3.7. Motivation and Goal Setting

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

Assessment can be a motivating force for students. When assessment is used to set clear
learning goals and provide opportunities for students to track their progress toward those
goals, it can inspire greater engagement and effort. As students see their efforts translate into
improved assessment results, they are more likely to be motivated to continue their learning
journey.

2.3.8. Placement and Differentiation

Assessment plays a crucial role in determining appropriate placement and differentiation

strategies for students. By assessing students' knowledge and skills, educators can place them
in the right courses or programs, ensuring that they are appropriately challenged.
Differentiation strategies, such as providing tailored instruction or additional support, can be
based on assessment data to meet individual students' needs effectively.

2.3.9. Research and Educational Policy

Assessment data are valuable for educational research and policy development. Researchers
use assessment results to study educational trends, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions,
and inform educational policies and practices. Government agencies and educational
institutions rely on assessment data to make data-driven decisions about curriculum changes,
resource allocation, and educational reform efforts.

2.3.10. Self-assessment

Assessment encourages students to engage in self-assessment and develop metacognitive

skills. Through reflection on their performance, students can better understand their learning
processes, strengths, and areas for improvement. This heightened self-awareness promotes
independence and self-directed learning, empowering students to take an active role in their
education.

Assessment in education serves a multitude of functions, each contributing to the

improvement of teaching and learning. Whether it's evaluating learning, diagnosing
individual needs, providing feedback, monitoring progress, or informing policy and practice,
assessment plays a central role in the educational process. When approached thoughtfully and
strategically, assessment empowers both educators and students on their educational
journeys, fostering growth, accountability, and the continuous improvement of educational
systems.

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

Self-check Exercise-1.5
How assessment helps in monitoring learners' progress?
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2.4. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT

Assessment in education is a complex process that involves collecting, interpreting,
and using information to make informed decisions about teaching and learning. To ensure the
effectiveness and fairness of assessments, a set of basic principles has been established.
These principles serve as guiding standards that underpin the design, administration, and
interpretation of assessments. Let’s explore the basic principles of assessment in education,
which serve as a foundation for designing, implementing, and interpreting assessments.

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

2.4.1. Validity

Validity is the cornerstone of assessment. It refers to the extent to which an assessment

accurately measures what it is intended to measure. A valid assessment instrument aligns
with specific learning objectives or outcomes and provides evidence that these objectives
have been met. To establish validity, assessments should undergo thorough validation
processes, including content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity.

2.4.2. Reliability

Reliability is the consistency and stability of assessment results. A reliable assessment

produces consistent outcomes when administered to the same group of students or individuals
under similar conditions. Reliability is essential to ensure that assessment results are not
influenced by random factors, allowing educators to make dependable decisions based on the
data.

2.4.3. Authenticity

Authenticity refers to the extent to which assessment tasks mirror real-world situations and
require students to demonstrate meaningful, practical knowledge and skills. Authentic
assessments are relevant and engaging, connecting classroom learning to real-life
applications. They encourage critical thinking and problem-solving rather than rote
memorization.

2.4.4. Fairness

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

Assessments must be fair and free from bias. Fairness ensures that all students have an equal
opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge and skills, regardless of their background,
characteristics, or circumstances. Educators should consider cultural, linguistic, and
accessibility factors to create fair assessments that do not disadvantage any particular group
of students.

2.4.5. Flexibility

The flexibility principle of assessment emphasizes the importance of adapting assessments to

accommodate the diverse needs and circumstances of individuals. This principle
acknowledges that a one-size-fits-all approach to assessment may not effectively capture the
full range of students' abilities, experiences, and learning styles. Instead, flexibility in
assessment design and administration allows for fair and meaningful evaluations while
accommodating individual differences.

2.4.6. Transparency:

The transparency principle of assessment is a fundamental concept that underscores the

importance of clarity, openness, and communication in the assessment process. This principle
emphasizes that all stakeholders involved in the assessment, including students, educators,
and administrators, should have a clear and comprehensive understanding of the assessment's
purpose, expectations, and criteria. Transparency in assessment ensures fairness, motivates
learners, and fosters trust in the educational system.

2.4.7. Feedback and improvement

Assessment should provide actionable feedback to students, educators, and stakeholders.

Feedback helps students understand their strengths and areas for improvement, guiding their
efforts. Educators use assessment data to adapt instruction, address individual student needs,
and enhance teaching practices. Assessment results should inform continuous improvement
in curriculum, instruction, and assessment design.

2.4.8. Ethical Consideration

The ethical consideration principle of assessment emphasizes the importance of conducting

assessments with integrity, fairness, and respect for the rights and well-being of all
individuals involved in the assessment process. Ethical assessment practices uphold the

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values of honesty, transparency, equity, and privacy while ensuring that assessments serve
their intended purposes without causing harm or discrimination.

The basic principles of assessment in education are essential guidelines that underpin the
design, implementation, and interpretation of assessments. Adhering to these basic principles
of assessment ensures that assessments are meaningful, reliable, and fair, promoting effective
teaching and learning while upholding ethical standards.

Self-check Exercise-1.6
In which way validity is differentiated from reliability? Please elaborate
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2.5. SUMMARY/KEY POINTS

The main function of assessment is to improve the quality of teaching learning, enhance the
learning outcomes, suggest modifications of textbook and curriculum. Some of the key points
are given below.
• Formative assessments, conducted throughout the learning process, allow educators
to track how students are progressing toward learning goals.
• Assessment serves as a diagnostic tool to identify individual student learning needs.
By analyzing assessment results, educators can pinpoint areas of strength and
weakness for each student.
• Assessment encourages students to engage in self-assessment and develop
metacognitive skills. Through reflection on their performance, students can better
understand their learning processes, strengths, and areas for improvement.
• Validity is the cornerstone of assessment. It refers to the extent to which an
assessment accurately measures what it is intended to measure.
• Reliability is the consistency and stability of assessment results. A reliable
assessment produces consistent outcomes when administered to the same group of
students or individuals under similar conditions.
• Authenticity refers to the extent to which assessment tasks mirror real-world
situations and require students to demonstrate meaningful, practical knowledge and
skills.
• The ethical consideration principle of assessment emphasizes the importance of
conducting assessments with integrity, fairness, and respect for the rights and well-
being of all individuals involved in the assessment process

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2.6. UNIT END EXERCISE

• What are the important functions of assessment? Elaborate

• What are the basic principles of assessment?
• How assessment does help in teaching learning process? explain
2.7. FURTHER READING

• Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208
• Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education
• Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810
• Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

UNIT – III
TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
STRCTURE
3.1.Learning Objectives
3.2.Introductions
3.3.Concepts of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
3.4. Domains of Taxonomy of Objectives
3.4.1. Cognitive domain
3.4.2. Affective Domain
3.4.3. Psychomotor Learning
3.5. Summary
3.6. Unit End Exercise
3.7. Further Reading

3.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading the unit, the learners shall be able to;

● Define the taxonomies of educational objectives

● differentiate between cognitive and psychomotor domain of taxonomy of objectives
● explain different taxonomies of objectives and its uses.
● distinguish between uses of norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests.

3.2. INTRODUCTION
Educational objectives serve as the foundation of effective teaching and learning. They
articulate what students are expected to know, understand, and be able to do as a result of
their educational experiences. Educators often turn to taxonomies to provide a systematic
framework for defining these objectives. Taxonomies of educational objectives categorize
and organize learning outcomes into hierarchical structures, offering educators a valuable tool
for curriculum design, assessment, and instructional planning.

3.3.3. CONCEPT OF TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

A taxonomy of educational objectives is a classification system that categorizes learning
outcomes based on their cognitive complexity, specificity, and depth. The term "taxonomy"
originates from the Greek words "taxis," meaning arrangement, and "nomos," meaning law or
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system. The purpose of a taxonomy is to provide a systematic way to describe and structure
educational goals and objectives.

The historical background of the taxonomy of educational objectives is closely tied to the
work of Benjamin S. Bloom and his colleagues, who developed what has become one of the
most well-known taxonomies in the field of education. The taxonomy was initially conceived
in the mid-20th century and has since become a foundational framework for educators and
curriculum developers worldwide.

In 1956, a team of educators led by Benjamin S. Bloom published the book "Taxonomy
of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals." This book introduced
what is commonly referred to as "Bloom's Taxonomy.” The primary purpose of Bloom's
Taxonomy was to provide a systematic framework for classifying and categorizing
educational goals and objectives. This taxonomy classified educational objectives into three
domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The cognitive domain, which received the
most attention, was further divided into six levels of cognitive complexity: knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

While Bloom's Taxonomy is widely recognized, other educators and researchers have
developed taxonomies for specific domains or purposes. For instance, Krathwohl, Bloom,
and Masia (1964) extended Bloom's work by addressing the affective domain, which deals
with emotions, attitudes, and values. Additionally, Dave in 1970 and Simpson in 1972
proposed taxonomies for the psychomotor domain, which involves physical skills and
coordination.

3.4. DOMAINS OF TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES

Taxonomy of educational objectives is a powerful framework that categorizes and organizes
learning goals into distinct domains. These domains, each focusing on different aspects of
human learning and development, provide educators with a structured approach to defining,
assessing, and facilitating student growth. The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
comprises three primary domains: the Cognitive Domain, the Affective Domain, and the
Psychomotor Domain. Each of these domains offers a unique lens through which to view the
diverse dimensions of education. Below is a detailed discussion of these taxonomies within
their respective domains:

3.4.1. Cognitive domain

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The Cognitive Domain focuses on intellectual skills and the mental processes involved in
learning developed by Benjamin S. Bloom and his colleagues in 1956, the Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives in the Cognitive Domain, often referred to as Bloom's Taxonomy, has
become a cornerstone in education. It categorizes learning objectives into six hierarchical
levels:
Bloom's Taxonomy is a widely recognized framework for categorizing educational objectives
and learning outcomes, particularly in the cognitive domain. It was developed by a group of
educators led by Benjamin S. Bloom in 1956 and has since become a foundational tool in
education for setting clear learning objectives, designing curriculum, and assessing student
progress. The taxonomy organizes cognitive skills into a hierarchical structure, with each
level representing a different level of cognitive complexity. The original Bloom's Taxonomy
consists of six levels:
● Knowledge: At the base of the pyramid, knowledge involves the recall of facts,
information, or concepts. Learners are expected to remember and recognize
information.
● Comprehension: This level requires students to understand the meaning and
interpretation of information. They should be able to explain concepts or ideas in their
own words.
● Application: Application involves using acquired knowledge and comprehension to
solve problems, make predictions, or apply concepts to new situations. Learners apply
what they have learned in practical ways.
● Analysis: Analytical thinking requires breaking down complex ideas or concepts into
smaller components. Students examine relationships and implications, deconstructing
information to gain deeper insights.
● Synthesis: Synthesis entails combining elements or ideas to form a new, integrated
whole. It involves creative thinking and the generation of novel solutions or ideas.
● Evaluation: At the pinnacle of the taxonomy, evaluation requires students to assess
the value, significance, or quality of ideas, concepts, or solutions. They make
judgments and provide evidence to support their conclusions.

Anderson and Krathwohl revised the taxonomy of the cognitive domain in 2001, which is an
adaptation of the original Bloom's Taxonomy. It offers a more contemporary and
comprehensive framework for categorizing cognitive learning objectives and outcomes. The
six cognitive categories in Anderson and Krathwohl's revised taxonomy are as follows:

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● Remembering- At the lowest level, remembering involves recalling factual

information, concepts, or previously learned material. It focuses on recognizing and
retrieving knowledge.
● Understanding- Understanding goes beyond mere recall. It requires students to
comprehend and interpret information by explaining it in their own words,
summarizing, or paraphrasing.
● Applying- Applying involves using knowledge and comprehension to solve
problems, make predictions, or apply concepts to new or unfamiliar situations. It
requires practical application of what has been learned.
● Analyzing- Analyzing entails breaking down complex ideas or concepts into smaller
components. Students examine relationships, identify patterns, and explore the
structure of information.
● Evaluating- Evaluation requires students to assess the value, significance, or quality
of ideas, concepts, or solutions. They make judgments and provide evidence to
support their conclusions.
● Creating- Creating is the highest level in the revised taxonomy, emphasizing the
generation of novel ideas, products, or solutions. It involves originality, creativity, and
the ability to synthesize knowledge.

3.4.2. Affective Domain

The Affective Domain addresses emotions, attitudes, and values. It categorizes learning
objectives related to feelings, beliefs, and behavioral intentions. The Taxonomy of

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Educational Objectives in the Affective Domain, developed by Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia
in 1964, includes five hierarchical levels:

● Receiving-This means that the individual has become aware of certain stimuli in their
surroundings. Teachers often create simulated scenarios to help students understand
what they should focus on and what they should ignore.
● Responding- When receiving leads to selective responses to certain stimuli,
individuals derive pleasure and remain actively engaged.
● Valuing- The third category in this domain is about valuing, which is the process of
assessing the worth of a thing or activity. As a person internalizes values over time,
they gradually build up a value system.
● Organization- It involves relating the new value to that one already holds and
bringing it into a harmonious and internally consistent philosophy.
● Characterization- Finally, an ideal organization of the person's value systems results
in his distinctive characterization. Characterization refers to the organization of value
in an internally consistent system. It is the final step on the emotional ladder.

3.4.3. Psychomotor Domain

The Psychomotor Domain deals with physical skills, motor abilities, and the performance
of physical tasks. It categorizes learning objectives related to physical actions and

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behaviors. There are several popular taxonomies and frameworks for the psychomotor
domain that have been developed to categorize and assess physical skills and abilities.
However, we will discuss two notable taxonomies of the psychomotor domain in detail.

R.H. Dave in 1970 developed the following taxonomy which included five levels:

● Imitation: At this level, learners can observe and replicate basic physical actions or
movements performed by others. Imitation involves mimicking the actions without
necessarily understanding the underlying principles.
● Manipulation: Manipulation represents a more advanced stage where learners can
perform physical tasks with some degree of skill and coordination. They can
manipulate objects or perform actions based on instruction or demonstration.
● Precision: Precision involves the ability to perform physical tasks with a high degree
of accuracy and consistency. Learners can control their movements and actions with
finesse and can make precise adjustments as needed.
● Articulation: Articulation signifies the ability to adapt and modify physical skills and
actions to suit different situations or contexts. Learners can articulate and apply their
skills creatively and flexibly.
● Naturalization: At the highest level, naturalization represents the integration of
physical skills into one's natural or automatic behavior. Learners can perform
complex tasks effortlessly, almost as second nature.
Another notable taxonomy of the psychomotor domain was developed by Simpson in
1972. This taxonomy has 7 hierarchy levels:
● Perception: At the lowest level, learners develop the ability to detect and recognize
sensory stimuli related to physical skill. This involves using sensory cues to identify
relevant information.
● Set: The second level involves preparing and getting ready to perform a physical skill.
Learners establish a mindset or attitude that is conducive to the skill they are about to
execute. This level focuses on mental and emotional readiness.
● Guided Response: At this level, learners begin to imitate or mimic a physical skill
based on observation or instruction. They are guided by external cues,
demonstrations, or step-by-step guidance from an instructor.
● Mechanism: Mechanism represents a higher level of skill development where
learners can perform a physical task without external guidance or cues. This level
emphasizes the coordination of movements and actions required for the skill.

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● Complex Overt Response: This level involves executing complex physical skills
with precision and accuracy. Learners can perform the skill effectively and adapt it to
various situations
● Adaptation- Adaptation is the ability to modify the learned skills to meet new or
special requirements. The skills are so well developed that one can modify movement
patterns to fit special requirements.
● Origination- Origination is the ability to create new movements for unique situations
or problems. It involves developing an original skill from a learned one and
emphasizes creativity as a learning outcome.

Self-check Exercise-1.7
What are the different levels of mental operation needed in the cognitive domain of
educational objectives?-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
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3.5.SUMMARY/KEY POINTS

The educational taxonomy has a great role to play in the assessment process. The educational
objectives are divided in three domains such as cognitive, affective and psychomotor. The
cognitive domain deals with mental operations such as remembering, understanding,
applying, analysing, evaluating and creating. Similarly, the affective and psychomotor
domain has many mental operations. The assessor must keep in mind the instructional
objectives when planning and interpreting assessment. Some of the key points are given
below.

• A taxonomy of educational objectives is a classification system that categorizes

learning outcomes based on their cognitive complexity, specificity, and depth.
• The term "taxonomy" originates from the Greek words "taxis," meaning
arrangement, and "nomos," meaning law or system. The purpose of a taxonomy is to
provide a systematic way to describe and structure educational goals and objectives.
• In 1956, a team of educators led by Benjamin S. Bloom published the book
"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals."
This book introduced what is commonly referred to as "Bloom's Taxonomy.”

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• This taxonomy classified educational objectives into three domains: cognitive,

affective, and psychomotor. The cognitive domain, which received the most
attention, was further divided into six levels of cognitive complexity: knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
• The Cognitive Domain focuses on intellectual skills and the mental processes
involved in learning developed by Benjamin S. Bloom and his colleagues in 1956
• The Affective Domain addresses emotions, attitudes, and values. It categorizes
learning objectives related to feelings, beliefs, and behavioral intentions.
• The Psychomotor Domain deals with physical skills, motor abilities, and the
performance of physical tasks

3.6. UNIT END EXERCISE

1. Explain the taxonomy of educational objectives in the cognitive domain.

2. Explain the role of taxonomy of educational objectives in assessment.
3. Discuss the taxonomy of educational objectives in affective domain.
4. Explain the taxonomy of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain.

3.7. FURTHER READINGS

• Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208
• Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education
• Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810
• Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030

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UNIT - 4: TYLER’S MODEL OF ASSESSMENT

Structure
4.1. Learning Objectives
4.2. Introductions
4.3. Concept of Tyler’s Model of Assessment
4.4. Stages of Tyler's Model of Assessment
4.4.1. Establishing broad goals or objectives
4.4.2. Classifying objectives
4.4.3. Stating objectives in behavioural terms
4.4.4. Finding situations in which achievements of objectives can be observed
4.4.5. Developing or selecting measurement techniques
4.4.6. Collecting students’ performance data
4.4.7. Comparing data with behavioural stated objectives
4.4.8. Uses and Limitations
4.5. Summary/Key Points
4.6. Unit End Exercise
4.7. Further Reading

4.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading the unit, students shall be able to;
● Explain stages of Tyler's Model of Educational Assessment.
● Elaborate the Tyler’s Model of Educational Assessment, its uses and implication
● Define the practical applicability of Tylers Models of Educational Assessment in
education
4.2. INTRODUCTIONS
Assessment is the integral part of the teaching and learning process. It determines the
effectiveness of teaching of teachers, leadership of school heads, quality of textbooks,
assessment practices and teacher education programmes. The achievement of learning
outcomes by learners is ascertained by using assessment data. Hence, all the stakeholders of
education from school to university are very much interested about the modalities and
practices of assessment followed. So, the assessment must provide valid and reliable data to
the policy makers and stakeholders as well. It must contribute to the quality improvement of
education. To make the assessment effective in helping the education process, it must follow

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models of assessment advocated by many psychometricians and educationists. Model gives a

framework and step by step process of conducting assessment so that it gives a valid and
reliable result. Model makes assessment organised, systematic, usable, and objective. All the
teachers and educators must understand the nitty gritty of different educational models so that
they can conduct assessment. There are many models of assessment proposed by different
authors. In this unit, the Tyler’s Model of Educational Assessment are discussed in detail
with its uses and limitations
4.3. CONCEPT OF TYLER’S MODEL OF ASSESSMENT

Model of educational assessment gives a systematic procedure for conducting assessment to

practitioners. The practitioners may be a teacher, school heads, curriculum developers,
textbook writers, policy makers and educational administrators. Let’s discuss different
models of assessment and its uses in educational settings.
Ralph W. Tyler (1902-1994) was an educator from America who contributed for the quality
improvement of assessment and curriculum in his book Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction. He came up with the first recognised model for curriculum evaluation during
1933 and 1942. His model is a systematic, structured and linear approach to curriculum
evaluation. It focuses on purposes that schools seek to attain during an academic year. The
steps focus on educational experience that can be provided to attain the utmost achievement.
It plans for educational experiences to be effectively organised. The model helps to determine
whether the purposes of education have been attained or not by the learners. In his model of
assessment, he has suggested eight steps which to be followed in assessment. His model of
assessment is very much useful for curriculum developers who can ascertain if the objectives
are achieved by the learner or not. The steps of assessment proposed by Tyler are described
in the following pages.

Comparing
Developing data with
Broad Behavioura Deciding Collecting
Objectives /selecting behavioural
goals l objectives situations data
tools objectivees

Figure-2.1: Steps of Tyler model of assessmen

4.4. STAGES OF TYLER'S MODEL OF ASSESSMENT

4.4.1. Establishing broad goals or objectives

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The purpose of education is to train the human mind to achieve all round development
in cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains through sense organs. For achieving
optimum development and bringing out the best possibilities within learners, the educational
planners and administrators need to come up with a curriculum that can be utilised as an
instrument in the hand of the teacher. Curriculum provides the totality of experience to the
learners inside the school campus. A curriculum is designed critically by considering
different stages of growth and maturation. Tyler suggested establishing the broad goals as the
first step of curriculum development and assessment. The first step in the assessment is to
determine the goals or objectives of education.
4.4.2. Classifying objectives
The next step of Tyler’s model is categorising the objective into dimension.
Objectives may be directed towards developing different dimensions of development, such as
communication skill, demonstration skill, activity skills. The objectives can be;
● To promote socio-cultural and moral values.
● Development of reasoning and logical thinking.
● Like skill learning
● Fostering creativity among students.
● To bring out positive behavioural changes among students.
● To develop scientific attitude and citizenship among students.
This step holds good, since specific objectives require individualised learning instructions
and methods of teaching. In these steps, the different dimensions of learning to be decided.
The dimensions can be cognitive, affective and psychomotor as the goal of education is all
round development of learners.
4.4.3. Stating objectives in behavioural terms
Assessment requires the learning objectives to be stated in behavioural terms so
that it can observed and measured. In this step, objectives of learning in different subjects
must be stated in behavioural terms or in action verbs and the changes that educator want to
bring among the learners. The behavioural changes may result in with some action verbs like
defining describe least record, repeat, discuss, explain, translate, analyse, calculate, compare,
criticize, differentiate, distinguish, estimate, measure, value, score, contrast. The example of
objectives in action verb is learners will be able to explain the photosynthesis
process. Similarly, the assessor must state all the objectives in behaviour terms for
assessment. Because, objectives are like target to be achieved by the learners. Without
deciding target, it is difficult to say whether it is met or not. By end of this stage, educator is
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clear what to assess in learners in terms of behavioural objectives relating to different

subjects.
4.4.4. Finding situations in which achievements of objectives can be observed
The objectives that were targeted, can be reflected in different situations. Only then we can
assume that the objectives have been achieved. As the skills and competencies achieved
through different situations of learning have specific ways of expression. For instance, a
vocational learner may be expected to perform the skills and competencies he/she has
achieved through different learning experiences. The goal of educational planners is to find
such situations where these skills can be displayed. The situation can be in the classroom,
laboratory, playground, library etc. It can be in terms of oral, written, performance,
demonstration, group discussion, conversation etc. The teacher must decide the situations in
which these objectives or actions can be expressed by the learners.
4.4.5. Developing or selecting measurement techniques
The present processes of education rely highly on evaluation and measurement and it
is considered as an integral part of the teaching learning process. Tyler then suggested this
step looking at the importance it holds for rectifying or improving learning instructions.
Different methods of measuring learning outcomes are interview, written examinations, tests,
inventories, observations, checklists, rating scales, attitude scale, projective techniques. These
techniques are useful for measuring the student’s learning progress. In this step, teachers
either develop measuring tools and techniques on their own or can select readymade
tools/standardised tools available. Here care must be taken to develop or select relevant tools
suitable for measuring learning outcomes in different situations and subjects.
4.4.6. Collecting students’ performance data
Data is very important for assessing learning outcomes. It is information relating to
performance of students in different subjects. Data on students’ performances can be
collected through different tools and record keeping instruments. Some of those instruments
are tests, assignments, portfolio, anecdotal records, progress report cards etc. Teachers must
be very careful in collecting genuine and valid data on students' performance. These
data/records can be stored, retrieved and analysed to identify the best works, interests,
abilities and can be utilised as an evaluation technique to improvise learning instructions and
suggest career choices to students. A comprehensive information about all students must be
collected in this stage so that proper decisions can be taken.
4.4.7. Comparing data with behavioural stated objectives

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The last step in the assessment process is to compare the performance data with the
behavioural objectives decided earlier. The data collected can be compared with the extent to
which the objectives for behavioural changes have been achieved. The behavioural changes
are some of the skills and competencies such as effective communication, mathematical
operations, socio- emotional balanced behaviour, situational awareness and reasoning and
logical thinking. Here the assessor compares the information gathered from the students with
the prefixed objectives and determines the effectiveness of teaching learning, curriculum,
assessment procedures etc.
4.4.8. Uses and Limitations
Tyler's model of assessment is the first objective model of assessment in the field of
curriculum and instructions. It can be used by the curriculum developer to evaluate the school
curriculum by providing credible feedback from students. It can be very much helpful for
teachers as well as school heads to assess the instructional process and achievement of
learning outcomes. Many instructional decisions like suitability of curriculum, learning
strategy, learning materials, assessment practices etc. can be taken on the basis of this model
of assessment. This model follows a linear approach and proper sequence, hence systematic
and organised way of assessment. The model suggested by Tyler is a lengthy and time-
consuming process as it starts from board goals to making decisions. The model gives more
stress on evaluation at the end of the implementation state forgetting the formative stage of
teaching learning. Further, the model is silent about the process of evaluating objectives
itself. To make this model useful, the assessor must be well versed with the rules and
regulations of assessment.
Self-check exercise-2.1

What are behavioural objectives and what are its needs in the Tyler model of assessment?

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4.5. SUMMARY/KEY POINTS

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

• Model of educational assessment gives a systematic procedure for conducting

assessment to practitioners.
• Ralph W. Tyler (1902-1994) was an educator from America who contributed for the
quality improvement of assessment and curriculum in his book Basic Principles of
Curriculum and Instruction.
• The next step of Tyler’s model is categorising the objective into dimension. Objectives
may be directed towards developing different dimensions of development, such as
communication skill, demonstration skill, activity skills.
• Different methods of measuring learning outcomes are interview, written examinations,
tests, inventories, observations, checklists, rating scales, attitude scale, projective
technique

4.6. UNIT END EXERCISE

• Explain the Tylers Models of Assessment briefly
• Discuss the different steps followed in the Tylers Model of Assessment.
• Explain its relevance, uses and limitations of Tylers Model of Assessment .
4.7. FURTHER READING
Goldie, J. (2006). AMEE Education Guide no. 29: Evaluating educational programmes.
Medical Teacher, 28(3), 210–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/01421590500271282
Lonigan, C. J., Farver, J. M., Phillips, B. M., & Clancy-Menchetti, J. (2009). Promoting the
development of preschool children’s emergent literacy skills: a randomized evaluation of a
literacy-focused curriculum and two professional development models. Reading and Writing,
24(3), 305–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9214-6
Woods, J. A. (1988). Curriculum Evaluation Models : Practical Applications for teachers.
Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.1988v13n2

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UNIT – 5
STUFFLEBEAM’S CIPP MODEL FOR
EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT
STRUCTURE
5.1. Learning Objectives
5.2. Introduction
5.3. Stufflebeam’s CIPP Model for Educational Assessment:
5.3.1. Context
5.3.2. Input:
5.3.3. Process:
5.3.4. Product:
5.3.5. Uses and Limitations
5.4. Summary/Key Points
5.5. Unit End Exercise
5.6. Further Reading

5.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading the unit, students shall be able to;
● Explain the essence of Stufflebeam’s CIPP Model of Educational Assessment.
● Elaborate the Stufflebeam’s CIPP of Educational Assessment, its uses and implication
● Define the practical applicability of Stufflebeam’s CIPP of Educational Assessment in
education
5.2. INTRODUCTION

Assessment is an integral part of teaching learning process and curriculum development as it

helps in the qualitative improvement of different elements of education. Assessment needs to
be based on some models suggested by pedagogue and educationist. There are four models of
assessment which are very relevant for assessing curriculum, programme and students
learning. The model of assessment suggested by Ralph Tyler follows seven steps starting
from deciding board goals to comparing data with the learning objectives. Metfessel and
Michael extended Tyler's model of assessment and made it a goal oriented model of
assessment. The main purpose of assessment is to ascertain the extent to which the learning

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objectives are achieved by the learners. CIPP model of assessment advocated by Stufflebeam
is very relevant and useful for evaluating any programmes like BEd, MA, Diploma.
Stufflebeam has suggested assessment in four components such as context, input, process and
product. Assessment is continuous and should be held at different times and levels. All the
elements give feedback for improvement.
5.3. STUFFLEBEAM’S CIPP MODEL FOR EDUCATIONAL
ASSESSMENT
Context, Input, Process, and Product (CIPP) are the four components that make up the
comprehensive instrument known as the CIPP model of evaluation. This model of assessment
was developed by Phi Delta Kappa Committee Chairman Daniel Stufflebeam (1936-2017), a
Professor of Western Michigan University, US. The model can be used to study each of the
four components of the curriculum/education system and is used to assess the quality of
education at schools. This model is popularly known as the CIPP model of educational
assessment, useful for teachers as well as curriculum developers for taking instructional
decisions. Let’s discuss the main four components of the CIPP model of assessment.

Context evaluation

Input evaluation

Process evaluation

Product evaluation

Figure-5.1: Infographic of CIIP model of assessment

5.4. Context
Assessing context is the first step in the educational assessment. Context refers to the
situation or the environment in which the curriculum and teaching and learning will happen.
It also includes the skills, competencies, values, and attitude that the education process wants
to develop among learners. In fact, this step determines the goal and objectives of the
assessment process.
This step of curriculum evaluation considers evaluating contexts of school curricular
development that affects learning outcome and overall development of students. This may

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include the directed competencies, skills and values that are intended to be developed among
learners. The historical theories, citizenship duties, cultural heritage, scientific temper,
environmental studies such as climate change issues and global citizenship can be considered
as contexts for curriculum evaluation.
5.5. Input:
"Input" may refer to the resources, materials, and individuals that are used to deliver the
curriculum in the context of educational assessment. The input stage of the evaluation process
is crucial because it gives assessors an insight into how well the curriculum is being applied.
The utilization of resources and materials can be evaluated by evaluators to see whether they
are effective and appropriate for the curriculum. They can assess whether teachers possess the
abilities and information required to properly deliver the curriculum. Several techniques,
including surveys, interviews, and observations, can be used by evaluators to assess input.
5.6. Process:
The practice of assessing and evaluating how well the intended curriculum achieves the
desired goals is known as curriculum evaluation. It is a crucial step in the adoption and
implementation of any new curriculum. The process entails determining the evaluation's main
audiences, issues, data sources, methodology, and criteria. It also entails assessing the needs
of the pupils and contrasting the current curriculum with different programs. It's crucial to
concentrate on how learning outcomes are assessed, making use of both qualitative and
quantitative techniques. balancing formative and summative evaluations, keeping an eye on
the program's usage of technology, reporting, and using the data to inform decisions.
5.7. Product:
The product part of the CIPP model is concerned with evaluating the goals or outcomes of a
program. It aids in determining a program's content or delivery's advantages and
disadvantages, allowing for program improvement or future planning. The objectives decided
at the beginning of the course are to be achieved by the learners in terms of knowledge, skills,
competencies, attitude and values. In this stage of assessment, the test results are analysed
and compared with the prefixed objectives to find out the level of the achievement. It
indicates the quality of the program, course, syllabus, textbook, resources, learning outcomes.
Self-check- exercise-2.2

Write down the different context that to be kept in mind when assessing a
curriculum?

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5.8. Uses and Limitations

The CIPP framework was created as a way to integrate program decision-making with
assessment. With a cycle of planning, structuring, implementing, reviewing, and changing
decisions, it tries to give an analytical and reasonable basis for program decision-making.
Each decision is analysed through a separate evaluation component, including context, input,
process, and product evaluation. The CIPP approach aims to make assessment directly
relevant to decision-makers' requirements throughout a program's stages and activities. As a
framework for methodically directing the conception, design, implementation, and
assessment of service-learning projects, as well as for providing feedback and judging the
project's effectiveness for ongoing improvement, Stufflebeam's context, input, process, and
product (CIPP) evaluation model is very relevant. The CIPP model provides a thorough
instrument for assessing the current curricula. Context, Input, Process, and Product are the
four components of the educational system that the model assists in analysing. The product
portion of the model focuses on assessing the results or objectives of a program and identifies
the program's content or delivery's advantages and disadvantages. This model suggested
guidelines for taking decisions at different levels of education on the basis of the assessment
following the CIPP model. But in reality, the decision making process is very complex which
requires involvement of stakeholders and financial approval.
5.9. SUMMARY/KEY POINTS
• Context, Input, Process, and Product (CIPP) are the four components that make up the
comprehensive instrument known as the CIPP model of evaluation.
• This model of assessment was developed by Phi Delta Kappa Committee Chairman
Daniel Stufflebeam (1936-2017), a Professor of Western Michigan University, US.
• Context refers to the situation or the environment in which the curriculum and teaching
and learning will happen.
• "Input" may refer to the resources, materials, and individuals that are used to deliver the
curriculum in the context of educational assessment.

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• The practice of assessing and evaluating how well the intended curriculum achieves the
desired goals is known as curriculum evaluation.
• The product part of the CIPP model is concerned with evaluating the goals or outcomes
of a program. It aids in determining a program's content or delivery's advantages and
disadvantages, allowing for program improvement or future planning/
• The CIPP approach aims to make assessment directly relevant to decision-makers'
requirements throughout a program's stages and activities
5.10. UNIT END EXERCISE
• Select any programme (BA/ MA/ Diploma) and evaluate it on the basis of the CIPP
model of assessment
• Elaborate different dimensions of stufflebeam’s CIPP model for educational
assessment/
• Explain its practical implications on educational measurement and evaluation
5.11. FURTHER READING
Goldie, J. (2006). AMEE Education Guide no. 29: Evaluating educational programmes.
Medical Teacher, 28(3), 210–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/01421590500271282
Lonigan, C. J., Farver, J. M., Phillips, B. M., & Clancy-Menchetti, J. (2009). Promoting the
development of preschool children’s emergent literacy skills: a randomized evaluation of a
literacy-focused curriculum and two professional development models. Reading and Writing,
24(3), 305–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9214-6
Woods, J. A. (1988). Curriculum Evaluation Models : Practical Applications for teachers.
Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.1988v13n2

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BLOCK 02:
INSTRUCTIONAL LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Unit 06: Taxonomy of instructional learning objectives with

special reference to cognitive domain
Unit 07: Criteria of selecting appropriate learning objectives
Unit 08: stating of general and specific instructional learning
objectives
Unit 09: Relationship of evaluation procedure with learning
objectives
Unit 10: Difference between objective based objective type test
and objective based essay type test

UNIT-6:

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METFESSEL – MICHALE MODEL FOR

EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT
Structure
6.1. Learning Objectives
6.2. Introduction
6.3. Metfessel – Michale Model for Educational Assessment
6.3.1. Get the participants involved in determining the curriculum's objectives or define
its goals
6.3.2. Transform the objectives into precise, quantifiable goals, as well as content and
experience:
6.3.4. Create evaluation tools and technique before doing the evaluation:
6.3.5. Make observations and gather information on the goals that students are
achieving:
6.3.6. Analyze the information and evaluate student’s performance in relation to the
goals:
6.3.7. Interpret the data to make judgments about the extent to which the curriculum is
achieving its goals.
6.3.8. Use the results of the evaluation to make decisions about the curriculum and
make recommendations.
6.3.9. Repeat the evaluation process on a regular basis:
6.3.10. Uses and Limitations
6.4. Summary
6.5. Unit End Exercises
6.6. Further Reading

6.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading the unit, students shall be able to;
● Explain stages of Metfessel-Michael Model of educational assessment.
● Describe steps and uses of Metfessel-Michael Model of educational assessment.
● Illustrate the stages of Metfessel-Michael Model of educational assessment
● Discuss the process of Metfessel-Michael Model of educational assessment.

6.2. INTRODUCTION
Assessment is the integral part of the teaching and learning process. It determines the
effectiveness of teaching of teachers, leadership of school heads, quality of textbooks,
assessment practices and teacher education programmes. The achievement of learning
outcomes by learners is ascertained by using assessment data. Hence, all the stakeholders of
education from school to university are very much interested about the modalities and
practices of assessment followed. So, the assessment must provide valid and reliable data to
the policy makers and stakeholders as well. It must contribute to the quality improvement of

[54]
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education. To make the assessment effective in helping the education process, it must follow
models of assessment advocated by many psychometricians and educationists. Model of
educational assessment gives a systematic procedure for conducting assessment to
practitioners. The practitioners may be a teacher, school heads, curriculum developers,
textbook writers, policy makers and educational administrators. Let’s discuss Metfessel-
Michael models of assessment and its uses in educational settings.

6.3. METFESSEL – MICHALE MODEL FOR EDUCATIONAL

ASSESSMENT
Norman Metfessel and James Michael developed the goal-oriented Metfessel-Michael Model
of Curriculum Evaluation in 1967. This model is based on the idea that curriculum
assessment should be focused on figuring out whether or not the program is accomplishing its
objectives. Metfessel and Michael worked on the idea of Tyler's model of educational
assessment and made it more relevant and useful for the education community.
Eight Steps of Assessment
This model suggested eight steps of assessment which are presented in the following pages.

Decide Objectives by
Involving Interpreting Data to Use of Results for
Make Judgement Recommendations
Stakeholders

Transforming
Analysis of Student's Repeating the
Objectives into
Achievement Process
Instructions

Developing
Keeping Records on
Instruments for
Student's Progress
Evaluation

Figure-6.1: Infographic of Metfessel and Michael model of assessment

6.3.1. Get the participants involved in determining the curriculum's objectives or

define its goals:

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

The major stakeholders in the teaching learning process including the teachers, students,
parents, heads of institutions, administrators, society and curriculum developers are to be
involved in determining the objectives of the curriculum. This step talks about involving all
of them in determining the objectives of the curriculum so that the curriculum can be relevant
and useful for the learners and society. Hence, the first step in the assessment is to determine
the objectives of the program or curriculum.
6.3.2. Transform the objectives into precise, quantifiable goals, as well as content and
experience:
The broad goals should be converted into achievable learning outcomes and instructions
through different teaching methods. The objectives decided by the stakeholders need to be
stated precisely and objectively so that it can be observable and quantifiable. The objectives
must include all round development domains of individuals such as social, physical,
intellectual, psychic and emotional aspects. After defining the objectives in precise and
quantifiable terms, it must be converted into content and learning experiences in different
subjects. The assessor must see that objectives and content/learning experiences must be
related to each other.
6.3.3. Create evaluation tools and technique before doing the evaluation:
Once objectives, content and learning experiences are decided and provided to the learners,
the assessor must create tools and techniques of evaluation. These are the means of collecting
information about learning from students. The desired learning outcomes can be aligned with
specific instruments for evaluation such as interviews, tests, inventories, portfolios,
anecdotes, and rating scales. These evaluation tools can be developed by the teacher as per
the learning outcomes and content.

6.3.4. Make observations and gather information on the goals that students are
achieving:
After getting the tools and techniques ready for assessment, the assessor can go on collecting
valid and reliable information about the performance of students in different subjects. This
step of assessment is very important as it provides the information for making decisions in
the educational context. The recording and restoration of a student's progress should be kept
in mind by the evaluators. The use of ICT can be helpful in keeping and tracking student’s
progress. ICT tools can be utilised to gather and store the collected information for future
use.

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

6.3.5. Analyze the information and evaluate student’s performance in relation to the
goals:
Gathering the information about the student's learning has no use until it is analysed and
interpreted to derive a certain conclusion. Analysis of the students performance is the process
of breaking the information in pieces and comparing it with different criteria (objectives).
Different statistical techniques such as measures of central tendency, dispersion and
inferential statistics etc. can be used for analysing students' performance. Assessor must
analyse the students' performance keeping in mind the learning outcomes/ objectives.
6.3.6. Interpret the data to make judgments about the extent to which the curriculum
is achieving its goals.
The goals that were set in the first steps should be compared to the learning outcomes and
analysed to the extent till which they have been achieved. The analysis of the collected
information will lead to interpretation. Interpretation is the process of drawing conclusions on
the basis of the evidence collected. Variety of interpretation about curriculum and teaching
learning process can be made on the basis of the students performance. The interpretation like
curriculum needs to be renewed or redesigned, teachers require training in new methodology
etc. can be made.
6.3.7. Use the results of the evaluation to make decisions about the curriculum and
make recommendations.
The findings of the results can be used to come up with recommendations and suggestions in
terms of policies and reforms in improving the standards of the current teaching learning
process. The main purpose of the assessment is to provide credible information for making
instructional decisions like change of curriculum, teacher training, assessment process,
teaching learning resources etc. On the basis of the interpretation, the assessor can use the
result for changing the curriculum, developing a new textbook, innovative pedagogy etc.
6.3.8. Repeat the evaluation process on a regular basis:
The process for improvement is continuous and hence there is always scope for improvising
the quality of evaluation. It must be done on a regular basis. In fact, assessment is the integral
part of the curriculum making and teaching learning process. To make the education
qualitative, assessment can be conducted on a regular basis by following the steps discussed
above.
6.3.9. Uses and Limitations
A comprehensive and methodical approach to curriculum review is the Metfessel-Michael
Model. For instructors who want to make sure that their curriculum is meeting the needs of
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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

their students, it is a beneficial instrument. It is a goal-oriented paradigm , therefore its

attention is on figuring out whether the curriculum is succeeding in accomplishing those
goals. It is a systematic technique, which implies it adheres to a sequential methodology.
Because it is comprehensive, it takes into account every component of the curriculum. It has
certain limitations like, steps proposed are very lengthy and require involvement of all
stakeholders of education.

Self-check Exercise: 2.3

What are the benefits of involving stakeholders in deciding objectives of the program
as per the Metfessel-Michael Model of evaluation?
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6.4. SUMMARY
• Norman Metfessel and James Michael developed the goal-oriented Metfessel-Michael
Model of Curriculum Evaluation in 1967. This model is based on the idea that curriculum
assessment should be focused on figuring out whether or not the program is
accomplishing its objectives

• Once objectives, content and learning experiences are decided and provided to the
learners, the assessor must create tools and techniques of evaluation.

• The desired learning outcomes can be aligned with specific instruments for evaluation
such as interviews, tests, inventories, portfolios, anecdotes, and rating scales. These
evaluation tools can be developed by the teacher as per the learning outcomes and
content.

• The goals that were set in the first steps should be compared to the learning outcomes and
analysed to the extent till which they have been achieved.

• Analysis of the students performance is the process of breaking the information in pieces
and comparing it with different criteria (objectives).

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

• The main purpose of the assessment is to provide credible information for making
instructional decisions like change of curriculum, teacher training, assessment process,
teaching learning resources etc.

6.5. UNIT END EXERCISES

1. Design a framework for developing and assessing the curriculum at secondary school
level of your state by following Metfessel – Michale.
2. Select any programme (BA/ MA/ Diploma) and evaluate it on the basis of Metfessel –
Michale of assessment.
3. Describe the differences between Tyler model and Metfessel model of assessment.

6.6. FURTHER READING

Goldie, J. (2006). AMEE Education Guide no. 29: Evaluating educational programmes.
Medical Teacher, 28(3), 210–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/01421590500271282
Lonigan, C. J., Farver, J. M., Phillips, B. M., & Clancy-Menchetti, J. (2009). Promoting the
development of preschool children’s emergent literacy skills: a randomized evaluation of a
literacy-focused curriculum and two professional development models. Reading and Writing,
24(3), 305–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9214-6
Woods, J. A. (1988). Curriculum Evaluation Models : Practical Applications for teachers.
Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.1988v13n2

[59]
 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

UNIT-07
PROVU’S DISCREPANCY MODEL FOR
CURRICULUM EVALUATION
Structure
7.1. Learning Objectives
7.2. Introduction
7.3. Provu’s Models of Educational Assessment
7.3.1. Program design
7.3.2. Installation:
7.3.3. Process
7.3.4. Product
7.3.5. Cost Benefit Analysis
7.3.6. Uses and Limitations
7.4. Summary
7.5. Unit End Exercises
7.5. Further Reading

7. 1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading the unit, students shall be able to;
● Explain stages of Provu’s model of educational assessment.
● Describe steps and uses Provu’s of educational assessment.
● Illustrate the stages of Provu’s model of educational assessment
● Discuss the process of using Provu’s Discrepancy model of educational assessment.

7.2. INTRODUCTION

Assessment is the integral part of the teaching and learning process. It determines the
effectiveness of teaching of teachers, leadership of school heads, quality of textbooks,
assessment practices and teacher education programmes. The achievement of learning
outcomes by learners is ascertained by using assessment data. Hence, all the stakeholders of
education from school to university are very much interested about the modalities and
practices of assessment followed. So, the assessment must provide valid and reliable data to

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the policy makers and stakeholders as well. It must contribute to the quality improvement of
education. To make the assessment effective in helping the education process, it must follow
models of assessment advocated by many psychometricians and educationists. Model gives a
framework and step by step process of conducting assessment so that it gives a valid and
reliable result. Model makes assessment organised, systematic, usable, and objective. All the
teachers and educators must understand the nitty gritty of different educational models so that
they can conduct assessment. There are many models of assessment proposed by different
authors. In this unit, Provu’s model of assessment are discussed in detail with its uses and
limitations.
Model of educational assessment gives a systematic procedure for conducting assessment to
practitioners. The practitioners may be a teacher, school heads, curriculum developers,
textbook writers, policy makers and educational administrators. Let’s discuss Provu’s model
of assessment and its uses in educational settings.

7.3. PROVU’S MODELS OF EDUCATIONAL

ASSESSMENT

It is common to compare things/programmes/curriculum with prescribed standards to find out

its worth. Assessment can be done by finding discrepancies in performance at different levels
so that corrective measures can be taken to improve. This is the basic idea on which Provu’s
model of assessment is based. Malcolm Provu created the Discrepancy Evaluation Model
(DEM) in 1956, which offers data for program evaluation and enhancement. The DEM
defines evaluation as a comparison between a performance's (P) actual results and a desired
standard (S). The difference between performance and standard is called discrepancy (D).
Program design, installation, process, product, and cost benefit analysis are the five stages of
evaluation that the DEM represents based on a program's natural development. The DEM's
evaluation data collection aids in career planning and placement. These choices can be
classified into three categories:
● Choices relating to program design or analysis
● Choices relating to the accomplishment of both intermediate and ultimate goals
● Choices relating to the program's current operations.
This model offers data for program evaluation and enhancement. The steps of DEM are
discussed here with the assumption that it improves the quality of curriculum evaluation. This
model is graphically presented in figure-2.4.

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

Figure: 7.1.: Graphic presentation of discrepancy model of evaluation

7.3.1. Program design:

The first step is to design the programme or curriculum. Design of the programme for
curriculum aims at developing learning outcomes, competency, and knowledge which
ultimately lead to good career choices and its role in preparing the students through the
programme. Programmes/curriculum must be based on certain standards so that it is
relevant for learners.
7.3.2. Installation:
Once the programme is designed, it must be installed to see its effect on learners. The
installation stage provides an opportunity to identify and collect the resources required to
properly and faithfully deliver a parenting curriculum. Further, during this phase it is
made sure that the instruments and resources required for successful development are
available.
7.3.3. Process
The curriculum that will be assessed must first go through several processes of
preparation steps. The steps can be;
● Specification; it includes defining whom the curriculum is intended for, who will
conduct the assessment and what the primary goals of the curriculum are that will
be assessed. When the specification is in place, the curriculum has a foundation
upon which it can be assessed.
● Resource mobilisation; it includes proper channelization of available resources
required for best possible output.
● Operationalisation; it includes implementation of the developed process and
formula aimed at optimum use of curriculum evaluation.

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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

7.3.4. Product
This step outlines the learning objectives for the cognitive, emotional and psycho-motor
domains. This fragmentation of human abilities required specific and individualised
programme curriculum for attaining holistic development. It is necessary to determine the
product of the programme in terms of the students' learning and development.
7.3.5. Cost Benefit Analysis
This step helps to understand whether a project decision makes sense from a business
standpoint. Cost benefit analysis compares the expected or estimated cost and benefits
connected with the evaluation model. This step is very important as it helps to see the product
in terms of cost used.
Based on a program's natural development Malcolm Provu created the Discrepancy
Evaluation Model (DEM). The DEM's evaluation data collection aids career planning and
placement. It helps counsellors in making thoughtful decisions.

Self-check-Exercise-2.4

What is the discrepancy according to Provu’s Model of assessment?

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7.3.6. Uses and Limitations

The model created by Malcolm Provu deviates from the presumption that assessors can
compare standards with performance, or what should happen and what actually happened, to
establish the viability of a program. By contrasting these two items, a discrepancy between
the performance expected and the actual performance can be seen. This model is designed to
evaluate programs and determine whether they should be stopped, improved, or continued.
The terms standard, performance, detail discrepancy, and measurability are also used in this
concept. In this instance, the evaluator calculates the size of each gap in the program
evaluation. Corrective actions can be carried out clearly by identifying the deficiencies in
each program component. This model is used to determine the degree of conformance

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between the performance that results from the program and the standards stated in the
program. This model of assessment is not economical in time and money as it involves a
lengthy process to determine discrepancy. Further, it is not easy to determine standards for
each step to compare with actual results.

7.4. SUMMARY/KEY POINTS

• Malcolm Provu created the Discrepancy Evaluation Model (DEM) in 1956, which
offers data for program evaluation and enhancement.

• The DEM defines evaluation as a comparison between a performance's (P) actual

results and a desired standard (S).

• Design of the programme for curriculum aims at developing learning outcomes,

competency, and knowledge which ultimately lead to good career choices and its role
in preparing the students through the programme.

• Cost benefit analysis compares the expected or estimated cost and benefits connected
with the evaluation model

7.5. UNIT END EXERCISES

4. Design a framework for developing and assessing the curriculum at secondary school
level of your state by following Provu’s model of assessment.
5. Select any programme (BA/ MA/ Diploma) and evaluate it on the basis of the Provu’s
model of assessment
6. Describe the differences between Tyler model and Provu’s model of assessment
7. Provu's model of assessment is known as discrepancy model. Describe different types of
discrepancy the model suggested and how it is helpful for the improvement of education.

7.6. FURTHER READING

Goldie, J. (2006). AMEE Education Guide no. 29: Evaluating educational programmes.
Medical Teacher, 28(3), 210–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/01421590500271282
Lonigan, C. J., Farver, J. M., Phillips, B. M., & Clancy-Menchetti, J. (2009). Promoting the
development of preschool children’s emergent literacy skills: a randomized evaluation of a
literacy-focused curriculum and two professional development models. Reading and Writing,
24(3), 305–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9214-6
Woods, J. A. (1988). Curriculum Evaluation Models : Practical Applications for teachers.
Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.1988v13n2

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UNIT-08
MEANING OF TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN ASSESSMENT

STRUCTURE
8. 1. Learning Objectives
8.2.Introduction
8.3.Meaning of Tools and Techniques in assessment
8.3.1. Difference between Tools and Techniques
8.4.Subjective and Objective tools of assessment
8.5 Essay and Objective tests.
8.5.1. Essay Tests
8.5.2. Characteristics of Essay Test
8.5.3. Limitations of Essay Test
8.5.4. Objective Tests
8.5.5. Characteristics of Objective Tests
8.5.6. Limitations of Objective Tests
8.6. Summary/Key Points
8.7. Unit End Exercise
8.8. Suggestions for Further Reading

8.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, learners shall be able to;
● define and differentiate tools and techniques used in educational assessment.
● distinguish between subjective and objective assessment tools.
● Explain the uses various types of objectives and subjective test

8.2. INTRODUCTION

Assessment is an integral part of the teaching learning process which contributes

greatly for gathering ideas about the knowledge, abilities, and academic needs of students so
that better planning can be done for bringing improvement in the instructional strategies. In
the realm of assessment, the role of various tools and techniques is paramount to help
students learn more effectively. Teachers are the main assessors of students in the classroom;
they create assessment tools with two main objectives in mind: gathering data to guide
classroom instruction and tracking students' progress toward meeting year-end learning
objectives. Teachers also help pupils learn techniques for self-monitoring and self-evaluation
so they should make sure that students participate in setting learning objectives, creating
action plans, and employing assessment procedures to track their accomplishment of

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objectives to accomplish this effectively. Some commonly used tools and techniques for
assessment are questionnaire, interview schedule, observation, rating scale etc. In this unit the
concept and uses of different tools & techniques used in the educational assessment are
discussed.

8.3.MEANING OF TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES IN ASSESSMENT

Tools and techniques in assessment are the instruments which help in determining the
learning interventions needed for enhancing the academic proficiency of students. Several
tools and techniques are used by the teachers to measure the academic abilities, skills,
behavioral patterns, personality, and various other factors of a student's development. Tools
in measurement mean the instruments employed for data collection, while techniques involve
the methods and approaches applied to extract meaningful insights from the collected
information. In educational context, tests or questions are examples of tools and
administering either in group or individually is the example of techniques.
Traditional tools include written tests, quizzes, and examinations, providing a
structured approach to evaluating knowledge and understanding. Performance assessments,
such as presentations, portfolios, and practical demonstrations, offer a more holistic view of
skills and abilities. Surveys and questionnaires serve as valuable tools for gathering
subjective data, allowing for the exploration of attitudes, opinions, and experiences. Rubrics,
scoring guides, and checklists provide standardized criteria for evaluation, enhancing
objectivity and consistency in assessment.
The synergy between tools and techniques is crucial for effective assessment. The
selection of appropriate tools depends on the nature of what is being assessed and the desired
outcomes. Techniques guide the application of these tools, ensuring that the assessment
process is fair, reliable, and valid.
Difference between Tools and Techniques
Tools are the physical or digital resources that facilitate the assessment process. They
are the tangible devices or materials which teachers use to gather information to evaluate
performance of students. For example, a written test, a survey, an interview protocol, or even
a rubric can be considered tools.
On the other hand, techniques refer to the methods or approaches you employ to
implement these tools effectively. It is about how you use the tools to collect, analyze, and
interpret data. Techniques involve the skills, procedures, and strategies applied during
assessment. This could include things like observation skills, data analysis methods, or even
specific interviewing techniques.
In essence, tools are the concrete items you use, and techniques are the methods you
apply to make the assessment process meaningful and reliable. They work hand in hand to
ensure a comprehensive and accurate assessment.

Self-check Exercise-8.1
Write down three tools and two techniques that can be used in school by teachers.
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8.4.SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE TOOLS OF ASSESSMENT

As we have discussed earlier, Tools in the assessment process play a very significant
role as they are the means to measure several aspects of development in a child. Normally in
a classroom scenario, teachers use two common methods of assessment such as subjective
and objective assessment. Objective assessment method is comparatively quicker than
subjective assessment and it provides accurate information and with clear and precise
evaluation. Subjective assessment on the other hand is time consuming as it provides more
comprehensive information about the knowledge and skills of students. The objective tools
bring structure and clarity, while the subjective ones add depth and personal insight to the
assessment.
Essays, portfolios, oral presentations, projects, open-ended questions, or
performance evaluations fall into the subjective category. They focus on the quality of
student’s work, their creativity level, analyzing potential and divergent thinking capacity
rather than specific correct answers. The objective category evaluates the student’s
knowledge and understanding of specific facts or concepts; this category includes multiple-
choice exams, numerical scores, rubrics, true-false exercises promoting fair evaluation for all
the students. The difference between objective and subjective tools are presented in table-3.1.

Table-8.2: Difference between objective and subjective tools of assessment

Objective Tools Subjective Tools
The assessment tools which focus to The assessment tools which are used to
measure the knowledge of students on measure the performance of students that are
particular facts and figures are categorized qualitative in nature are categorized as
under objective assessment tools. subjective tools.
It takes more time to prepare objective It is easy to prepare subjective tools but more
tools whereas less time is required for time is required for evaluating the students.
evaluating the students.
Objective tools can measure both simple Subjective tools generally include items from
and complex learning outcomes understanding, application domains or other
higher order skills.
Items in the objective tools can be scored Items in subjective tools can be partially right
as either right or wrong. or wrong.
Examples: Multiple choice questions, Examples: essay, application, letter, long or
True/False items, Fill in the blanks etc. open-ended questions.
Objective tests can cover many items and Subjective tools can cover a small number of
content sampling is adequate. test items and some contents may mis in the
test.
Objective tools are usually highly valid Subject tools are difficult to ensure validity
and reliable. and reliability
Machine/software can be used for scoring Subjective tools are manually scored and time
objective tools consuming
Objective tools can be standardized across Subjective tools are difficult to standardized
the Globe
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 Educational Assessment and Evaluation

Objective tools are suitable for national Only subjective tools are rarely used in
and state level assessments like NAS/SAS national and state level assessment.

Self-check Exercise-8.2
List three subjective and three objective tools of assessment used in school education.
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8.5.ESSAY AND OBJECTIVE TESTS.

There are several methods used by the teachers to assess the knowledge,
understanding and skills of students. Two widely used methods among them are essay tests
and objective tests. Each method has its unique characteristics, strength and applications
contributing towards effective assessment. By incorporating both the assessment methods in a
balanced way, we can obtain a holistic understanding of students' abilities resulting in a
meaningful assessment practice.

8.5.1. Essay Tests

Essay test refers to written tests where students are required to compose their answers usually
in the form of sentences, paragraphs, or passages that measure their understanding, thinking
skills and other complex learning objectives. Essay type tests have intensive use in higher
education and are very popular in classroom testing. In essay tests, learners are allowed to
select, organize their ideas, and express their thoughts which they consider appropriate. When
teachers want the learner to articulate their thoughts and demonstrate a deeper comprehension
of the subject matter, they use this kind of test. It is characterized by open-ended questions,
demand a subjective judgment about the quality of the answer. While answering, students get
the freedom of response to think diversely in their own way which reflects their creativity
level, ability to organize thoughts meaningfully, integrate ideas and other thinking skills. A
student should have thorough knowledge and understanding of the concept to answer essay
type items.
8.5.2. Characteristics of Essay Test
• Essay type test items enable students to plan their answer, organize, and express in their
own words.
• In essay tests, questions are generally broad and open ended.
• Students get much freedom to express their individuality in essay tests.
• The answer may be partially right or wrong; there are provisions for partial credit for
answers.
• Students who have good language skills are at an advantage in essay tests.
• Scoring in essay test is subjective in nature and inconsistent from teacher to teacher.

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• Essay tests require subjective judgment of the skilled or informed person in that area to
judge the quality and accuracy of the response.
• Essay type test items are easier to construct than multiple choice items as there is no need
to create effective distractors; so, they are less time consuming in preparation.

Self-check exercise-8.3

Prepare five essay questions for assessing school level subjects.

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8.5.3. Limitations of Essay Test

• In essay tests, there are chances of subjectivity in scoring i.e., personal factors of the
evaluator influence scoring.
• The scoring is unreliable in essay tests, it differs from teacher to teacher.
• Essay type test items require much time for answering and evaluating.
• It is greatly influenced by the handwriting and language abilities of students.
• It may encourage bluffing and selective study habits among students.

To minimize the weakness of subjectivity in scoring, a model answer sheet should be

prepared including the important key points and other considerations. Scoring of all
responses to a single item should be done at a time to avoid subjective bias of the evaluator.
Essay tests if prepared carefully can measure complex learning outcomes such as critical
thinking, creative thinking, problem solving, innovative thinking etc. among students. It is
essential for teachers to use essay tests only when learning outcomes cannot be measured by
objective tests.
8.5.4. Objective Tests
Objective tests are highly structured tests that are designed to get clear and specific answers
for a problem/question. Unlike subjective tests, it aims to test students' ability to recall
information and other complex learning outcomes. Objective tests are considered a popular
choice for large scale assessments such as National Achievement Survey/ State Achievement
Survey because they are reliable in grading and free from the examiner's subjective opinion.
According to Gilbert, “Any test having clear and unambiguous scoring criteria is an objective
test.” However, students' ability to organize ideas, problem-solving skills and creativity level
cannot be measured using objective tests. Objective type tests can cover a wide range of
syllabus in comparison to the subjective tests as it includes larger and more representative
samples having high content validity. One may feel that it is easy to prepare objective test
items, but it is not so; to prepare objective test items it requires mastery of knowledge in that

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area, creativity ability as well as clear knowledge about the objectives and content of the
course.
While preparing objective test items, it should be kept in mind that the items should be
independent and one item does not give any clue to other items. Some common examples of
objective type questions are multiple choice items, fill in the blank, true-false type, matching
type etc. In current time, objective tests are being broadly used in all kinds of entrance
examinations due to their characteristics of high reliability and validity.

8.5.5. Characteristics of Objective Tests

• Objective tests can measure both simple and complex learning outcomes like analytical or
reasoning skills.
• Answering objective type test items takes less time in comparison to essay type items, so
it is time-efficient.
• It allows teachers to cover a broad area of content for assessing large numbers of students
with reduced marking workload.
• Objective tests are easy to administer and score.
• Answers in objective tests are either wrong or right; there is no scope for partial credit.
• Scoring possesses objectivity, hence reliable.
• Nature of scoring is generally quick(rapid), easy and consistent.
• Machine/software can be used for objective test administration and scoring.

8.5.6. Limitations of Objective Tests

● Objective tests are not suitable for testing certain skills like organization, writing
abilities and abilities to present matter systematically etc.
● It requires expertise to construct objective type test items; constructing objective
items are difficult as well as time consuming.
● There is less freedom given to students for expressing and explaining their views in
objective tests.
● While answering multiple choice or true/false type items, it’s possible to blindly guess
the answer without having any idea about it. It may encourage guessing among
students.

8.6. SUMMARY/KEY POINTS

• Tools and techniques in assessment are the instruments which help in determining the
learning interventions needed for enhancing the academic proficiency of students.
• Tools in measurement mean the instruments employed for data collection, while
techniques involve the methods and approaches applied to extract meaningful insights
from the collected information.
• Surveys and questionnaires serve as valuable tools for gathering subjective data, allowing
for the exploration of attitudes, opinions, and experiences
• Tools are the physical or digital resources that facilitate the assessment process

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• The objective tools bring structure and clarity, while the subjective ones add depth and
personal insight to the assessment.
• Essay test refers to written tests where students are required to compose their answers
usually in the form of sentences, paragraphs, or passages that measure their
understanding, thinking skills and other complex learning objectives.
• Objective tests are highly structured tests that are designed to get clear and specific
answers for a problem/question.
• Objective type tests can cover a wide range of syllabus in comparison to the subjective
tests as it includes larger and more representative samples having high content validity.

8.7. UNIT END EXERCISE

1. Compare and contrast formative and summative assessment tools, providing examples
of each.
2. Design a comprehensive assessment plan for a specific educational scenario,
incorporating a mix of subjective and objective tools. Justify your choices based on
the learning objectives and context.
3. Compare and contrast essay tests and objective tests. In what situations might one
type of test be more appropriate than the other?

8.8. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208

Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education

Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810

Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030

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UNIT -09
CONCEPT OF SCALES AND QUESTIONNAIRES
STRUCTURE
9. 1. Learning Objectives
9.2.Introduction
9.3.Scales
9.3.1. Advantages of Rating Scale
9.3.2. Descriptive graphic rating scale
9.3.3. Disadvantages of Rating Scale
9.3.4. Graphic rating scale
9.3.5. Numerical rating scale
9.3.6. Rating Scale
9.3.7. Types of Rating Scales
9.3.8. Uses of Rating Scale
9.4.Questionnaire
9.4.1. Structured Questionnaire
9.4.2. Unstructured Questionnaire
9.4.3. Principles of Preparing Questionnaire
9.4.4. Advantages of Questionnaire
9.4.5. Disadvantages of Questionnaire
9.5. Summary/Key Points
9.6. Unit End Exercise
9.7. Suggestions for Further Reading

9.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, learners shall be able to;
● Define and differentiate tools and techniques used in educational assessment.
● Distinguish between subjective and objective assessment tools.
● Explain the uses various types of objectives and subjective test

9.2. INTRODUCTION

Level of measurement or scale of measure is a classification that describes the nature of

information within the numbers assigned to variables. Psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens
developed the best known classification with four levels or scales of measurement: nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio. In this article, Stevens claimed that all measurement in science
was conducted using four different types of scales that he called "nominal" "ordinal"
"interval" and "ratio" unifying both "qualitative" (which are described by his "nominal" type)
and "quantitative" (all the rest of his scales).

9.3. SCALES

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Aim of education is to bring the holistic development of learners through teaching and
assessing holistically. For holistic assessment, teachers need to use both testing and non-
testing devices. Because tests are not suitable for assessing all kinds of learning outcomes and
competencies. The learning outcomes related to affective and psychomotor domains such as
attitude, values, appreciation, perception, performance, skills, interests, competencies etc. are
hard to measure through tests. These non-cognitive abilities of learners are to be assessed
through scales, inventories, schedules, checklists, questionnaires etc. The test gives the
information about students' performance in quantitative terms which is objective and
correctly interpretable. Scale gives information about students' development in non-cognitive
qualities in ratings or presence/absence, agree/disagree etc. The results of the scale can be
utilized for inculcating non-cognitive abilities of students through assistance, mentoring and
guidance/counseling.
9.3.1. Rating Scale
Rating scale is one of the widely used non-testing tools which consists of a set of
characteristics or attributes to be judged and rating points/descriptors. It indicates the degree
to which a certain trait or characteristic is present in the behavioral pattern. It is one of the
methods of recording observation objectively and systematically. Rating scale is a
standardized method of recording behavior with which individuals can be rated on a scale
from low to high with respect to a particular trait. While scoring using rating scale, the
‘Rater’ or ‘Observer’ or ‘Teacher’ assigns a value to each characteristic according to pre-
fixed criteria. Odd number pointed rating scales are used in normal settings like 3-, 5- & 7-
point rating scales. According to Gronlund, “The value of rating scale in appraising the
learning and development of pupils depends largely upon the care with which it is prepared
and appropriateness with which it is used.”
Instead of merely indicating the presence or absence of a specific attribute like in the
checklist, rating scale provides more comprehensive information. A rater or observer should
be fully instructed about the purpose and right use of the measuring tool. They should fill the
rating scale during observation, or immediately after observation to ensure objectivity of the
tool. The qualities like skills of communication, skills in demonstration, performance in art
and drama, laboratory experiments, attitudes, values, etc. can be assessed by rating scales.

9.3.2. Types of Rating Scales

Types of Rating Scales
There are three mostly used rating scales in education setting are;
● Numerical rating scale
● Graphic rating scale
● Descriptive graphic rating scale

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9.3.3. Numerical rating scale

Like the name reflects, there are numbers indicating the degree of present
characteristics in a numerical rating scale. The rater needs to assign some value to a particular
trait. One has to mark or encircle the numbers each representing their own verbal
descriptions. The attribute to be measured is presented in the form of a sentence and numbers
representing the key values are to be chosen. For example;
Direction: Encircle the appropriate number indicating the performance of students in a dance
competition. The number 1 represents least and the number 5 represents best.

Sl No. Criteria 1 2 3 4 5

1 Dance moves were up to the mark

2 Facial expressions used were correct

3 Follows the music

4 Demonstrate proper mudras

5 Costume is appropriate

9.3.4. Graphic rating scale

In graphic rating scale, ratings are made in graphic form instead of using scale values. In this
type of rating scale, each trait is presented in sentences followed by a horizontal line. The
observer must put a mark on the line indicating the extent to which a certain trait is present.
For Example;
Direction: Indicate the extent to which the student is present in co-curricular activities class
by putting a tick mark () along the horizontal line under each item.
1. To what extent the student is present in the co-curricular activities classes?

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Never Seldom Occasionally Frequently Always

2. To what extent the student is eager to participate in the co-curricular activities?

Never Seldom Occasionally Frequently Always

9.3.5. Descriptive graphic rating scale

As the name suggests, descriptive phrases are used to identify points on the graphic scale.
The description helps to clarify a particular dimension and it makes the descriptive graphic
rating scale the most desirable type of scale to give rating. In some scales, only center and
end points are described whereas in some, description is given under each point. A space for
comments is also provided where needed.

1. To what extent the student is willing to take part in science lab experiments?

Never participates, participate normally very eagerly

participate
Not active as other group members with interest

Self-check Exercise-3.4
Write down five items for assessing laboratory skills of students by using numeric rating
scales.
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9.3.6. Uses of Rating Scale

● Rating scale helps the teacher to rate their students on several personality traits like
honesty, leadership quality, cooperativeness; and other skills like song, dance, debate,
drawing, model, handwriting etc.
● Teachers can use rating scales to evaluate their teaching strategies, teaching learning
methods and materials they use and their instructional procedures.
● It can be used to measure the attitude or perception of students towards the teaching
learning process.
● Students of the higher classes can rate themselves using this tool which improves
judgmental skills in them.

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● This comprehensive tool provides the views and opinions of individuals on certain
characteristics.
● They measure specific learning outcomes which are significant for the teacher.

9.3.7. Advantages of Rating Scale

● It works as a comprehensive platform for comparing learners on the basis of the same
set of characteristics.
● Rating scale directs observation towards specific aspects of behavior and is widely
used in educational fields.
● Students can also use a rating scale to rate their behavior in the process of self-
assessment and peer assessment.
● It can be used for taking opinions from many students.
● Rating scale is easy to construct, economical in use and flexible in nature.

9.3.8. Disadvantages of Rating Scale,

● Rating scales tend to be less reliable because there are chances of subjectivity in
scoring
● Examiner’s value system, belief or pre-conception may affect the result of students.
To avoid this situation and ensure reliability, multiple observers can rate the same
sample with the same scale.
● The halo effect is a common type of error of rating scale that occurs when an
observer’s general perception about a person influences his rating.

Rating is a very popular tool in measuring a series of educational and personality traits in
educational settings. Teachers should know the process of developing rating scales as per the
requirement of class. Of course, there are certain standardized rating scales available, but
these rating scales may not serve the purpose of a particular teacher. Utmost care must be
taken by the rater/ teacher when marking on the scale. Because rating is badly influenced by
the preconception and beliefs of the rater. Hence, rater/ teacher must be unbiased and
objective in observation and recording the ratings.

9.4.QUESTIONNAIRE

Questionnaire is one of the most extensively used assessment tools in teaching,

learning and research purposes. It consists of a set of questions/statements to gather
information from respondents/students on a variety of problems, issues, and lessons. In order
to gather firsthand information from the learners, questionnaires are a very effective tool. Sir
Fransis Galton is known as the inventor of questionnaire. It is generally used to measure the
attitudes, thought, beliefs, behavior, preference, and perception of a relatively large number
of people. Questionnaire is considered as a self-report data collection instrument in which
space is provided under each question for writing answers. It is widely used in research and
assessment because it is comparatively cheap, less time consuming and convenient to use
than other tools. According to John. W. Best, “ a questionnaire is used when factual

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information is desired, when opinion rather than facts is required, an opinionnaire or attitude
scale is used.” Questionnaire is broadly classified into two types such as structured
questionnaire and unstructured questionnaire.

9.4.1. Structured Questionnaire

In structured questionnaires, pre-determined and definite questions are used for

accurate communication and responses. Each question is followed by options and students
are required to select one or more options. The questions are restricted and respondents get
less freedom to answer the questions. Nature of scoring in a structured questionnaire is
objective, accurate and less time consuming.

9.4.2. Unstructured Questionnaire

Unstructured questionnaires are those which include open and unrestricted questions
and allow learners to express their thoughts in a free-flowing manner. Students are given
freedom to share their ideas with depth. These types of questions record more data as they do
not have a predetermined set of responses. The nature of scoring is subjective in nature and it
sometimes becomes difficult to organize and interpret the collected data through unstructured
questionnaires.

9.4.3. Principles of Preparing Questionnaire

● Questions/items should match the objectives of the lesson and purposes of the testing.
● Clear and comprehensible wording should be used to avoid confusion on the part of
the students.
● Do not use leading or loading questions. The level of question should be appropriate
to the mental level of students.
● Negative or double negative statements should be avoided while preparing questions
like Do not you think that we should not protect our environment?
● Correct spelling, grammar and punctuation marks should be used in items
● The sequence of questions should be from simple to complex
● Similar types of questions should be grouped together as section A & B for proper
organization.
Self-check Exercise-3.5
Write down five questionnaire items for assessing opinion of students towards health &
wellbeing.
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9.4.4. Advantages of Questionnaire

● With minimum expense and effort, questionnaires can collect information about
learning from many students in less time.
● With the help of questionnaires, both qualitative and quantitative data can be collected
from the students about learning.
● By using advanced technology like google form & Kobo tool, questionnaires can be
helpful to collect data with minimum time, and effort removing geographical barriers.
● Written questions give space and time to the students so that they feel free to express
their views which is not possible through the interview method.
● There is less pressure on the students to respond as time limits are not imposed.

9.4.5. Disadvantages of Questionnaire

● Questionnaires sometimes confuse students to understand the actual meaning of the

questions. A rigid questionnaire does not draw accurate responses from participants.
● Sometimes the participants hide true answers and are dishonest while answering the
questions.
● Written questionnaires cannot be administered to students with low literacy
competency.
Questionnaires are a very important tool for assessing opinion, views, perceptions, values,
attitudes from students. The social and personal traits of learners can easily be measured with
the help of questionnaires. Hence, teachers must know the process of questionnaire
development and use it for educational and research purposes.

9.5.SUMMARY/KEY POINTS

• Rating scale is a standardized method of recording behavior with which individuals

can be rated on a scale from low to high with respect to a particular trait.
• Like the name reflects, there are numbers indicating the degree of present
characteristics in a numerical rating scale. The rater needs to assign some value to a
particular trait.
• In graphic rating scale, ratings are made in graphic form instead of using scale
values. In this type of rating scale, each trait is presented in sentences followed by a
horizontal line.
• Questionnaire is one of the most extensively used assessment tools in teaching,
learning and research purposes. It consists of a set of questions/statements to gather
information from respondents/students on a variety of problems, issues, and lessons.
In order to gather firsthand information from the learners, questionnaires are a very
effective tool.
• In structured questionnaires, pre-determined and definite questions are used for
accurate communication and responses. Each question is followed by options and
students are required to select one or more options.

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• Unstructured questionnaires are those which include open and unrestricted

questions and allow learners to express their thoughts in a free-flowing manner.
Students are given freedom to share their ideas with depth.
9.6.UNIT END EXERCISE

• Define the meaning of scale and its different categories.

• In which way scale is different from questionnaire. discuss its practical implications
• What is the meaning of questionnaire and its various categories.
• How does questionnaire prepare? Discuss its merits and demerits.
• What principles should be taken care of in the preparation of scales?

9.7. SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER READING

Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208

Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education

Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810

Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030

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UNIT - 10
SCHEDULES, OBSERVATION, INTERVIEW, INTEREST
INVENTORIES AND PERFORMANCE TEST
STRUCTURE
10.1. Learning Objectives
10.2.Introduction
10.3.Schedule
10.3.1. Observation
10.3.2. Structured observation
10.3.3. Unstructured observation
10.3.4. Participant observation
10.3.5. Non-Participant Observation
10.3.6. Advantages of observation
10.3.7. Disadvantages of observation
10.4. Interview
10.4.1. Uses of interview
10.4.2. Disadvantages
10.5. Interest Inventories
10.6. Performance Test
10.6.1. Characteristics of Performance Tests
10.6.2. Advantages of Performance Test
10.6.3. Disadvantages of Performance Test
10.7. Summary/Key Points
10.8. Unit End Exercise
10.9. Suggestions for Further Reading

10.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, learners shall be able to;
● Define schedules and its various categories used in educational assessment.
● distinguish between subjective and objective assessment tools.
● Explain the uses various types of objectives and subjective test
10.5.INTRODUCTION
Evaluation methods are used to judge student learning and understanding of the material for purposes
of grading and reporting. Tools and techniques of evaluation are critically examines a subject and then
assigns a grade or some other type of formal result based on how well they performed. Here we are
going to learn all the tools and techniques of evaluation which will helps us understand evaluation.
Evaluation methods are used to judge student learning and understanding of the material for purposes
of grading and reporting. Tools and techniques of evaluation are critically examines a subject and then
assigns a grade or some other type of formal result based on how well they performed. Here we are
going to learn all the tools and techniques of evaluation which will helps us understand evaluation.
10.3.SCHEDULE

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Schedule is an assessment tool which is mainly used to guide interviews and

observations for collecting data from the learners about learning. A well-structured schedule
acts as a reminder which keeps the memory of the interviewer/observer/teacher refreshed and
attentive of all the relevant aspects to be covered or observed within the allocated time. In
fact, schedule systematizes and organized the observation and interviews. It is very much
useful for assessing non-cognitive learning outcomes such as leadership, honesty, laboratory
& library skills etc. Let us discuss about the observation schedule and interview schedule in
following sections.

10.3.1. Observation

People do not always do what they usually say. So, to have the real know the real
behaviour, observation as a tool plays the key role. The process of watching behavioral
patterns of students to obtain information for understanding and assessment is calling as
observational technique; especially to study the behavior of young children. Observation is
considered as a very effective tool as no communication is needed for gathering information.
Sense organs play a crucial role in the observation process. There is more use of eyes than ear
and voice in the observation process. Observer/teacher only believes what he/she has
observed with their own eyes. As the information is collected from primary sources through
observation, it is reliable and valid in nature. According to C. A. Mourse, “Observation
employs relatively more visual sense than audio or video organs.” Observation can be
classified into following types based on the mode and nature of observation.

10.3.2. Structured observation

Structured observation is systematic, organized, and pre-planned. In case of structured

observation, every detail of observation like qualities to be observed, time to observe, place
of observation, criteria of observation, recording observation are pre-decided. The
teacher/observer cannot change the plan of observation. To make observation structured,
teacher must develop observation schedule and guide. The observation schedule is the list of
items/ criteria to be observed during the observation. It is based on the learning outcomes to
be assessed and level of students. In this method, the observer decides the answer to the
following questions beforehand to make it effective:

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• Who is the observer?

• What learning outcomes to be observed?
• In which time the observation must take place?
• How and where the observations are to be carried out?

10.3.3. Unstructured observation

Unstructured observations are those where all relevant phenomena are observed and
recorded extensively without planning or specifying in advance. This method is usually
adopted for exploratory purposes or understanding the learners’ inherent abilities or
problems. Here, the teacher/observer has great role to play as observation scheduled was
decided. Many learning outcomes such as adjustment, critical thinking, adoptability etc. can
be successfully assessed through the unstructured observation.

10.3.4. Participant observation

The role of teacher/ observer is paramount important in observation process. When

the observer directly observes the activities and phenomena being a member of the group, is
called as participant observation. Through this method, the natural behavior of the children
can be studied in a holistic manner as the observer spends a great deal of time with the group.
The skills in library, laboratory, acceptance, relationship, leadership etc. are suitably assessed
through the participant observation.

10.3.5. Non-Participant Observation

The limitation of participant observation is that students may hide the original
behavior if came to know that they are being observed. So, teacher can use non-participant
observation to assess the original and natural behavior of the learners. Here the observer
experiences activities from outside and is not a part of the group. Non- participant
observation is preferred when it is felt that an observer's presence may affect the natural
behavior of the group.

10.3.6. Advantages of observation

• One of the main advantages of observation is that through this the behavior of
children can be observed in a natural setting as there is direct access to social
phenomena.
• Information collected through observation schedules can provide both qualitative and
quantitative information about the students in a holistic manner.
• Observation is helpful for collecting information from infants and people who are
from other language backgrounds, as there is no need for communication.
• Personality is better assessed using this technique as there are less chances of hiding
facts on the part of the students.
10.3.7. Disadvantages of observation
• Observation as a tool of assessment is of time and resource consuming.
• Covert behavior of children cannot be studied through observation.
• There are chances of subjectivity or biasness on the part of the observer/teacher.

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• This method is not useful to study the perception and opinion of students.
10.4. INTERVIEW

Interview is a form of oral communication between the interviewer (examiner) and

interviewee (students) in which required information is directly obtained from the respondent
verbally. An interview can be conducted in face-to face mode or over telephone or video
conference. In this method, the interviewer elicits a response from the interviewee by asking
questions related to subjects. It requires the active involvement of both for a productive
conversation and result. Interview can be of structured or un-structured, individual or group.
In case of structured interview, interview schedule and guide to be developed beforehand and
interview to be conducted as planned. In case of un-structured interview, the teacher converse
with learners and elicit the desired information. The following things are to be kept in mind
while conducting an interview.

• Duration of the interview, place and mode of conducting should be decided

beforehand.
• Questions in the interview schedule should be objective based/ outcome based.
• Interviewer/ teacher should be sociable in nature so that respondents will feel free to
share their thoughts and ideas.
• Teacher must use appropriate language for conducting interview as understanding of
questions is very important.
• Teacher must use positive body language while conducting interviews with students.
• Patient listening on the part of the interviewer is necessary for successful interview.
• No irrelevant discussions should take place at the time of the interview.
• Structured interview schedules should be framed to objectively assess the learners.
10.4.1. Uses of interview
• Teacher can use interview as a tool to assess many factual contents related to all
school subjects.
• It is very much useful for foundation, preparatory and middle stage students as it can
promote confidence in oral skills.
• Interview can be useful for identifying simple learning difficulties in pupils’ behavior.
• While answering a questionnaire, sometimes the respondents are unable to answer
properly due to understanding problems which do not happen in case of an interview
as the doubts and misconceptions can be largely cleared.
• Interview questions elicit information about the attitude, perception, and perspectives
of the respondents to know their personality.
10.4.2. Disadvantages
• During the interview student get less time for thinking to answer the questions. So,
they get confused to answer correctly.
• Interview is time consuming and it is not possible to assess large number of students
in a limited time frame.
• The quality of interview depends on the objectivity of the teacher/interviewer.
Biasness of interviewer may affect the result.

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• In some cases, respondents may not feel free to express their real thoughts in front of
the other.
• It requires a high level of expertise from the teacher to use interview as assessment
tool.

Interview is one of the unconventional tools of educational assessment which can be used
by teachers across the school levels from foundation to secondary. The simple cognitive
learning outcomes like remembering and understanding can be assessed through interview.
The oral language skills like communication, confidence, presentation etc. can also be
assessed by interview.

10.5. INTEREST INVENTORIES

Having knowledge about the interest areas of students is necessary for the teachers to
design the teaching learning process accordingly or to guide them effectively for career.
There are several methods or tools used in the assessment process to understand learners'
interest, strengths, preferences, and potential areas of growth. Through informal methods like
observation and direct questioning, teachers can note the things that the child likes to do, the
type of videos she watches or the kind books she reads ; but these methods are usually
restricted to school activities and we cannot compare an individual’s interest with others. To
overcome these limitations, standardized interest inventories have been designed for the
purpose of measuring an individual's preferences, likes, dislikes across a range of activities
and domains.
Unlike traditional assessment processes that focus on achievement tests and skills,
inventories offer a more comprehensive understanding of learner’s holistic development.
Basically, in the educational settings, interest inventories are the structured items that guide
students related to the areas like career counseling, academic choices, and personal
development. Inventories also help them in decision making about career, future vocation,
and various aspects of life by fostering self-awareness in them.
Inventory refers to the list of items related one area of learning or subjects or
vocations followed by options in three- or five-point scales. It helps teacher in identifying
students’ choices, preferences and interest in scholastic, non-scholastic, and vocations.
Examples of some of the popularly used interest inventories are: ‘Kuder Preference Record-
Vocational’ (For high school students), ‘Strong Vocational Interest Blank’(for high school
and college level,) and ‘What I Like to Do-An Inventory of children's interest’(for elementary
level). Despite being a valuable tool to measure interest, inventory have certain limitations; as
personal interests can evolve over time, and these inventories capture a snapshot of
preferences at a particular moment. Additionally, cultural, and societal influences may shape
individuals' responses. Therefore, interest inventories should be used in conjunction with
other assessment methods to paint a more complete picture of an individual's capabilities and
potential.
Self-check Exercise: 3.7
Prepare five items for assessing students’ interest towards curricular objectives.
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10.6.PERFORMANCE TEST
Various techniques of assessment are used by the teachers to track the needs of
students, their knowledge, and capabilities. Before choosing a relevant technique to assess
students an examiner must determine the purpose of assessment and how the results are to be
reported. Sometimes the teachers may wish to know more about students' understanding level
or how they are able to reflect their skills in relation to the content taught rather than just
what they know. In this context, one of the ways to accomplish this purpose is by using
performance tests.
Performance tests require the students to perform an activity or a task, rather than just
answering the asked questions. The students need to show or demonstrate their skills and
competencies through their performance. In this kind of assessment, students are the active
participants and they also have a chance to learn during the assessment process. Through this,
students get motivation to learn more and increase their proficiency level. Performance test is
concerned with how well the learners can apply their knowledge practically.
Some of the examples of performance tests are athletic competition, reading map, dance,
drawing angles of certain measures, musical recital, identifying various coins or currencies,
dramatic reading, wood work, demonstration in science laboratory and many more. Teachers
are free to design activities for students for their performance test in accordance with the
content.

10.6.1. Characteristics of Performance Tests

• Performance tests are both standardized and a non-standardized test and is flexible in
nature.
• It can be used to measure the proficiency of students, motivate them and to provide
them necessary feedback.
• Performance test does not require one right answer like typical tests rather indicates
the degree of skilling.
• It promotes independent thinking, problem solving skills, reasoning power and
knowledge construction.
• Teachers can evaluate by observing the activities of learners and scoring can be done
with the help of rubrics.
• It focuses on both the product and process of learning. The required instruments or
materials are prepared beforehand by the teacher and teachers have the liberty to
design activities and programs relevant to the content taught.

10.6.2. Advantages of Performance Test

• Through performance tests teachers can observe students’ performance directly in a
real-world setting.
• Performance test provides desired information which cannot be extracted through
verbal or written type traditional settings.

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• Assessment process becomes interesting, promoting active involvement of students.

• This kind of assessment is very useful for young children, mentally retarded students
or the students who have language disabilities.
• During the participation of the performance test, the teacher can study the student’s
personality by observing his/her gesture, posture, expression, and attitude.
• Any kind of cheating or malpractices like copying is not possible in performance test.
• Through a single activity, multiple concepts and objectives can be measured.

10.06.3. Disadvantages of Performance Test

• Assessment process requires comparatively more time than the assessment in a
traditional setting.
• There are chances of subjectivity or biasness; the observer’s perception, attitude,
beliefs may affect the results.
• Performance test requires various materials or equipment which may be costly or not
available everywhere.
• It may not be appropriate for every type of content, focusing only on certain skills or
abilities.
• Teachers need to be in active state throughout the performance test to observe minute
details.
Skills are the integral part of the schooling process which needs to be assessed suitably. Skills
consists of micro skills which are observable and measurable. Skills can only be assessed
through observation and performance test. The laboratory skills, communication skills,
writing skills, dramatic skills etc. can be effectively assessed through the performance test.

3.12. SUMMARY

• Schedule is an assessment tool which is mainly used to guide interviews and

observations for collecting data from the learners about learning.
• A well-structured schedule acts as a reminder which keeps the memory of the
interviewer/observer/teacher refreshed and attentive of all the relevant aspects to be
covered or observed within the allocated time.
• The process of watching behavioural patterns of students to obtain information for
understanding and assessment is calling as observational technique.
• Structured observation is systematic, organized, and pre-planned. In case of structured
observation, every detail of observation like qualities to be observed, time to observe,
place of observation, criteria of observation, recording observation are pre-decided.
• Unstructured observations are those where all relevant phenomena are observed and
recorded extensively without planning or specifying in advance. This method is
usually adopted for exploratory purposes or understanding the learners’ inherent
abilities or problems.
• The role of teacher/ observer is paramount important in observation process. When
the observer directly observes the activities and phenomena being a member of the
group, is called as participant observation

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• The limitation of participant observation is that students may hide the original
behaviour if came to know that they are being observed. So, teacher can use non-
participant observation to assess the original and natural behaviour of the learners.
• Interview is a form of oral communication between the interviewer (examiner) and
interviewee (students) in which required information is directly obtained from the
respondent verbally.
• Inventory refers to the list of items related one area of learning or subjects or
vocations followed by options in three- or five-point scales. It helps teacher in
identifying students’ choices, preferences and interest in scholastic, non-scholastic,
and vocations.
• Performance tests require the students to perform an activity or a task, rather than just
answering the asked questions. The students need to show or demonstrate their skills
and competencies through their performance.

3.13. UNIT END EXERCISE

• Define schedules, its various categories, advantages and disadvantages?

• What is performance test? Discuss its purposes, merits and demerits?
• Discuss the meaning, nature, advantages and disadvantages of interview?
• Differentiate between schedule and interview ? discuss its uses crtically?

3.14. SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER READINGS

Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208

Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education

Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810

Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030

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BLOCK 03:
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF ASSESSMENT AND
CONSTRUCTION OF TEST

Unit 11: Steps of test construction: planning, preparing, trying

out and evaluation
Unit 12: Principles of construction of objective type test items,
matching, multiple choice, completion and true – false
Unit 13: Principles of construction of essay type test
Unit 14: Non- standardized tools: Observation schedule,
interview schedule, , check list,
Unit 15: Non- standardized tools: portfolio and rubrics, rating
scale

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UNIT -11
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION AND
ITS STANDARDIZATION
STRUCTURE

11.1. Learning Objectives

11.2. Introduction

11.3. Concept of General Principles of Test Construction and its standardisation

11.3.1. Planning the Test

11.3.2. Development of Test Blueprint
11.3.3. Preparing the Test
11.3.4. Trying-out the Test
11.3.5. Evaluating the Test
11.3.6. Preparation of the Test Manual
11.4. Summary/Key Points
11.5. Unit End Exercise
11.6. Suggestion for Further Reading

11.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, learners shall be able to;
● Define the general principles of Test Construction and its standardisation.
● Explain the concepts of planning the test, test blueprint, preparing the test, trying out
the test, evaluating the test
● Distinguish between trying out the test and evaluating the test
11.2 INTRODUCTION
Attention must be given to the below mentioned points while constructing a potent,
constructive and relevant questionnaire/schedule:

• The researcher must first define the problem that s/he wants to examine, as it will lay the
foundation of the questionnaire. There must be a complete clarity about the various facets of
the research problem that will be encountered as the research progresses.

• The correct formulation of questions is dependent on the kind of information the

researcher seeks, the objective of analysis and the respondents of the schedule/questionnaire.
Whether to use open ended or close ended questions should be decided by the researcher.

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They should be uncomplicated and made with such a view that there will be an objective part
of a calculated tabulation plan.

• A researcher must prepare a rough draft of the schedule while giving ample thought to the
sequence in which s/he wants to place the questions. Previous examples of such
questionnaires can also be observed at this stage.

• A researcher by default should recheck and if required make changes in the rough draft to
improve the same. Technical discrepancies should be examined in detail and changed
accordingly.

• There should be a pre-testing done through a pilot study and changes should be made to the
questionnaire if required.

• The questions should be easy to understand the directions to fill up the questionnaire
clearly mentioned; this should be done to avoid any confusion.

The primary objective of developing a tool is obtaining a set of data that is accurate,
trustworthy and authentic so as to enable the researcher in gauging the current situation
correctly and reaching conclusions that can provide executable suggestions. But, no tool is
absolutely accurate and valid, thus, it should carry a declaration that clearly mentions its
reliability and validity.

Standardization refers to the consistency of processes and procedures that are used for
conducting and scoring of a test. To compare the scores of different individuals the
conditions should be the same. In case of a new step the first and major step in
standardization is formulating the 122 directions. This also includes the type of materials to
be used, verbal instructions, time to be taken, the way to handle questions by test takers and
all other minute details of a testing environment. Establishing the norms is also a key step for
standardization. Norm refers to the average performance. To standardize a test, we
administer it to a big, representative sample of the kind of individuals it was designed for.
The aforementioned group sets the norms and is called the standardization sample. The
norms for personality tests are set in the same way as those set for aptitude tests. For both, the
norm would refer to the performance of average individuals. To construct and administer a
test, standardization is a very important. The test is administered on a large set number of the
people (the conditions and guidelines need to be the same for all). After which the scores are
modified using Percentile rank, Z-score, T-score and Stanine, etc. The standardization of a

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test can be established from this modified score. Hence, “standardization is a process of
ensuring that a test is standardized, (Osadebe, 2001)”. There are lots of advantages when a
test is standardized. A standard test is usually produced by experts and it is better than teacher
made test. The standardized test is highly valid, reliable and normalized with Percentile rank,
Z-score, T-score among scores derived from others to produce age norm, sex norm, location
norm and school-type norm. Generally, a standardized test could be used to assess, and
compare students in the same norming group. The normal process for administering
standardization includes: 1) A calm, quiet and disturbance free setting 2) Accurately
understanding the written instructions, and 3) Provisioning of required stimuli. This makes
the normative data applicable to the individuals being evaluated.

11.3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION AND ITS

STANDARDIZATION

An instrument or procedure used to gauge an individual's knowledge, skills, abilities,

or other traits is called a test. In essence, it is a methodical approach to learning about
someone's abilities or knowledge. Tests are designed to measure a variety of things, including
job performance, personality traits, aptitude, academic achievement, and personality traits. It
can be non-standardized, suited to circumstances or people, or standardized, with uniform
scoring and administration protocols. To ensure accurate and significant results, tests must be
carefully constructed and used, considering factors like validity, reliability, and fairness.
There are various types of tests, each serving a different purpose in the assessment process.
Achievement tests measure what a person has learned or accomplished in a specific area
whereas aptitude tests assess a person's potential to develop certain skills or abilities.
Likewise, personality tests aim to evaluate aspects of an individual's personality, such as
traits, behaviours, or preferences and diagnostic tests help identify strengths and weaknesses
in a person's skills or knowledge. Along with these, there are two widely used approaches of
tests such as subjective and objective tests. Subjective tests provide an in-depth
understanding of a person's knowledge and critical thinking skills whereas objective tests
have a specific answer or set of answers focusing on the memorization aspect. When we talk
about construction of tests, they are either constructed by teachers or by experts. Classroom
tests that are constructed by teachers are teacher-made tests whereas standardized tests are
developed by the experts in the field. All the types of tests help to make informed decisions
about individuals' abilities and characteristics. It is important to choose the right type of test
based on the goals of the assessment and the information needed.

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It may not be always possible for the examiner to get a ready-made test for the needed
purpose so new tests are developed and designed by the experts or teachers. The development
and utilization of tests are integral components of the fields of psychology, education, and
various other disciplines. Test construction is one of the most important aspects of the
assessment and measurement process as the effectiveness of the test design determines the
accuracy of the result to be obtained. Tests serve as valuable tools for assessing individuals'
knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics. However, to ensure that test results are
valid, reliable, and fair, it is essential to adhere to general principles of test construction and
standardization. Construction of a test and standardization is a very systematic process which
includes several steps as follows.

11.3.1. Planning the Test

A skill-full planning results in better test construction. This is the first step in the test
construction process. In this step, overall planning of framework is done related to the test;
like which content is to be measured, what will be the format for the questions, definition of
construct to be measured, nature of the population for whom the test is being constructed,
language of the test and how the test will be administered and scored etc. Objectives or
purpose of the test, time and cost should also be taken into consideration by the examiner.
After deciding the above points, the teacher needs to develop a Test Blueprint or Table of
Specification. It is a table that describes the weight ages given to different content, objectives,
and types of items. It helps teachers to prepare a balanced test-giving proper weight age to
content and objectives. Otherwise sometimes the teacher may set more questions from one
unit than other, and set more questions from the knowledge domain than understanding &
application. It is the framework that guides the test constructor for the preparation of
questions.

The constructor of the test must consider the following sequence of steps while planning the
test.

● Determine the purpose for which the test is being constructed.

● Find out the characteristics of the group for whom the test is intended.
● Defining the objectives or translating the purpose of test in operational terms
● Specifying the content to be covered along with the skills such as knowledge,
understanding, application etc.

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● Specification of the test format or the blueprint preparation showing weight age to the
list of content areas, instructional objectives, and types of test items.

11.3.2. Development of Test Blueprint

One of the most important components in the test construction process is the Blueprint. It is
also known as test specification or test plan. Blueprint is a well-designed three-dimensional
chart or framework which includes the format of the test and the weightage of the topics that
are to be covered. Weightage given to the content to be assessed, instructional objectives and
types of items should be decided before. Blueprints should be prepared well in advance
before the test is constructed to assist the teacher in organising her teaching-learning plan and
to be on track. It serves as a guide for test developers to ensure that the test aligns with its
intended purpose and objectives. Where feasible, students should be encouraged to contribute
or suggest to the process of blueprint development; this way they will feel involved in
planning and curious about the further assessment process. By contributing to the planning
step, students will develop skills like critical thinking, decision making; however, the final
decisions are to be made by the teacher. Sample of a three-dimensional blueprint is given
below.

Table 4.1: Test Blueprint

Objectives Knowledge Understanding Applicatio Skill Total

n

Content E S O E S O E S O E S O

concept of 1 - - - - 2 - - 2 - - - 5
Cell

Animal Cell 1 - - - 1 - - 2 1 - - - 5

Plant Cell 1 - - 1 1 - - 2 - - - - 5

Cell 1 - - - - 1 1 1 - - 1 6
Organelles 1

Function of 1 - - 1 1 - - 1 - - - - 4
cell
organelles

Cell Division - - - 2 - 4 - 2 4 - - 3 15

Cell Diagram - - - - - 1 - 2 1 - 2 4 10

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Total 5 - - 4 3 8 1 10 - 2 8 50
9

5 15 20 10

E- Essay type S- Short-answer type O- Objective type

11.3.3. Preparing the Test

After planning, the test is prepared based on the blueprint or framework. This step is all about
writing test items. Different test items are written by the test constructor keeping in mind the
format of the test, content area to be covered, expected learning outcome and most
importantly, the objectives. In the first draft of the test, a greater number of items are kept
since many of them can get eliminated while trying out and revising. Test developers need to
write instructions to students about how to answer and where to answer; along with a model
answer script for short answer and essay type items and answer key for objective type. While
writing the test items, the researcher or test constructor should refer to existing standardized
tests in the concerned area for reliability checking. First editing and review is done by the test
constructor and then checked by the experts where inappropriate and ambiguous items are
corrected or removed. The items which contribute for the attainment of the test objectives are
kept only.

At the time of developing the test items, following rules and regulations should be kept in
mind;
● Preliminary draft of the test should have more than double the items required for the
test.
● Items should be written as per the test blueprint.
● Each item must be based on a specific learning outcome.
● Items should contain proper language and vocabulary at the level of the learners.
● Comprehensiveness and adequacy of the test should be maintained.
● Test items should be attainable with in time allotted
● Difficulty level of items should be taken care of (majority of items must be at average
level)
● Objectivity should be ensured in the time of test preparation
● Clues or hints in the questions to help examinees answer should be avoided.
11.3.4. Trying-out the Test
After the prepared items are checked and tested thoroughly, trying out is done on a small
representative sample to select the best items. The purpose of this step is to identify defective,
complex, and ambiguous test items. It helps to know how students react to the items and to

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determine the difficulty level and discriminating power of the test item. Ideal test items
reflect normality in the result.

Trying out is done in three phases. First phase is pre-try-out or individual try-out. In this
phase, the test constructor checks the grammatical mistakes, ambiguity in language and
complexity of the items from the result of the achievement test. Second phase of piloting is
group try out or proper try out. In a group try out, the size of sample should be large and
representative of the population concerned and time limit should be generous. Answer sheets
are then scored with the help of a pre-designed scoring key and item-analysis is done. Lastly,
in the final try-out, the final draft is prepared by revising, reviewing, editing, and eliminating
multiple test items again and again. During pilot testing, the test constructor must keep the
following points in mind.

● The environmental condition should be free from distraction or noise

● Establishing rapport with the subjects is an important aspect while administering the
test
● The mental condition of the subjects should be taken into consideration
● Sitting facility and space should be provided and the group should not be too large.

11.3.5. Evaluating the Test

Evaluating the test refers to making judgement about the individual test items and test. This
step is mostly statistical in nature. In this step, reliability determination is done after
administering the test on a new sample and calculating the reliability coefficient. After
determining the reliability, the test constructor compares the test with some external criteria
from other independent data and determines the validity of the test. Karl Pearson’s coefficient
correlation and point- biserial coefficient correlation are some useful methods to find out the
validity coefficient. This step helps in the finalisation of test items and development of norms
for interpretation.

11.3.6. Preparation of the Test Manual

The last step of the test construction is preparation of the test manual. Test manual contains
the brief details of the test like number of items, target group, technical quality, norms etc.
Test constructor describes the psychometric properties of the test in this manual and lists the
references and norms. The test developer describes the details of the administration process,
way of scoring and time limitations of the test.

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Self-check Exercise-4.1
What is a test blueprint and how does it help in test development?
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-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

11.7. SUMMARY/KEY POINTS

• Standardization refers to the consistency of processes and procedures that are used for
conducting and scoring of a test
• Generally, a standardized test could be used to assess, and compare students in the
same norming group.
• Blueprint is a well-designed three-dimensional chart or framework which includes the
format of the test and the weightage of the topics that are to be covered. Weightage
given to the content to be assessed, instructional objectives and types of items should
be decided before.
• Evaluating the test refers to making judgement about the individual test items and test.
• Karl Pearson’s coefficient correlation and point- biserial coefficient correlation are
some useful methods to find out the validity coefficient.
• Test manual contains the brief details of the test like number of items, target group,
technical quality, norms etc.
• Test constructor describes the psychometric properties of the test in this manual and
lists the references and norms.
• After the prepared items are checked and tested thoroughly, trying out is done on a
small representative sample to select the best items. The purpose of this step is to
identify defective, complex, and ambiguous test items.
11.8. UNIT END EXERCISE
• What are the general principles of test construction and its standardisation?
• What are the processes of standardisation? Explain it
• How does the test Blueprint develop? Explain it
• How does test manual develops?
11.9. SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER READING

Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208

Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education

Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810

Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030

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UNIT -12
WRITING TEST ITEMS

STRUCTURE

12.1. Learning Objectives

12.2. Introduction

12.3. Writing Test Items

12.3.1. Objective Type Test Items

12.3.2. Supply type test items
12.3.2. True & false type of test items
12.3.3. Selection Type Test Items
12.3.4. Matching type test items
12.3.5. Multiple-choice test items
12.3.6. Essay Type Test Items
12.3.7. Extended response type
12.3.8. Restricted response type
12.3.9. Interpretive type test items
12.3.10. Selection of the most appropriate item types
12.4. Summary
12.5.Unit End Exercise
12.6.Suggestion for Further Reading

12.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, learners shall be able to;

• Explain the uses of objective test and its various types.
● Explain the uses of essay type of test and its various types.
● Differentiate the specific uses of objective and essay type test

12.2. INTRODUCTION
The test items used for assessment are typically divided into three broad categories: i.e., the
objective type, essay type and interpretive type. Objective type is highly structured and asks
students to provide one or two words or choose the best response from a small number of
options. Essay questions allow students to choose, organize, and present their response in the
form of an essay. Interpretive test items require students to interpret a given stimulus

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(table/graph/paragraph) to respond to the question. Each type should be utilized when it

makes the most sense, with appropriateness being determined by the learning outcomes to be
measured as well as by the distinct benefits and constraints of each item type.
12.3. WRITING TEST ITEMS
12.3.1. Objective Type Test Items
One of the widely used test items in recent times is the objective type of test. In an objective
type of test, students are required to write answers either from options or supply in words. It
ensures the objectivity in items and scoring for which it is popular. The objective test items
are of several types. It can be broadly classified into supply type and selection type. Supply
type test items are those that require the students to supply the answer in word phrase or
number whereas selection types require them to select/choose the answer from a certain
number of alternatives given. These two general categories are further divided into the
following types commonly:
12.3.2. Supply type test items:
This is an objective type test in which students are required to provide answers in
words/sentences to a direct question or complete the sentence by filling the blank with a
suitable answer. It demands students to recall the answer from their memory and supply as
per the question. This kind of test is mainly used to assess lower-level cognitive capacities
like memory. There are two kinds of supply type test; short answer and completion type.
Short answer type: Example of item
Answer the following questions in one word.
a. Which is the highest peak in the world?
b. What is the capital of Japan?
c. Who is the father of biology?
d. What is the chemical formula for sulfuric acid?
Completion type: Example of item
Complete the sentences by using suitable answers.
a. The animals who can live both in water and land are called_______.
b. A person who studies about birds is called_______.
c. Child moving on a swing is an example of ______ motion.
d. The largest organ of the body is_______.
12.3.3. Suggestions for constructing supply type test items
● Words of the question should be written in such a way that the answer will be in
one or two words or numbers.
● Word questions in such a manner so that it can be similarly interpreted by all
students taking the test.
● More than two blanks in a single item should be avoided which may create
confusion or ambiguity.
● Blanks near the end of the sentence are preferable which gives proper sense of the
question to the reader.
● Uniformity in length of blanks maintained otherwise it might misguide students
towards irrelevant clues about answers.

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Self-check Exercise-4.2
Write three short answer types and three completion type test items from any school
subject.
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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

12.3.4. Selection Type Test Items

The supply type test items cannot assess the complex learning outcomes like understanding,
applying, evaluating, and creating. Hence, selection type test items are required for assessing
such complex learning outcomes. Here, students are provided both questions and possible
answers in form of alternatives, asked to select or recognise the most appropriate answer.
These types of test items are useful to assess learning competencies and learning outcomes in
all subject areas and at all levels of school education. There are a variety of selection type test
items such as true & false, matching, and multiple-choice items.
12.3.5. True & false type of test items
The true & false type test items are used to assess knowledge of facts, dates, rules, and
principles. Here, students are provided a meaningful sentence and asked to mark true or false.
The example like;

Put a tick mark on the True/False at the end of the sentence.

a. Diarrhea patients should be advised to drink ORS. (T/F)
b. We should promote deforestation to reduce global warming (T/F)
c. Rice plant has tap root (T/F)
d. We can separate butter from cream through filtration method (T/F)
Suggestions for constructing true and false items
● Use simple clear language to avoid confusion
● Approximately equal number of true and false items should be kept in the test.
● Using a mix of true and false statements in a random manner is advisable to
prevent the unintentional disclosure of irrelevant information.
● The items measuring important learning outcomes and content only should be
included.
● Try to avoid double negative statements which create confusion among students.
12.3.6. Matching type test items
One of the important types of test items is matching type which can assess remembering,
understanding, and applying level of learning outcomes. Here, students are provided two
columns; column-A and column-B and students are asked to match the columns. The content
that demands association between one with another like name of book and authors, scientific
invention and scientist etc. can be assessed through matching type items. The example like;

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Match column ‘A’ with column ‘B’

Column ‘A’ Column ‘B’
a) Climbing birds Penguin
b) Perching birds Hen
c) Scratching birds Woodpecker
d) Swimming birds Pigeon
e) Wedding birds Crane
Vulture
Suggestions for constructing Matching test items
● Ensure that each matching test comprises items that are focused on a single
concept.
● Avoid direct one-to-one matches and include extra response options to encourage
thoughtful consideration for the final match.
● Organize the responses systematically, such as arranging words alphabetically or
ordering numbers in ascending or descending sequences.
● Keep all items on the same page to streamline the process, save time, and prevent
any potential confusion for the test-taker.
12.3.7. Multiple-choice test items

Multiple choice test items are widely used in educational and recruitment settings because of
its ability to measure all types of learning outcomes in all subjects. The complex learning
outcomes like applying, analysing, evaluating, creating can also be measured through
multiple choice test items. It consists of two parts; stem and alternatives. Stem can be a
question or incomplete sentence which presents a meaningful problem. Alternatives are the
possible answers out of which one is correct (Key) and others are distractors.

Select the most appropriate answer from the alternatives provided. Tick the correct option.
a. The gas whose amount varies in weather changes is_____________.
i. Carbon dioxide
ii. Oxygen
iii. Helium
iv. Water vapor
b. Which fuel is used for generating electricity in thermal power plants?
i. Water
ii. Wind
iii. Diesel
iv. Coal
c. Pole star is found in which hemisphere in the night sky?
i. Northern
ii. Southern
iii. Eastern
iv. Western
d. Which of the following is not a part of the digestive system?
i. Lungs
ii. Liver

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iii. Stomach
iv. Pancreas
Guidelines for constructing multiple choice items
● Refrain from using overly complex distractions and unfamiliar terminology or
symbols.
● Ensure that all possible responses are reasonable and consistent. Students should
not easily dismiss any distractor as irrelevant or nonsensical.
● Maintain consistency in the length of correct answers and distractors.
● Keep multiple-choice items clear and directly related to the instructional objective,
avoiding any suggestive wording.
All types of objective test items share a common characteristic that sets them apart from
essay tests. They present students with a tightly structured task that confines the range of
responses they can provide. To arrive at the correct answer, students must demonstrate the
specific knowledge, comprehension, or skill requested by the item. They are not permitted to
redefine the problem or to arrange and express their response in their own words. Instead,
they must choose one from a set of possible answers or provide the accurate word, number, or
symbol. This structured approach to problem-solving and the restriction on response methods
contribute to a scoring process for objective tests that is swift, straightforward, and precise.

Self-check Exercise-4.3
Write four multiple choice test items to assess applying learning outcomes.
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However, on the downside, this same structure renders objective test items unsuitable for
assessing a student's ability to select, organize, integrate ideas, and engage in independent
thought processes. To evaluate such abilities, we must rely on essay questions.
12.3.8. Essay Type Test Items
An essay test is a form of written assessment that requires the test-taker to compose a
sentence, paragraph, or longer composition. It also entails a subjective evaluation of the
quality and comprehensiveness of the response during scoring. Unlike other types of tests that
primarily focus on identifying, interpreting, and applying data, the essay test is designed to
measure more complex learning outcomes. These outcomes include the ability to effectively
organize ideas, integrate concepts, express oneself in writing, and provide detailed
information. One distinguishing feature of essay tests is the freedom they afford to test-takers
in constructing their responses. Students have the liberty to choose, connect, and articulate
their ideas in their own words. Depending on the extent of this freedom in organizing

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thoughts and crafting responses, essay questions are generally categorized into two main
groups:
Extended response type
This type of essay item gives maximum liberty to students to organise their thoughts and
express their own ideas in their own preferred way. There are no constraints or boundaries to
limit the thought or words within and students can pen down or elaborate their ideas freely.
To assess the creativity level and diverse thinking abilities of students, this is the most
relevant method. The example is;
● Discuss the foreign policy of Manmohan Singh Government and Narendra Modi
Government.
● Explain different factors that cause a threat to national integration in India.
Restricted response type
The restricted response type imposes specific limitations on how students must structure their
answers in a proper direction. These limitations can pertain to the format, length in words, or
organization of the response, constraining the students' freedom to some degree. It helps the
students to think in a systematic way and scoring becomes easy. The context is pre-specified
that limits the answer minimising the freedom to express the own diverse thoughts of
students. The examples are;
● Explain, in not more than 200 words, the chemical changes take place in our
everyday life.
● Write an essay within 500 words on the rainy season highlighting its importance,
scenario in villages, advantages, and disadvantages.
Guidelines for writing essay test
● Take sufficient time and careful consideration when formulating questions, enabling
the opportunity for revision, and editing before their application.
● A properly structured essay prompt should offer clear guidance to students,
encouraging the desired type of response.
● Clearly specify the relative importance of different components within a question,
allowing students to determine where to allocate focus during their writing.
● Provide an ample time limit to prevent the essay test from becoming a test of writing
speed rather than an assessment of knowledge and skills.
● Indicate the anticipated answer length for each question within the question itself.

Self-check Exercise-4.4
Write two extended essays and two restricted essays from any school subjects.
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12.3.9. Interpretive type test items

The use of interpretive test items is a great way to assess a variety of cognitive abilities using
the same assessment method. This type of test requires students to interpret a given item and
respond according to the instructions; This can be accomplished in a variety of ways like
using a graph, table, or other data set, reading a brief passage, and responding to the related
questions. Using these items for assessment helps teachers find out how well students
understood a particular concept and identify where they need more assistance. Students can
evaluate, compare, solve problems, and much more in one set! With the help of these test
items, critical thinking can be assessed and applied very easily. Because they are not just
reading and recalling questions, Students must actively evaluate the information they are
given, think back on prior understanding, and then form their answers from that.
This kind of material is adaptable to different grade levels and can be used in any subject
area. For instance, a first-grade interpretive item may require students to look at a picture of a
group of people and respond to questions about what they are doing, whereas a fifth-grade
interpretive item may require students to read a brief passage and respond to questions about
the main idea. Since they require students to do more than just recall facts, interpretive items
are an effective assessment tool. To respond to the question, they must be able to comprehend
and interpret the data. It is crucial to give students scaffolding, such as a list of questions to
answer or a rubric, to help them learn. This will make it more likely that all students will
finish the assignment and provide accurate responses.
For example, an interpretive item that might be used in 5th grade for math class is using a pie
chart showing data on the percentage of boys and girls interested in different games. Students
would be asked to answer related questions and interpret the data.
In summer, a survey was conducted among 600 people to know their favourite beverage. The
collected data is arranged in a pie chart.

Answer the following questions based on the above pie chart.

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i) How Many people like to have cold coffee in summer?

ii) Find the difference between the number of people who drink fruit juice and Amul cool?
iii) Which of the above drinks is highest preferable among people as per the chart ?
iv) How many people like cold drinks more than tea?
v) Which is the lowest selling beverage according to the above pie chart?
In spite of being able to measure higher order thinking skills, there are certain limitations of
interpretive test items. They are difficult to prepare and require more time for administering.
Sometimes the big paragraphs have heavy demands on the reading skills of students.
12.3.10. Selection of the most appropriate item types
Different types of test items have varying degrees of effectiveness in measuring different
types of learning outcomes. For instance, short-answer questions are well-suited for
evaluating the recall of specific facts but may not be suitable for assessing comprehension,
application, interpretation, or other intricate learning objectives. True-false or alternative-
response items are most valuable when the goal is to determine the accuracy of a statement,
differentiate between fact and opinion, or discern appropriate from inappropriate responses.
However, like short-answer questions, they may not adequately gauge more complex learning
outcomes.
Matching items share a similar limitation, as they are primarily geared towards assessing
learning outcomes involving the identification of straightforward relationships and the
classification of items into predefined categories. On the other hand, multiple-choice
questions are highly versatile and can effectively measure a wide range of learning outcomes,
from basic to more intricate ones. Nonetheless, even multiple-choice items have their
limitations and may not be efficient for assessing the most complex learning objectives.
Essay questions and other open-ended formats are particularly effective for evaluating skills
such as data organization, the presentation of original ideas, and certain types of problem-
solving scenarios.
12.4. SUMMARY
• In an objective type of test, students are required to write answers either from options
or supply in words. It ensures the objectivity in items and scoring for which it is
popular
• The objective test items are of several types. It can be broadly classified into supply
type and selection type
• Multiple choice test items are widely used in educational and recruitment settings
because of its ability to measure all types of learning outcomes in all subjects.
• The complex learning outcomes like applying, analysing, evaluating, creating can also
be measured through multiple choice test items. It consists of two parts; stem and
alternatives.
• An essay test is a form of written assessment that requires the test-taker to compose a
sentence, paragraph, or longer composition. It also entails a subjective evaluation of
the quality and comprehensiveness of the response during scoring.

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• The use of interpretive test items is a great way to assess a variety of cognitive
abilities using the same assessment method. This type of test requires students to
interpret a given item and respond according to the instructions
• Validity of a test refers to the extent to which assessment test results serve the
particular purpose for which it was intended.
• It refers to the extent to which a tool appears to measure what it claims to measure.
Face validity is not related to what the test measures.
12.5. UNIT END EXERCISE

• Define the objective test? discuss its various types,

• Define the Essay type of Test? Discuss its various types and its significance.
• What are the basic characteristics of good measuring instrument? Elaborate
• What is the validity? Explain the different factors affecting validity?
• Define reliability? Explain the particular factors affecting reliability?
• Distinguish the difference between reliability and validity?

12.6. SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER READING

Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208

Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education

Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810

Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030

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UNIT 13
GOOD MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
STRUCTURE
13.1. Learning Objectives
13.2. Introduction
13.3. Basic Characteristics of Good Measuring Instrument
13.3.1. Validity
13.3.2. Types of Validity: Face validity, Content validity, Criterion validity, Construct
validity
13.3.3. Factors affecting validity of the test
○ Difficult sentence construction and reading vocabulary:
○ Unclear direction:
○ Difficulty level of test items:
○ Extraneous factors:
○ Inadequate coverage:
○ Ambiguity:
13.3.4. Reliability
13.3.5. Types of reliability (Test-retest reliability, Equivalent or parallel forms of
reliability, Split half method of reliability, Kuder-Richardson reliability, Inter-rater
reliability)
13.3.6. Factors affecting reliability of the test - Subjectivity in scoring, Ambiguous
wording of the test items, Inconsistency in test administration, Length of the test,
Difficulty level of the test items, Optional questions:
13.3.7. Relation between reliability and validity
13.3.8. Objectivity
13.3.9. Usability
13.3.10. Norms
13.3.11. Types of norms
13.3.12. Standard score norms
13.3.13. Z-Score
13.3.14. T-Score
13.3.15. Stanine Scores

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13.3.16. C-Scale
13.4. Summary
13.5.Unit End Exercise
13.6.Suggestion for Further Reading

13.1. Learning Objectives

After reading this unit, learners shall be able to;
● Explain the basic characteristics of good measuring instruments.
● Elaborate the validity, its types of validity and its different factors
● Express the reliability, its different types of reliability and its factors.
● Differentiate between reliability and validity

13.2. INTRODUCTION
An educational test is not just that measures achievement in subjects of study, but it is also a
psychological test that leads to an assessment of the assessment of the overall development of
a students. According to Anastasi, psychological tests are essentially an objective and
standardised measure of a sample of behaviours. For Freeman it is a standardized instruments
designed to measure objectively one or more aspects of a total personality by means of a
samples of verbal or non-verbal responses or by means of other behaviours.
Test is a stimulus selected and originated to elicit responses which can reveal certain
psychological traits in the person who deals with them. The diagnosis or redictive value of
psychological traits in the person who deals with them. The diagnosis or predictive value of a
psychological test depends upon the degree to which it serves as an indicator of a relatively
broad and significant area of response. It is obvious that psychological test is the quantitative
and qualitative measurement of the various aspects of behaviour of the individual for making
generalised statements about his total performances.
13.3. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Assessing students is an integral part of the teaching learning process. Therefore, teachers
evaluate students' performance after every lesson and academic year. Testing aids teachers in
determining their level of efficacy, the suitability of their teaching methods, and the
appropriateness of their lesson plans. Students benefit from knowing what they have learned
as well as their strengths and weaknesses. All these decisions require evidence about student
performance. How to get this evidence? One way is to collect this evidence by using a good
test. A good test is required to perform the function. What constitutes a good test then
becomes a question. What qualities make a good test? When a test has the qualities of
Validity, Reliability, Usability, and Norm and is created by adhering to the guidelines/steps
of test construction, it is good. Test items should not be ambiguous i.e., clearly stated with
one meaning. These principles guide test developers in creating tests that accurately measure
the intended constructs/outcomes while minimizing bias and promoting ethical
considerations. There are four essential technical qualities of all measuring instruments such
as validity, reliability, usability, and norms.

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Validity
The most essential characteristics of a measurement instrument is validity. In layman's terms,
validity means truthfulness, accuracy, correctness and worthiness. Validity of a test refers to
the extent to which assessment test results serve the particular purpose for which it was
intended. If the test is intended to measure the mathematical reasoning of the pupil, the
results should describe about the same construct only i.e., mathematical reasoning, not
scientific reasoning, or attitude. Moreover, when the instrument fulfils its purpose or
measures what it originally intended to measure, then it is valid. Before teaching in a class,
the teacher always has some specific objectives in mind which the teacher wants the students
to achieve. Validity is not a general characteristic that is present or absent, it is situation
specific; for a particular purpose of the group. No test is valid for all purposes. It is valid for a
specific purpose. Hence, it is very essential to develop a test that is valid which can help in
correct interpretation of the result. Validity can be of different types such as face, content,
construct, and criterion validity.
Types of Validity
● Face validity: It refers to the extent to which a tool appears to measure what it claims
to measure. Face validity is not related to what the test measures, but is concerned
with the test items that seem to be related with the variables being measured. Face
validity is not validity in the true sense. Sometimes looking valid may not guarantee
validity; also, sometimes the test showing low validity is genuinely valid in practice.
A mathematics test is required to look like a mathematics test to have face validity.
● Content validity: Content validity is concerned with the extent to which items of the
test are a good sample (representative) of the total content area to be measured. The
key aspect of content validity is sampling of content so that the inference drawn over
the total content domain is valid. It also describes the extent to which a test measures
up against all the elements of the content. This type of validity is very essential for
achievement tests. When developing an educational test, we must adhere to the test
blueprint for ensuring its content validity. Further, comments and suggestions of
content experts are also helpful for making the test content valid. For example, the test

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developed for measuring mathematics of grade 9 should cover the representative

sample of questions from the textbook of grade 9 to be content valid.
● Criterion validity: It is the kind of validity which is very much required for aptitude
testing. This validity is statistical in nature which requires knowledge of correlation.
There are two types of criterion validity; concurrent and predictive. In case of
concurrent validity, test score is correlated with recent test results available for the
same students. For example, a teacher wants to estimate the concurrent validity of a
medical aptitude test that he/she developed. Teacher must administer the test to get
the score and collect the score of the recent class test of the same students. The
correlation coefficient of these two sets of scores will indicate the concurrent validity.
For estimating the predictive validity of the same medical aptitude test, teachers need
to wait for the completion of the medical course of the same group of students to get
the predictive criterion. Then correlation coefficient between these two sets of scores
will indicate the predictive validity.
● Construct validity: It refers to whether a test measures the intended construct
(intelligence, aptitude, personality) adequately. This type of validity is very useful for
validating psychological constructs. It measures how well test performance can be
interpreted as a meaningful measure of some characteristics or quality. This is a very
lengthy and technical process which requires knowledge of psychological theory and
statistics.

Factors affecting validity of the test

Validity of a test refers to the extent to which the test measures what it intended to measure.
But there are several factors which affect the validity of a test or tend to make the test results
invalid. For example, in the general science test, the teacher overloads questions related to
environmental pollution and thus it is less valid a measurement of achievement in general
science. So, a teacher should be aware of these subtle factors influencing validity while
constructing a classroom test or using standardized test; some of the important factors are
pointed out below:
● Difficult sentence construction and reading vocabulary:

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In an achievement test if a student fails to understand the complex sentence structure

or vocabulary of the question, he/she will not be able to reply even if she knows the
answer. In this case, it becomes a reading comprehension test rather than an
achievement test which invalidates the test for their intended use.
● Unclear direction:
If the direction given in the test items to be answered is not clear, students may get
confused about how to respond to the items. This may lead to lessening the validity of
the test.
● Difficulty level of test items:
If the level of questions in the test is too difficult or too easy as per the mental level of
students, they cannot discriminate between the high and low achievers; thereby the
validity of the test is lowered.
● Extraneous factors:
Several extraneous factors like length of the writing, organising answers, drawing
diagrams and handwriting etc. influence the test validity. For example, in a science
test if a student gets higher marks because she has drawn attractive diagrams, then the
test is measuring drawing competence rather than her whole achievement in science;
this reduces the validity of the test.
● Inadequate coverage:
Generally, the essay type tests are not able to cover a desired portion of content,
because they do not provide a representative sample of content to be measured which
lowers the validity.
● Ambiguity:
If there are ambiguous test items, they tend to confuse students; especially bright
students are more confused in comparison to poorer students. This situation often
distracts their mind from the focus area which reduces the validity of the test.
Reliability
One of the important features of a measuring instrument is reliability. Reliability means
consistency or dependability of test results. Reliability of a measuring instrument reflects its
consistency or trustworthiness with which an instrument yields stable and accurate results. It
is concerned with replicability or repeatability over time. A test is reliable when it gives
consistently similar results in different occasions, time, and situations. A reliable test is free
from biasness or chance error. It is the extent to which a particular measurement is consistent
and reproducible. The reliability is statistical in nature and expressed in correlation
coefficient. There are different kinds of reliability which are discussed in the following
paragraphs.
Types of reliability
● Test-retest reliability: This is the simplest and commonly used method of reliability
test. It is obtained by administering the same test twice over a period to a group of

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individuals. The gap between two tests can be one week to six months. The scores of
both the test scores are tabulated and correlation is calculated. If the correlation is
higher, then the reliability is more. This type of reliability test is used to access the
external consistency (stability) of the tool over time. Disadvantage of the test-retest
method is that it takes a long time to obtain the results because of gaps in two
administrations.
● Equivalent or parallel forms of reliability: It is used to assess the consistency of the
results of two tests constructed in the same way from the same content domain.
Assessment tools of different versions are applied to the same group of individuals
i.e., two tests (parallel forms) constructed in the same way from the same content
domain that seeks to assess the same content and objectives. Parallel form questions
are based on the same content, assess the same objectives, same difficulty level
questions, same type of items etc. For estimating this kind of validity, one must
prepare two sets of questions (parallel), administer it in the same group
simultaneously or with a gap, score both the test, then calculate correlation between
two sets of scores. This correlation is indicative of reliability. This kind of reliability
is widely used for educational settings. The main disadvantage is to prepare exactly
two parallel forms of the test.
● Split half method of reliability: This kind of reliability measures the internal
consistency of the test scores. It measures to the extent to which all parts of the test
contribute equally to what is being measured and tests the internal reliability. This is
done by correlating the result of one half of a test with the result of another half. If the
two halves of the test provide similar results, this would suggest that the test has
internal reliability. This method is effective in case of large questionnaires which
measure the same construct. For finding split-half reliability, one should prepare a
single test and administer it on a group of students, then divide the test into two equal
halves, score the two halves of the test separately. A test can be splitted in two halves
by dividing tests on odd and even methods. Putting all odd questions such as 1, 3, 5,
in one group and all even items such as 2, 4, 6 in another group. Here the test is
divided for scoring purposes only, not for administration. Now we have two sets of
scores for estimating correlation that will indicate half reliability of the test. To get
full reliability of the test the Spearman Brown Prophecy formula is used.
rt=2(1/2r)/1+1/2r)
rt=Total reliability
1/2r= Half reliability
For example, if correlation between the two halves of a test is .65, the reliability of the
full test will be;
rt=2X.65/1+.65=.78
This correlation indicates high reliability of the test.

● Kuder-Richardson reliability: This method of reliability determines the internal

consistency of the test with single administration. According to Gronlund, its
estimates of reliability provide information about the degree to which the items in the
test measure similar characteristics. This reliability can be calculated by using Kuder-
Richardson Formula 20 manually as well as with the help of computers.

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● Inter-rater reliability: This reliability is the degree to which different observers give
consistent estimates for the same subject or content. This is used to reduce the biases
or observer effect on the result. When multiple observers (raters) observe the same
thing all of them cannot be biased or have the same point of view towards the subject.
This leads to increased objectivity of the test.

Factors affecting reliability of the test

Reliability in assessment refers to the consistency of the measure over time and across
researchers. It is the extent to which test scores are not affected by the chance factors. When
we measure the achievement level of a student, we expect that the test will be trustworthy or
the score would be similar under different administrators at different times. Human behaviour
fluctuates from time to time and situation to situation; So, in psychological and sociological
measurements, there are some factors which tend to make the test low in reliability or affect
the reliability of the test. Some of them may be due to the items in the test itself, some may be
due to the test users and test takers. The teachers should be aware about those factors while
designing the test to lessen their effects on the reliability of the test. Some of the important
factors affecting the reliability of the test are explained below.

● Subjectivity in scoring:

Subjectivity in the process of scoring is indirectly proportional with the reliability of

the test. As we know, subjectivity in assessment is when the personal bias, beliefs,
perception, or value system of an examiner affect the result. If a measure is scored
subjectively, it reduces the reliability of the test.

● Ambiguous wording of the test items:

Clear and concise test instructions tend to increase the reliability of the test whereas
lack of clarity in instructions and complex wording of the test items lead to reduce it.
If there is ambiguity in the wording of test items, the same student may interpret the
same question in different ways at different times. This makes the test less reliable.

● Inconsistency in test administration:

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Sometimes the examiner has insufficient knowledge about the test administration
process; also, deviation is seen in the process of test administration such as deviation
in procedure, timing etc. Fluctuations in the behaviour of the students such as
attention, interest, illness, fatigue, or lack of motivation etc. also tend to reduce the
reliability of the test.

● Length of the test:

Generally, the longer tests are more reliable. Length of the test has a positive
correlation with its reliability; more the number of items in a test, greater will be its
reliability. For example, a test of 50 items is more reliable than a test of 20 items, and
less reliable than a test of 90 items. However, adding too many items out of limit may
reduce the reliability of the test.

● Difficulty level of the test items:

When the items given in a test are too difficult or too easy for the participants, it can
neither discriminate between low and high achiever nor contribute to the reliability of
the test.

● Optional questions:

If there are optional questions given the test items, then one student may not appear
the same question which she has attempted in the first administration; reliability of the
test can get affected negatively by this.

Self-check Exercise-4.5
Split-half reliability of a test is .76. Calculate the full reliability of the same test.
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Relation between reliability and validity

The ultimate purpose of assessment is to check whether students can achieve the
predetermined objectives or not. For this, the measuring instrument should be objective based
i.e., it should be able to measure the learning outcome accurately based on the objectives
(which was intended to measure). Reliability is a necessary but not sufficient condition for
validity; validity includes reliability. If a test is valid, it is said to be reliable but a reliable test
may or may not be valid. For example, a test is consistently measuring logical reasoning over
time, situation, and form but the purpose of the testing is to measure the mathematical

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reasoning. Here, the test is reliable because it consistently gives similar results but it is valid
as it does not measure mathematical reasoning.
Objectivity
Objective means free from biases. In case of test, objectivity refers to objectivity in test items
and scoring procedure. A test must be objective in nature. A measuring instrument is
objective when the examiners/examinee's opinion and perception does not affect the scoring.
Fairness of a test to the subject is called objectivity. Generally, the test items that can be
readily scored like true-false type, multiple choice type, and alternative response type are
highly objective whereas long type or essay type items are highly subjective. As a test
developer, we must strive to make the test objective as possible by following rules of writing
test items. A test having objectivity has the following characteristics;
● Test items are so worded that it can be interpreted similarly by all students/ test
takers.
● Test items must be so formulated that it can have only one answer agreed by experts.
● Test is not affected by the scorer's own value, judgement, attitude, and beliefs.
● Being free from all the biases of language, gender, culture etc.
Objectivity of the test can be ensured by; providing specific instructions, making essay type
tests more unambiguous and well-constructed, preparation of scoring or marking key/scheme
and using objective type of test items wherever possible.
Usability
One of the most important criteria for the quality of measurement is the usability of the
measuring instrument. Usability of an assessment tool refers to practical applicability of the
test; how far the test is suitable and usable in a classroom situation. If a test has high validity
and reliability but lacks usability, it will not be useful for the educational purpose. Following
points below describe several criteria of usability of a measuring instrument.
● The test should be economical in terms of cost and time i.e., it should be affordable
and the test items can be attainable within allotted time.
● Administering the test, scoring (assigning quantitative value to the test result) and
interpreting the result should not be difficult.
● Usability of a test also shows how comprehensible the test items are to the
participants. Test items that cover much of the content or subject matter are
comprehensive and capable of fulfilling purpose.
Norms
Teacher gets the score after administering and scoring the test on students. This score is
called the Raw score. Raw scores are not meaningful and comparable for making any
instructional decisions. Because it gives only numerical descriptions about students'
performance. For example, the score 45 indicates a number 45, it does not indicate 45 out of
what? If one student secured 45 in English and 65 in social science, it is difficult to say in
which subject student has done better? Hence, raw scores are not interpretable and
meaningful for stakeholders of education. To make the raw score meaningful and usable,
norms are required.

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Norm is one of the characteristics of the measuring instrument which is helpful for
interpreting test results. Test norms are prepared to properly interpret the results. Norms are
the average performance of the representative group of individuals on any test. Common
norms are; age norms, grade norms, percentile norms, percentile, and standard norms. A
norm group or reference group to be appropriate must have features of recency, relevance,
and representativeness.
Types of norms
Norms are useful to compare the performance of an individual with that of a group. There are
different types of norms used in educational and psychological tests. Each type of norm
serves a specific purpose and helps in differentiating and interpreting assessment results in
various contexts. They are discussed below:
Age norms:

Age norms, in the context of assessment, evaluate an individual's development and

performance in comparison to the expected/ average performance of the pupils of his/her age.
These norms are useful for teachers and parents to track developmental progress of their
children and identify potential areas of concern.

Grade norms:

Grade norms describe the test performance of individuals in comparison to the average
performance of others in the same grade. This type of norming is useful for the educators to
assess a student's academic progress within the context of their grade in relation to their peers
so that it will be easier to make decisions related to required educational support or
interventions for the students.

Percentile norms:

Percentile norms express an individual's performance relative to a larger group in terms of the
percentage of pupils scoring below her. For instance, a student at the 90th percentile
performed better than 90% of her batch mates. Percentile norms offer a standardized way of
understanding where an individual stands in comparison to a larger population.

Standard Score Norms

Standard scores are a way of expressing the relative position of a pupil to a standardization
group. It shows how far the raw score is above or below the average, overcoming the
difficulties of unequal units on which percentile norms are based. The standard scores are
expressed in terms of standard deviation units. Some of the widely used standard scores are
Z-score, T-Score, Stanines etc.
Z-Score
Z-score is one of the simplest ways to convert raw score into a standard score. it is the most
used standard score which shows how far a particular score deviates from the mean in a
distribution. A positive Z score indicates the score above the mean while a negative Z score

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indicates below the mean. Z score is symbolized by the letter ‘Z’ and can be derived through
the following formula:
𝑋−𝑀
Z= 𝜎

Here, Z= Standard Score

X= Raw score
M= Mean Score
σ = Standard Deviation
Example:
Ravi, a student of grade VII has secured 80 marks in mathematics and 75 marks in English
subject. The mean score is 70 in mathematics with a standard deviation of 15 and in English,
the mean score is 64 with a standard deviation of 12. Find Out in which subject Ravi
performed better?
Ans- Z score for mathematics is
80−70
Z= = 0.667
15

Z score for English is

75−64
Z= = 0.916
12

Since the Z score is more for English, we can conclude that Ravi performed
better in the English test than mathematics.
T-Score
T- score is another type of standard score used in psychological and educational testing. In Z-
score, when the raw score is smaller than the mean, the result comes with a minus sign which
tends to create difficulty while interpreting the result. To overcome this difficulty of Z-score,
we use a modified version of it, which is T-score. The formula used to compute the T score is
as follows.
T score= 50+(10Z)
Example:
From our earlier example, we have a Z score of 0.66 in mathematics and 0.91 in English. Let
us convert these two into T scores.
T score in mathematics= 50+(10×0.66) = 56.6
T score in English = 50+(10×0.91) =59.1
From here also, we can conclude the same as above that in English, the performance is better
than mathematics. One notable characteristic in T score is that results are produced in
positive integers making the interpretation process much easier and simpler.
Stanine Scores

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Another quick way to understand where a student's performance falls in comparison to a

larger group is represented by the stanine scale. The term stanine is derived from the word’s
‘standard’ and ‘nine.’ This is also a normalized standard score which assumes that there is
normal distribution in the measurement.

Total distribution in a stanine scale is divided into equal standard units ranging from 1 to 9
with mean or average of 5. Each stanine represents a specific range of percentile ranks. For
example, a stanine of 9 indicates a percentile rank in the top 4%, while a stanine of 1
represents a percentile rank in the bottom 4%. Through this scale, raw scores can be
converted into stanine scores by arranging the original scores in order and then assigning
stanines according to the normal curve percentage as shown in the following table.

Stanine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

% of case 4 7 12 17 20 17 12 7 4

C-Scale
A small extended form of stanine scale is C-scale which is developed by Guilford. In this
scale, it has 11 units of standard scores instead of 9. Here also, the mean or average score is 5
with extreme scores 0 and 10. In C-scale, normalized standard scores are assigned to each
position in terms of percentage as given in the following table.

C-scale 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
score

% of cases 1 3 7 12 17 20 17 12 7 3 1
for each unit

Self-check Exercise-4.6
Teacher administered an achievement test to 40 students. The mean of the group is 32 and
standard deviation is 4.56. Find out the standard score for a student who secured 38 marks
and interpret the result.
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13.4. SUMMARY
• In layman's terms, validity means truthfulness, accuracy, correctness and worthiness.
Validity of a test refers to the extent to which assessment test results serve the
particular purpose for which it was intended
• Face validity: It refers to the extent to which a tool appears to measure what it claims
to measure.
• Content validity: Content validity is concerned with the extent to which items of the
test are a good sample (representative) of the total content area to be measured.
• Criterion validity: It is the kind of validity which is very much required for aptitude
testing. This validity is statistical in nature which requires knowledge of correlation
• There are two types of criterion validity; concurrent and predictive. In case of
concurrent validity, test score is correlated with recent test results available for the
same students.
• Construct validity: It refers to whether a test measures the intended construct
(intelligence, aptitude, personality) adequately. This type of validity is very useful for
validating psychological constructs. It measures how well test performance can be
interpreted as a meaningful measure of some characteristics or quality
• Reliability means consistency or dependability of test results. Reliability of a
measuring instrument reflects its consistency or trustworthiness with which an
instrument yields stable and accurate results.
• Test-retest reliability: This is the simplest and commonly used method of reliability
test. It is obtained by administering the same test twice over a period to a group of
individuals.
• Equivalent or parallel forms of reliability: It is used to assess the consistency of the
results of two tests constructed in the same way from the same content domain.
• Split half method of reliability: This kind of reliability measures the internal
consistency of the test scores. It measures to the extent to which all parts of the test
contribute equally to what is being measured and tests the internal reliability.
• Kuder-Richardson reliability: This method of reliability determines the internal
consistency of the test with single administration. According to Gronlund, its
estimates of reliability provide information about the degree to which the items in the
test measure similar characteristics.
• Inter-rater reliability: This reliability is the degree to which different observers give
consistent estimates for the same subject or content. This is used to reduce the biases
or observer effect on the result.
• In case of test, objectivity refers to objectivity in test items and scoring procedure. A
test must be objective in nature. A measuring instrument is objective when the
examiners/examinee's opinion and perception does not affect the scoring. Fairness of
a test to the subject is called objectivity.
• Usability of an assessment tool refers to practical applicability of the test; how far the
test is suitable and usable in a classroom situation
• Norms are the average performance of the representative group of individuals on any
test. Common norms are; age norms, grade norms, percentile norms, percentile, and
standard norms.

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• Age norms, in the context of assessment, evaluate an individual's development and

performance in comparison to the expected/ average performance of the pupils of
his/her age.
• Grade norms describe the test performance of individuals in comparison to the
average performance of others in the same grade.
• Percentile norms express an individual's performance relative to a larger group in
terms of the percentage of pupils scoring below her.
• Standard scores are a way of expressing the relative position of a pupil to a
standardization group. It shows how far the raw score is above or below the average,
overcoming the difficulties of unequal units on which percentile norms are based.
• Z-score is one of the simplest ways to convert raw score into a standard score. it is the
most used standard score which shows how far a particular score deviates from the
mean in a distribution.
• T- score is another type of standard score used in psychological and educational
testing. In Z-score, when the raw score is smaller than the mean, the result comes with
a minus sign which tends to create difficulty while interpreting the result.

13.5. Unit End Exercise

• What are the basic characteristics of good measuring instruments?

• What is the meaning of validity? What are the types of reliability? Which factors do
affect the validity?
• What is reliability? What are the types of reliability? Which factors do affect the
reliability?

14.8. Suggestion for Further Reading

Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208

Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education

Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810

Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030

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UNIT 14
STANDARDISATOION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
AND ITEM ANALYSIS
STRUCTURE
14.1. Learning Objectives
14.2. Introduction
14.3. Standardisation of Measuring Instruments and Item analysis
14.4. Methods of standardization in assessment
14.4.1. Test Development
14.4.2. Pilot Testing
14.4.3. Administration Protocols
14.4.3. Scoring Rubrics
14.4.4. Norming and Calibration
14.4.5. Ongoing Monitoring
14.4.6. Developing Manual
14.5. Item Analysis
14.5.1. Steps of item analysis
14.5.2. Item analysis procedures for Norm- Referenced and criterion referenced tests.
14.5.3. Item analysis procedures for Norm- Referenced Classroom Tests
14.5.4. Estimating difficulty level of test items
14.5.5 Discrimination index
14.5.6. Distractor Analysis
14.5.6. Item analysis procedures for Criterion- Referenced Mastery Tests
14.6. Summary
14.7. Unit End Exercise
14.8. Suggestion for Further Reading

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14.1. Learning Objectives

14.2. Introduction

14.1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, learners shall be able to;
● Define the Standardisation of Measuring Instruments and Item analysis.
● Explain the Methods of standardization in assessment
● Elaborate the concept of item analysis, steps, item analysis procedur
14.2. INTRODUCTION
A standardized measurement instrument is a rigorously developed tool that measures a
concept (or an indicator) in an objective, standardized manner. It can be defined as a series of
self-reported questions or items used to measure a concept. The response categories to an
item are usually in the same format, often in the form of a numbered scale. The items
measuring a concept form a scale in respect of which a quantified score is obtained, often by
adding the results or with a more or less complex weighting system. The scores on the scale
can subsequently be converted into a norm in order to facilitate interpretation. The
instruments must undergo rigorous validation stages and the information on psychometric
properties such as test-retest reliability, internal coherence, specificity and sensitivity must be
determined and made available.
Item analysis is a process which examines student responses to individual test items
(questions) in order to assess the quality of those items and of the test as a whole. Item
analysis is especially valuable in improving items which will be used again in later tests, but
it can also be used to eliminate ambiguous or misleading items in a single test administration.
In addition, item analysis is valuable for increasing instructors’ skills in test construction, and
identifying specific areas of course content which need greater emphasis or clarity. Separate
item analyses can be requested for each raw score
14.3. STANDARDISATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND ITEM
ANALYSIS
Standardization of measuring instruments is fundamental to the accuracy and
consistency of measurements in various fields. It ensures that measurements are meaningful,
comparable, and traceable to recognized standards. Standardization in assessment refers to
the systematic process of developing, administering, scoring, and interpreting tests or
assessments in a consistent and uniform manner. This process aims to ensure that all test-
takers are subjected to the same conditions and that their scores can be meaningfully
compared, regardless of when or where the test is administered. Standardisation process
makes the measuring instrument relevant and usable for a larger population even across the
Globe. The mental ability test like the Standard Progressive Matrix is widely used across the
World because it is a standardized test. The method of standardisation includes the following
steps.
14.4 METHODS OF STANDARDIZATION IN ASSESSMENT

● Test Development: During the test development phase, clear guidelines are
established for item writing, test format, and scoring procedures. A detailed test
blueprint or test plan is often created to ensure that the assessment measures the

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intended construct or capacities. One needs to write test items and scoring keys/model
answers along with instructions.
● Pilot Testing: Before full-scale administration, assessments are pilot-tested on a
small group of participants to identify potential issues with item wording, difficulty,
or scoring procedures. Feedback from pilot testing helps to refine the items that can
be modified. The piloting data can be used to calculate the technical features of the
test like validity, reliability etc.
● Administration Protocols: Standardized protocols for test administration are
developed to ensure uniformity in the test-taking environment. These protocols
specify instructions given to test-takers, time limits, and procedures for handling
administrations.
● Scoring Rubrics: Detailed scoring rubrics are created to guide consistent and
objective scoring. These rubrics provide explicit criteria for assigning scores to open-
ended questions or performance-based tasks.
● Norming and Calibration: After administering the assessment to a representative
sample, the results are used to establish norms and calibrate scoring. This process
ensures that scores are comparable and interpretable. Details of norms are developed
for the standardised instrument for interpretation of results.
● Ongoing Monitoring: Standardized assessments are periodically reviewed and
updated to ensure they remain relevant and valid. This may involve revising test
items, norms, or scoring procedures to reflect changes in the field or population.
● Developing Manual: Test manual is a very essential part of the standardisation
process. It gives a detailed idea about the test development process, process of
administration, scoring, technical qualities, and norms for interpretation. It is like a
key without which no measuring instrument can be used.

Standardisation of measuring instruments makes it valid, reliable, objective, and usable. Most
of the psychological tests are standardized on a larger population by taking samples from
different countries to make it wider applicability. The process of standardisation is lengthy
and a time taking process. A Standardized test is required when important decisions are to be

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taken based on the test result. A teacher can follow all the steps of standardisation to develop
authentic measuring tools.

14.5. ITEM ANALYSIS

Item analysis is a statistical technique used for selecting and rejecting the test items based on
their difficulty level and index of discrimination. A test should neither be too difficult or too
easy, so the procedure used to judge the quality of the test items is called item analysis.
Purpose of item analysis is to find out whether all the test items are contributing towards
assessing the achievement of objectives or not. The defective or ambiguous items which are
not serving the purpose are eliminated and good test items are constructed. It is desirable to
evaluate the usefulness of the items after a test has been given to and scored by a
representative group. This can be achieved by considering the subjects' responses to each
item. Item analysis can provide three different types of information about the items in
quantitative indices like difficulty level, discrimination power, and distraction analysis when
done systematically. So basically, item analysis is done for the following purposes.
● Selecting appropriate items for preparation of final draft
● Bringing modification in items where needed
● Obtaining information about difficulty value, discriminatory power, and validity
index of items.
Steps of item analysis
● Once the sample group test has been administered and scored, the answer sheets are to
be arranged in order from the highest score to the lowest score.
● Make two groups from the arranged answer sheets; one group having the highest 27%
of the students' scores and one having the lowest 27% of the students' scores.
● For each item, note the number of students in each group who answered the items
correctly.
● Estimate item difficulty, discrimination index of the test items using formula.
Item analysis procedures for Norm- Referenced and criterion referenced tests.
The method for analysing effectiveness of test items differ in case of Norm referenced and
criterion referenced tests as they serve two different functions. In norm-referenced tests, we
compare or rank the students based on their performance whereas in criterion referenced
tests, the mastery of students in particular subjects are measured based on their learning
outcome.
Item analysis procedures for Norm- Referenced Classroom Tests
Determining effectiveness of test items in case of Norm-referenced classroom tests include
computing the index of item difficulty (Percentage of pupil who got the items right),
discriminating power of each item (difference between high and low achievers), and
effectiveness of distractors (degree to which the distractors attract more low achievers than
high achievers). Although effectiveness of items can be revealed by item analysis through
inspection, to obtain a precise estimate of difficulty level and discrimination of test items,
some simple formulae are applied to the item analysis data as follows;

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Estimating difficulty level of test items

One can determine whether the items are too easy or difficult through the item analysis. The
percentage of learners who correctly answered the test question gives an indication of how
difficult the question was. The purpose of estimating item difficulty is to know the proportion
of learners who know the answer of the item. The item difficulty index computes the
percentage of students who answered the items correctly through the following formula.
Difficulty index = R/N ×100
Where, R= number of students who answered the item correctly.
N= Total number of students who attempted the item.
For example; A teacher has administered a test on a sample of 40 students. 22 students
corrected the item number-1 and 10 students answered wrongly the item number-1. The
difficulty index of item number-1 can be calculated as follows.
Difficulty index=22/40X100= 55
This indicates that the item number-1 is of average difficulty value.
Difficulty index can also be expressed in decimals rather than percentage. It may be noted
that higher the difficulty index, the easier the item is. If an item is too difficult or too easy, it
cannot discriminate between the high and low performers and an item having 0% or 100%
difficulty index has no discriminating value. It is ideal to select the items having average
difficulty value for classroom testing.

Discrimination index
The item discrimination power is another crucial index of item. This index shows how well
the item can distinguish between high achievers and low achievers. If an item is effective, it
is anticipated that more people from the high scorers will get it right in comparison to the
number of people in the lower group. For finding the discrimination index, one must divide
the whole group into two groups; upper group and lower group. The two groups can be the
students scoring highest 27% and students scoring lowest 27%. An item’s discrimination
index can be obtained by the following formula.
Discrimination Index= RU- RL / ½ N
Where RU – Number of correct responses from the upper group
RL – Number of correct responses from the lower group
N – Total number of students who attempted the item.
For example: A teacher has administered a test on 200 students. The number-1 item is
correctly answered by 48 students from the upper group and 34 students from lower group.
The discrimination index of the item number-1 can be calculated as followers.
Discrimination index: 48-34/100=.14
This indicates item number-1 is having low discrimination power.

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A discrimination index is usually expressed as a decimal. The value may range from -1.00 to
+1.00. We might want to add test items with higher discrimination index values because the
items having high discrimination index are the better items. If discrimination index has a
positive value, then it is said that a larger proportion of the more knowledgeable students than
poor students got the item correct. The items having zero or negative discrimination index
indicate that the items are too easy or too difficult or ambiguous. Those items should be
revised or removed from the test.
Distractor Analysis
Distractors are incorrect options or alternatives in multiple choice tests. If a distractor attracts
a higher proportion of good students than poor students, it is said to be a poor distractor. It is
reasonable to assume that for an effective item, more members of the high achiever’s group
will select the right answer than members of the low achievers group. Thus, by looking at the
pattern of responses to the different alternatives or distractors, it is possible to assess the
effectiveness of the distractors. Alternatives that have not been selected or are rarely selected
need to be revised because they make no difference to how effective the item is.
For example: The response pattern of students to a multiple-choice question is tabulated in
the following table.

Alternatives/ A* B C D
Group

Upper group 12 5 0 3
(20)

Lower group 6 10 0 4
(20)

It can be said that option A is the key and attracts more students from the upper group than
lower group. The option B and D are distractors that attract more students from the lower
group than upper group. But nu students from either group selected option C. The option C is
a poor distractor as it does not attract any students.

Self-check Exercise-4.7
Calculate the difficulty index of the following data. Total number of students
attempting the test is 80, 60 students corrected and 20 students wrongly answered the
item.
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Item analysis procedures for Criterion- Referenced Mastery Tests

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Since Criterion- referenced tests are designed to describe the mastery of students or learning
performance of students rather than to discriminate or rank them, it is not necessary to apply
the above formulae used in norm referenced tests here. According to Gronlund, A major
question to be asked to check the effectiveness of test items in criterion referenced tests is ‘To
what extent did the test items measure the effects of the instructions?’ To address this
question, the same test should be administered both before and after instruction (pretest and
post-test), with the results compared.

14.6. SUMMARY

Constructing a test requires hard work and loads of effort on the part of the test developer or
teacher. For constructing tests, the teacher should be properly oriented or trained about the
principles and methods of test construction. Test development is a technical process which
requires the teacher to be familiar with the principles and steps of test construction. Test
development involves four important steps such as planning, preparing, trying out and
evaluation. Planning is the stage of the decision-making process where the teacher decides
about the content, learning outcomes, types of items, number of items, duration of test etc.
Teacher develops a test blueprint during this stage which guides the further test development
process. Teacher writes items as per the test blueprint. Usually, more items are written than
required at this stage. Teachers must keep in mind the learning outcomes to be measured
while writing the test items. Every item must measure a specific learning outcome. Tests
must include both subjective and objective test items depending on the content and learning
outcomes to be measured. Once test items are written, it must be reviewed and edited by the
teacher, peer teachers and expert. This review can help the test developer in modifying poor
items. The draft test is to be tried out on a small sample to see the effectiveness of each item,
its language ambiguity, appropriateness of options, etc. Based on the try-out, some items can
be dropped or modified to be included in the final draft of the test. Item analysis is one of the
very important aspects of test development. It is the process of determining difficulty index,
discrimination power and suitability of distractors. Item analysis gives feedback for selecting
good and effective test items. There are different procedures for conducting item analysis for
norm referenced and criterion referred tests. The last step is to evaluate the test and determine
the technical quality of the test such as validity, reliability, norms etc.
The measuring instrument must have technical quality to make it appropriate for
making any educational decisions. Validity is one of the essential qualities of the test which
means truthfulness and purposiveness of test result. It is always relative in nature depending
on the purpose of the testing. There are different types of validity; content validity, criterion
validity and construct validity. Another important characteristic of the test is reliability. It
refers to the consistency of the test results over time, different administration, and forms of
the test. Reliability can be of test-retest, parallel forms, split-half and Kuder Richardson.
Along with validity and reliability, a test must be objective and usable. Norms are very much
required for making the raw score meaningful and comparable. The norms can be of age
norms, grade norms, percentiles, standard score norms etc. These norms help the teacher to
convey the test result to stakeholders of education.
14.7. UNIT END EXERCISE
● What is the meaning of standardisation of measuring instruments and item analysis?

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● What are the methods of standardisation in assessment?

● What is item analysis? Explain its steps and procedure briefly?

14.8. SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER READINGS:

• Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208
• Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education
• Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810
• Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030

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UNIT-15
MEASUREMENT OF ACHIEVEMENT AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAITS

STRUCTURE

15.1.Learning Objectives
15.2. Introduction
15.3. Measurement
15.4. Measurement of Achievement
15.5. Measurement of Aptitude
15.6. Measurement of Intelligence
15.7. Measurement of Attitude
15.8. Measurement of Interest and Skills
15.9. New Trends of Evaluation
15.10. Summary
15.11. Unit End Exercise
15.12. Further Reading

15.1.LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, the learners shall be able to

● Explain about different methods of measuring achievement.
● Discuss about different methods of measuring aptitude.
● Explain about different methods of measuring intelligence.
● Describe different methods of measuring attitudes.
● Discuss about different methods of measuring interest.
● Explain about different methods of measuring skills.
● Describe different new trends of evaluation.

15. 2. INTRODUCTION

In the multidimensional world of education, it is crucial to assess and measure different

aspects of student’s personality to better understand, guide, and improve the learning
experience. This unit explores various aspects of educational evaluation, looking closely at
student achievement, abilities, intelligence, attitudes, and the assessment of interests and
skills. The discussion also covers new trends in educational evaluation, explaining the
significant changes in grading methods, semester structures, continuous internal assessment

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approaches, the development of question banks, and the use of computer technology in
assessment methods.

15.3.MEASUREMENT

Measurement, the process of associating numbers with physical quantities and phenomena.
Measurement is fundamental to the sciences; to engineering, construction, and other technical
fields; and to almost all everyday activities. For that reason the elements,
conditions, limitations, and theoretical foundations of measurement have been much studied.
See also measurement system for a comparison of different systems and the history of their
development.

Measurements may be made by unaided human senses, in which case they are often called
estimates, or, more commonly, by the use of instruments, which may range in complexity
from simple rules for measuring lengths to highly sophisticated systems designed to detect
and measure quantities entirely beyond the capabilities of the senses, such as radio waves
from a distant star or the magnetic moment of a subatomic particle.

Measurement begins with a definition of the quantity that is to be measured, and it always
involves a comparison with some known quantity of the same kind. If the object or quantity
to be measured is not accessible for direct comparison, it is converted or “transduced” into
an analogous measurement signal. Since measurement always involves some interaction
between the object and the observer or observing instrument, there is always an exchange of
energy, which, although in everyday applications is negligible, can become considerable in
some types of measurement and thereby limit accuracy.

15.4. MEASUREMENT OF ACHIEVEMENT

Achievement is very important for formal education as it determines the effectiveness of
educational machinery. It refers to the level of knowledge, skills, and competencies that
individuals have acquired through their educational experiences. It is a fundamental concept
in education, serving as a key indicator of learning outcomes and educational success.
Measurement of achievement is crucial for educators, policymakers, and students to assess
progress, make informed decisions, and improve the quality of education. Let us understand
the meaning of achievement before discussing the process of measuring achievement.

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Achievement in education signifies the attainment of specific learning objectives, educational

standards, and subject matter mastery. It reflects a student's ability to apply their knowledge,
skills, and competencies in various academic, vocational, and non-academic domains.
Achievement goes beyond memorization and encompasses the development of critical
thinking, problem-solving, communication, and other skills essential for personal and
professional growth. Achievement in education can be of two types.

Educational Achievement: Educational achievement refers to the successful attainment of

educational goals and objectives, often measured through assessments and evaluations. It
includes both academic and non-academic accomplishments. It is related to the mastery of
academic subjects, including mathematics, science, language arts, and social studies. It is
often measured through traditional assessment tools, such as tests and exams.

Psychological Achievement: It refers to the achievement of students in psychological

attributes such as mental ability, aptitudes, interests, creativity, reasoning ability etc. This can
be measured through different psychological tests, scales, checklists etc.

The measurement of achievement in education involves the systematic assessment of

what individuals have learned or accomplished within a specific educational context. This
process is crucial for evaluating the effectiveness of instruction, understanding individual
progress, and making informed decisions about educational programs. Educational
achievement is usually measured by an achievement test based on different subject areas.

Achievement Test-Achievement test is one of the most popular methods of measuring

achievement. It is a commonly used instruments to measure an individual's knowledge, skills,
or proficiency in a specific subject or set of subjects. The primary purpose of achievement
tests is to evaluate the extent to which students have mastered the content outlined in the
curriculum or specific learning outcomes. Two prominent forms of achievement tests
employed in education are; teacher made achievement tests and standardized achievement
tests. Let us discuss both types of achievement tests in detail.

Teacher-made Achievement Test

Teacher-made achievement tests are created and used by educators for their classroom
purpose. These assessments are tailored to align with the specific content covered during
instruction, making it highly context-dependent. Teachers have the autonomy to design

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questions, select formats, and determine the overall structure of the test. One of the primary
characteristics of teacher-made tests is their local development and relevance. Teacher craft
assessments that directly correspond to the curriculum and learning objectives they have
established for their students. This local development aspect allows for a high degree of
customization. Teachers can adapt the difficulty level of questions to match the unique needs
of their students, ensuring that the assessment is both challenging and relevant. Teacher-made
tests also facilitate immediate feedback. Since teachers are intimately involved in the test
creation process, they can quickly assess student performance. This immediacy allows for
prompt feedback, enabling teachers to identify areas of strength and weakness and make
timely instructional adjustments.

Advantages of Teacher Made Test

● Teacher-made tests closely mirror classroom instruction, reflecting the specific

content and skills emphasized in the curriculum. This alignment ensures that
assessments are relevant to the ongoing educational experience of students.
● Teachers have the flexibility to adapt assessments to the diverse needs of their
students. They can modify questions, formats, and even time constraints based on
their understanding of individual learning styles and preferences.
● Since teachers are intimately involved in the test implementation process, they can
provide immediate feedback to students. Timely feedback enhances the learning
process, allowing students to address misconceptions and improve their understanding
before moving on to new material.
● These tests are developed by educators who understand the unique context of their
classrooms and students. Teacher-made tests can be crafted to reflect the specific
needs, interests, and experiences of the students, making the assessment more relevant
and meaningful.

Limitations of Teacher Made Test

● There is a potential risk of bias in teacher-made tests. The assessments may reflect the
teacher's individual perspectives, teaching methods, and personal preferences,
introducing a subjective element.

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● Achieving consistency across different classrooms or schools may be challenging.

Variations in test development, even within the same educational institution could
compromise the standardized nature of assessments.
● Teacher-made tests are often context-specific. Results may not be easily generalizable
to broader populations or comparable across different educational settings due to the
localized nature of the assessments.
● Teachers may face time constraints in creating, administering, and grading
assessments, especially in the context of heavy workloads. The practicality of teacher-
made tests may be limited by time considerations, potentially impacting the quality of
the assessment.

Standardized Achievement Test

Standardized achievement tests are developed externally by testing organizations or

educational experts. These assessments are designed to be uniform, administered, and scored
consistently across a broad and diverse population of students. They are often norm-
referenced, comparing an individual's performance to a predetermined normative sample. The
standardization of these tests ensures that every student, regardless of geographic location or
educational background, faces the same set of questions under comparable conditions. The
development process involves rigorous testing and validation to enhance reliability and
validity. The advantage of the standardized achievement test is that it is very high in standard
which can be used across countries and Globe. But this test is not contextualized, hence
cannot be useful for local schools or teachers. For this reason, standardized tests are not very
popular among teachers and educators for assessing achievement of students.

Some popular standardized achievement tests are discussed below:

California Achievement Test-The California Achievement Test (CAT) is released by

CTB/McGraw Hill and comprises five levels tailored to different grade levels. Two
alternative forms of the test are accessible. The assessment delivers scores in reading
(covering vocabulary and comprehension), language (encompassing mechanics, usage,
structure, and spelling), and mathematics (evaluating computation, concepts, and problem-
solving).

Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills (CTBS): Like the California Achievement Test , the
CTBS is produced by CTB/McGraw-Hill, but it is designed for students spanning grades K-

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12. The test offers seven levels corresponding to different grade levels. Level A serves as a
pre-instructional or readiness test, assessing scores for letter forms, letter names, and
Mathematics. Level B, intended for students who have completed their initial year of
instruction, provides scores for reading, language, Mathematics, and Total Battery. Levels C,
1, 2, 3, and 4 yield scores in reading, language, Mathematics, reference skills (excluding
Level C), Science, and Social Studies. A cumulative total battery score is also presented,
combining scores from reading, language, and Mathematics.

Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS)- The Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS), published by the
Riverside Publishing Company, is suitable for students in grades K-8. This assessment was
standardized using the same sample as the Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT), an academic
aptitude test. Consequently, employing these two tests facilitates the identification of
aptitude-achievement disparities. The ITBS provides scores across various domains,
including listening, word analysis, vocabulary, reading, comprehension, language (spelling,
capitalization, punctuation, and usage), visual and reference materials, Mathematics
(concepts, problem-solving, computation), Social Studies, Science, writing and listening
supplements, as well as basic and total battery scores.

The Metropolitan Achievement Tests (MAT)- The Metropolitan Achievement Tests

(MAT), published by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, is designed for students in grades K-9. The
battery consists of six levels spanning various grades, with two alternate forms for the
Primary Level and three alternate forms for the other five levels. The primary level offers
scores for listening for sounds, reading, and numbers. The subsequent level, Primary I,
includes scores for word knowledge, word analysis, reading, Mathematics computation, and
Mathematics concepts. Primary II incorporates these elements along with spelling and
Mathematics problem-solving. The remaining levels all provide scores for word knowledge,
reading, language, spelling, Mathematics computation, Mathematics concepts, and
Mathematics problem-solving. Additionally, Science and Social Studies scores are available
for the two higher levels.

Standard Achievement Test Series- The Standard Achievement Test Series, published by
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, shares similarities with the MAT. It offers six levels tailored for
different grades, along with two alternate forms. At all levels, subtests for reading,
Mathematics, and language arts are accessible. Except at the lowest level, scores are also
provided for Science, Social Studies, and, except at the highest level, listening

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comprehension. Notably, this test has a distinctive feature: it can be obtained as either a basic
battery, encompassing only the reading, Mathematics, and language art subtests, or as a
complete battery, encompassing all the subtests. Practice tests are additionally available for
all levels except the highest.

Coimbatore Achievement Test (Social Science) authored by R.K. Mission,

Mathematics Test (Tamil) by R.K. Mission, School Progress Record by L.N. Dubey, English
Test by B.R.CAgra, Mathematics Test by B.R.CAgra are some examples of Indian
Standardized Achievement tests that can be used by the teachers for assessment.

Advantages of Standardized Achievement Test

● Standardized tests undergo rigorous development processes, ensuring consistent

administration and scoring. This objectivity minimizes biases and discrepancies in
assessment, leading to reliable and comparable results.
● Standardized tests allow for comparisons across different schools, regions, or
populations. The standardized format ensures that the performance of individuals or
groups can be compared objectively, providing insights into educational trends.
● These tests are efficient for large-scale assessments. Standardized tests can be
administered to many students simultaneously, making them practical for assessing
broad populations.
● Standardized tests are often developed by external experts or testing organizations.
This external input enhances the validity and reliability of the assessment, aligning it
with established educational standards.
● Standardized test results can be used by policymakers, administrators, and educators
to identify areas for improvement, allocate resources effectively, and make data-
driven instructional decisions.
● Standardized tests often demonstrate predictive validity for future academic success.
High scores on standardized tests are often correlated with positive academic
outcomes, providing valuable insights into students' potential for success.

Limitations of Standardized Achievement test

● Standardized tests may lack contextual relevance. The rigid format of these
assessments may not capture the specific nuances of individual classrooms or local
curriculum variations.

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● Standardized tests follow a one-size-fits-all approach. This approach may not

accommodate diverse learning styles, preferences, or individual needs, potentially
disadvantages certain students.
● The pressure to perform well on standardized tests may lead to "teaching to the test."
Educators may focus narrowly on the content covered in the test, neglecting broader
educational goals and essential skills.
● High-stakes nature of standardized tests may induce stress and anxiety in students,
potentially affecting performance.

Self-check Exercise-5.1
Make a list of standardized achievement tests useful for assessing reading and writing ability
by exploring internet sources.
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15.5. MEASUREMENT OF APTITUDES

Aptitude refers to a person's inherent or natural ability to excel or perform well in a specific
area or task. It is a quality or potential that individuals possess, often from birth or early in
life, which enables them to acquire certain skills, knowledge, or talents more easily and
effectively than others. Aptitude might seem like ability, interest, or intelligence but each of
them is different in some aspect. To understand the term aptitude better following definitions
by experts can be considered:

Bingham (1937) states, “Aptitude is a characteristic or set of conditions that are symptomatic
to the individual.”

According to Traxler (1966), “An aptitude is a present condition which is indicative of an

individual’s potential for the future.”

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Jones (1971) describes that attitude is not an ability rather it helps to predict the probable
development of certain abilities.

Freeman (1971) defined aptitude as a combination of characteristics indicative of an

individual’s capacity to acquire (with training) some specific knowledge skill, or a set of
organized responses, such as the ability to speak a language, to become a musician, or to do
mechanical work.

In essence, aptitude represents a valuable foundation upon which individuals can

build and develop their abilities and talents, ultimately enabling them to excel in their chosen
pursuits.

Methods of Measuring Aptitude

The measurement of aptitude involves assessing an individual's natural abilities, talents, or

potential to acquire specific skills. Different aptitude tests have been designed to gauge an
individual's capacity to excel in certain areas rather than measuring their existing knowledge.
Some of the popular aptitude tests are discussed below:

Differential Aptitude Test (DAT)

The Differential Aptitude Tests were developed by the psychological cooperation in 1947 to
measure the aptitude of high school students for educational and vocational guidance. At first
the tests were used only for 8th to 12th grade students but later they were also used for
educational and vocational guidance of young adults and employee selection. The tests were
further revised in 1963 and 1972 to meet the demands of small and large guidance
programmes.

The DAT includes eight types of subtests such as Verbal Reasoning, Numerical
Ability, Abstract Reasoning, Clerical Speed and Accuracy, Mechanical Reasoning, Spatial
Relations, Language Usage-I: Spelling, Language Usage-II: Sentences. Each of the tests has
its unique advantages but combining 2 or more tests in a subgroup provides comprehensive
understanding of a particular type of aptitude. The Verbal Reasoning, Numerical Ability and
Abstract Reasoning tests are associated with general intelligence, the Mechanical Reasoning
and Space Relations relate to the ability of visualizing objects and manipulating those
visualization, the Clerical Speed Accuracy Test and Language Usage I : Spelling and

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Language Usage:II: Sentence associate with the skills of doing office work and academic
success. Let us discuss the 8 tests individually in a little detail.

Verbal Reasoning: These tests evaluate an individual's ability to understand and manipulate
language, including tasks related to vocabulary, analogies, and reading comprehension.

Example- Pick out the words to fill the blanks, so that the sentence will be true and sensible.
For the first blank pick out one of the numbered words and for the second blank pick out the
lettered words.

I) ______________________ is to doctor as lawyer is to ___________________.

1. Diagnosis 2. Patient 3. Lawsuit 4. Judge

A. Heal B. Advocate C. Court D. Legal

II) ______________________ is to be as web is to ___________________.

1. Insect 2.silk 3. Honey 4. Hive

A. Buzz B. Spider C. Sting D. Honeycomb

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Numerical Ability: These tests assess mathematical and quantitative reasoning skills,
including arithmetic, algebra, and data interpretation.

Example- Choose the correct answer for each problem

I) Add 23 and 22

A. 14 C. 16

B. 45 D. 59 E. None of These

II) Subtract 40 from 50

A. 15 C. 26

B. 16 D. 8 E. None of These

Abstract Reasoning: These tests evaluate the capacity to understand abstract concepts,
patterns, and relationships without relying on specific prior knowledge.

Example- Select the answer figure that completes the series begun in the problem figures.

Mechanical Reasoning: These tests Assess the ability to understand and apply mechanical
concepts and principles, often used in professions that involve working with machinery.

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Example-

Spatial Relation: It measures an individual's ability to visualize and manipulate objects in

space, often relevant in fields such as engineering and architecture.

Example- The test consists of 40 patterns that can be folded into figures. Five figures are
shown for each pattern, and you must determine which of the figures can be made from the
displayed pattern.

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Clerical Speed and Accuracy: These tests intended to measure the speed of perception,
memory retention and speed of response in simple perceptual tasks. The respondent must
select the marked combination in the test booklet, then look for the same combination in a
group of similar combinations in a separate answer sheet and underline it.

Example-In the test item, one of five combinations is underlined. Find and mark the
corresponding combination on the answer sheet.

Language Usage Part I: Spelling and Language Usage Part II: Sentences-These tests
measure an individual's understanding and command of grammar, syntax, and other aspects
of language structure. Both the forms spelling and sentences together provide a good estimate
of an individual’s ability to distinguish correct from incorrect language usage.

Example- Spelling- Indicate whether the spelling of each word is right or wrong.

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a. COW
b. CALT
c. PEN
d. TEST

Sentences- Mark the one lettered part of the sentence contains an error and mark the
corresponding letter. If there is no error mark N.

1. Was we / going to the / office/ next week / at all

A B C D E N

2. Why/ are you / going /to/ the city?

A B C D E N

All the tests of DAT except the Clerical Speed Accuracy test are power tests i.e. it
provides respondents with sufficient time to attempt all items and express their true level of
knowledge and ability. DAT Battery has been extensively used in India for several decades.
It is considered useful for predicting academic success as well as for educational and
vocational guidance, selection, and placement. The battery is ordinarily used for scholastic
and industrial selection. The Indian reprint incorporates slight modifications, for a more
appropriate application in Indian conditions.

Self-check Exercise-5.2
Describe three uses of DAT for education and guidance.
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General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB)

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Another popular aptitude test is GATB which was constructed by the United States of
Employment Services to measure a wide range of occupational aptitude in 1930 and was
again revised and modified in 1983. The GATB consists of 12 tests to measure nine types of
aptitude.

The 12 tests of GATB are as follows.

● Name Comparison
● Computation
● Three-Dimensional Space
● Vocabulary
● Tool Matching
● Arithmetic Reasoning
● Form Matching
● Mark Making
● Place
● Turn
● Assemble
● Disassemble

The aptitudes tested under GATB, its purpose and the tests used to measure that aptitude are
described below in the table.

Table-5.1: Sub-tests of general aptitude test battery

Symbol Aptitude Purpose Test

G General Intelligence General learning ability, ability to Vocabulary,

grasp instructions and underlying Arithmetic Reasoning,
principles Three-Dimensional
Space

V Verbal Aptitude Ability to comprehend and Vocabulary

interpret verbal communication,
including words, paragraphs,
concepts, and ideas.

N Numerical Aptitude Ability to perform arithmetic Computation,

operations with speed and Arithmetic Reasoning
precision

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S Spatial Aptitude Ability to visualize and manipulate Three-Dimensional

objects in space Space

P Form Perception Ability to detect relevant detail in Tool Matching, Form

things and to perform visual Matching
comparisons and discriminations
in pictorial or graphic content.

Q Clerical Perception Ability to perceive detail, to Name Comparison

observe differences in verbal and
numerical material like tables, lists
etc.

K Motor Coordination Ability to make precise Mark Making

movements with speed and
accuracy by coordinating eyes and
hands or fingers rapidly and
accurately

F Finger Dexterity Ability to move fingers, and Assemble,

manipulate small objects with Disassemble
fingers swiftly and precisely

M Manual Dexterity Ability to move hands effortlessly Place, Turn

and adeptly in placing and turning
motions

The abilities are generally divided into three categories: cognitive (G, V, N), perceptual (S, P,
Q) and psychomotor (K, F, M). Approximately 2.5 hours is required to complete the whole
test. This test is a great battery for vocational guidance of youth and adults.

15.6. MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence is a fundamental, complex, and multifaceted aspect of human cognition. It

encompasses the ability to acquire, understand, and apply knowledge effectively. It goes
beyond mere information retention, involving problem-solving skills, creativity, and
adaptability to new situations. Intelligence is not limited to a single domain but can manifest
in different ways, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, interpersonal, and
intrapersonal intelligences etc. The meaning of intelligence has been explored and defined by
various theorists, and the definition of intelligence has evolved over time, shaped by diverse
theoretical perspectives. Some of the definitions of intelligence by different theorists are
given below.

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“Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think
rationally and to deal effectively with his environment.” (Wechsler)

"Intelligence is the ability to learn from experience, adapt to new situations, understand and
handle abstract concepts, and use knowledge to manipulate one's environment." (Robert
Sternberg)

"Intelligence is the ability to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued within one
or more cultural settings." (Howard Gardner)

"Intelligence, as the term is most widely used, refers to the general cognitive ability that
includes reasoning, problem-solving, and the ability to learn from experience." (Charles
Spearman)

"Intelligence is a mental capability that allows us to learn from experience, solve problems,
and adapt to new situations." (John B. Carroll)

The nature of intelligence is a complex and multifaceted concept that has been the subject of
extensive study and debate in psychology and cognitive science. However, some key aspects
that contribute to the nature of intelligence are as follows:

● Intelligence is a multidimensional construct that can manifest in different ways.

● The nature of intelligence can be influenced by cultural factors. Different cultures
may value and prioritize different cognitive skills, leading to variations in how
intelligence is expressed and recognized.
● A fundamental aspect of intelligence is the ability to adapt to new situations, learn
from experiences, and apply knowledge effectively
● Intelligence is dynamic in nature. Factors such as education, experiences, and
continued learning can contribute to the development and enhancement of cognitive
abilities.
● Individuals vary in their cognitive strengths and weaknesses, and the nature of
intelligence recognizes and respects these individual differences.

Methods of Measuring Intelligence

It is important to note that intelligence is a multidimensional construct, and no individual test

can comprehensively encapsulate the diversity of human cognitive capabilities. The

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measurement of intelligence involves the use of various tests designed to assess cognitive
abilities. Intelligence tests aim to provide a standardized and objective measure of an
individual's intellectual functioning. There are different types of intelligence tests, each
focusing on various aspects of cognitive abilities. Some common approaches to measuring
intelligence are described below.

Verbal Intelligence Test- Verbal intelligence tests assess an individual's ability to

understand, analyze, and use language. They often involve tasks such as vocabulary,
comprehension, and verbal reasoning. Some examples of verbal intelligence tests are given
below.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)- The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is a test
designed specifically for adults. It consists of 11 subtests, which are divided into two groups -
verbal and performance. The verbal group includes six subtests: General Information,
Similarities, Arithmetic Reasoning, Comprehension, Digit Span, and Vocabulary. The
remaining five subtests are grouped under the performance scale.

Binet-Simon intelligence scale- The Binet-Simon scale, also referred to as the Binet-Simon
Intelligence Scale, was created by French psychologists Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon
during the early 1900s. It was developed to measure an individual's intellectual abilities and
is recognized as the first modern intelligence test. This scale was designed to assist in
identifying children who were experiencing difficulties in school so that they could receive
additional support and interventions. The Binet-Simon tests are a set of 56 tasks and
questions designed for children between the ages of 3 and 13 years, with the aim of creating a

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scale to measure their intellectual abilities. The tests help to compare the child's performance
with that of the average child of the same age.

Army Alpha test- The Army Alpha test was developed by Robert Yerkes and six other
researchers during World War I to evaluate many US Army recruits. It was introduced in
1917 to provide a systematic method for assessing intellectual and emotional performance of
soldiers. The test measures language ability, arithmetic ability, ability to follow instructions,
and general knowledge. The scores of Army Alpha Test were used to ascertain a soldier's
suitability for service, job classification, and potential for leadership positions.

Non-Verbal Intelligence Test- Non-verbal intelligence tests focus on assessing cognitive

abilities without relying heavily on language. These tests measure spatial reasoning, pattern
recognition, and problem-solving skills. Some of the examples of Non-Verbal intelligence
test are described in following paragraphs.

Raven's Progressive Matrices- The Raven's Progressive Matrices is a nonverbal ability test
that was initially developed by John C. Raven in 1936. This test is used to assess abstract
reasoning and it features a progressive format in which questions get tougher as the test
progresses. The objective is to identify the absent element in a pattern typically presented in
the format of a matrix. Hence, it is called Raven's matrices. As the test is non-verbal, it is
considered to reduce cultural bias. There are three versions designed for participants with
varying skill levels, and the assessments can be conducted from the age of five to the elderly.
These three tests are Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices, Raven's Colored Progressive
Matrices, and Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices.

Army Beta Test- Army Beta Test, the non-verbal equivalent of the Army Alpha Test was
developed for the soldiers who are illiterate or speak a foreign language during World war I.
Demonstration charts and pantomimes were used to convey instructions to test subjects.
Another type of test in the beta used geometric designs, cut photos, etc., and required
different principles for their construction.

Individual Intelligence Test- Individual intelligence tests are administered one-on-one by a

trained examiner. This allows for personalized assessment, feedback, and observation of an
individual's cognitive processes. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales and the Wechsler
Intelligence Scales (e.g., WAIS) are administered individually.

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Group Intelligence Test- Group intelligence tests are designed to assess intelligence in a
more time-efficient manner by testing multiple individuals simultaneously. They are typically
administered to large groups. The Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT) is an example
of a group intelligence test commonly used in educational settings. Cognitive Abilities Test
(CogAT): administered in group settings to assess cognitive abilities in children.

Performance Intelligence Test- Performance tests assess an individual's ability to apply

knowledge and skills to real-world tasks. These tests often involve hands-on or practical
components. Examples include the Performance Assessment of Contributions and
Effectiveness (PACE) and the Assessment of Work Performance (AWP), Bhatia Battery test
etc.

Self-check Exercise-5.3
Write the difference between individual and group intelligence tests.
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Concept of Mental Age (MA) and Intelligent Quotient (IQ)

Interpretation of intelligence score requires understanding of mental age and chronological

age. Mental age is a concept introduced by Alfred Binet to quantify a person's intellectual
functioning in terms of the level typically associated with a specific chronological age. It
represents the age at which an individual's performance on intelligence tests is comparable to
the average performance of individuals in each age group. For example, if a 10-year-old child
solves the problems meant for a 15-year child then he has a mental age of 15. Chronological
age i.e. the real age of the child is 10.

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Intelligent Quotient (IQ)- The concept of IQ was first developed by German psychologist
William Stern in 1914. The Intelligence Quotient is a numerical measure to express an
individual's intelligence relative to their chronological age.

The formula is IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) X 100

Example: Lisa has a chronological age of 8 and a mental age of 10. Then what will be her
IQ?

Answer: IQ= (Mental Age / Chronological Age) X100

IQ= (8/10) X 100 = 125

So, the IQ of Lisa will be 125.

15.7. MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES

Attitude refers to a psychological tendency or disposition to evaluate, react to, and behave
towards people, objects, situations, or concepts in a particular way. It is a state of mental and
emotional readiness to react to a situation, person, or thing because it encompasses a person's
beliefs, feelings, and behavioral intentions concerning a specific target. For example, one’s
view regarding any sports, a subject or social issues, etc. Attitudes can be positive, negative,
or neutral, and they play a crucial role in shaping an individual's thoughts, feelings, and
actions. Following are some definitions of attitude by experts:

According to Frank Samuel Freeman, “An attitude is a dispositional readiness to respond to

certain institutions, persons or objects in a consistent manner which has been learned and has
become one’s typical mode of response.”

According to Louis Leon Thurstone, “An attitude denotes the total of man’s inclinations and
feelings, prejudice or bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats, and other any specific
topic.”

Anastasi defined attitude as "A tendency to react favorably or unfavorably towards a

designated class of stimuli, such as a national or racial group, a custom or an institution."

According to Gordon Allport, "An attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness,
organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's
response to all objects and situations with which it is related."

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It can be said that attitude is a state of opinion about some events/phenomenon/person in

terms of favorable and unfavorable. It expresses the individual perception about issues and
problems.

Method of Measuring Attitude

Measuring attitudes in educational psychology is important for understanding students'

beliefs, feelings, and opinions towards various aspects of education. Attitude scale is a very
popular tool for measuring attitude. Mainly three dimensions are incorporated in an attitude
scale:

1) Direction- Direction is an important aspect of an attitude that shows whether a person

is favorable or unfavorable towards something. It shows positive or negative feelings
about something.

• Example- I like mathematics. (Positive direction)

I do not like mathematics. (Negative Direction)

2) Degree- It shows the amount of liking or disliking attached to the feeling of a person
toward something. A person may have different degrees of liking or disliking, which
can be mild, moderate, strong, very strong, etc.
3) Intensity- It shows the strength of a feeling or the level of confidence of expression
about something

Example- I am crazy about dogs. (This shows high intensity of an attitude.)

The two most frequently used scales for the measurement of social attitude are Thurstone
scale or the method of equal appearing intervals developed by Thurstone and Likert scale or
the method of summated ratings developed by Likert.

Thurstone Scale

Thurstone's technique of scaling, also known as the Thurstone scaling method or the method
of equal-appearing intervals, is a psychometric scaling method developed by Louis Leon
Thurstone, a pioneer in the field of psychometrics in 1928. This technique is used to measure
and assess the subjective intensity of attitudes, opinions, or characteristics that cannot be
directly measured but can be indirectly assessed through a series of statements or items.

Here are the key steps involved in development of Thurstone scale:

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● Initially, a pool of statements or items related to the construct of interest is generated.

These items are designed to cover a wide range of attitudes, opinions, or
characteristics that individuals may hold regarding the topic being studied.
● A panel of judges, typically experts in the field, is to be identified. The judges' role is
to evaluate the statements or items and assign a numerical rating to each item
generally from 1 to 11 based on their judgment of the item's intensity or relevance to
the construct being measured. Here 1 represents the lowest intensity and 11 is the
highest.
● After that, the median/mean and interquartile range of each item are calculated and
arranged in ascending order of the median, and items having equal median are
arranged in descending order of their quartile deviation. To understand it better let us
take an example.
● Suppose there are a total of 90 items rated by experts.
● The median/mean of item no 42,65,88 is 1 and the interquartile range is 1.5,1.25 and 1
respectively.
● The median/mean of item no 10 and 28 is 2 and the interquartile range is 2.5 and 1
respectively.
● The median/mean of item no 06,31,14 and 57 is 3 and the interquartile range is
2,1.75,1.1 and 0 respectively.
The table below shows the arrangement of the above-mentioned items.

Table-5.1 Arrangement of items in Thurston Scale

Item No. Median/ Mean Interquartile Range

42 1 1.5

65 1 1.25

88 1 1

10 2 2.5

28 2 1

06 3 2

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31 3 1.75

14 3 1.1

57 3 0

● After sorting all the items in a table, the final item selection process begins by
choosing the item with the least interquartile range for each mean/median value. In
the above table we have 3 mean/median values that are 1,2 and 3. We must choose the
item with the least Inter-quartile range for each mean/median value. For mean/median
value 1, item no 88 is selected as its inter-quartile range is the lowest. For
mean/median value 2 and 3 item no 28 and 57 can be chosen respectively for the same
reason.
● Then the final statements are arranged in random order before administering the scale.
● The respondents tick marks the statements with which they agree and leave the rest.
● The weight of checked statements is added and divided by the number of statements
checked.

Likert Scale

Likert scale is the most popular type of attitude scale. It was developed by Rennis Likert
in the year 1932. It is also known as summative rating scale. The scale contains several
statements regarding the subject that one wants to study and the respondents must choose
whether he/she is in favor of the given statement or not. It can be of 3-point, 5-point, 7
points etc.

Likert scale is the easiest to construct, the researcher constructs statements that reflect
the main issue that is to be studied. Two types of statements appear on Likert scale. The
first type of statements endorses a positive or favorable attitude towards the issue. The
second type of statements endorse negative or unfavorable attitudes towards the issue.
Equal number of favorable and unfavorable statements must be included in the scale.
After developing the series of statements about the issue to be studied they are arranged
randomly. No of options provided alongside each statement depends on how many
pointer scales are being constructed. A five-point rating scale will have 5 options to
choose from such as:

▪ Strongly agree (SA)

▪ Agree (A)

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▪ Uncertain (U)
▪ Disagree (D)
▪ Strongly disagree (SD)

The numeric values of each statement are assigned differently for a positive statement
and negative statement. For example, the point values for a positive statement are as typically
as SA=5, A=4, U=3, D=2, SD=1 and for a negative statement the point values may be
assigned as SA=1, A=2, U=3, D=4, SD=5.

Example:

a) CWSN are entitled to equal educational opportunity as other students.

If a respondent strongly agrees (5) or agrees (4) for this statement then it indicates he has a
positive attitude towards equal opportunity for Children with Special Needs (CWSN).

b) CWSN are not entitled to equal educational opportunity as other students.

If a respondent strongly agrees (1) or agrees (2) for this statement then it indicates he has a
negative attitude towards equal opportunity for CWSN.

After constructing the statements, they are administered to the students and collected back.
The teacher then calculates each respondent's score by adding the values for each response.
The scores chosen by the respondent for all the questions are then summed up to determine
their attitude towards the question being studied. This rating scale is also known as the
summative rating scale because it sums up the responses to all the questions.

Advantages of Attitude Scales

▪ Attitude scales allow teachers/researchers to quantify subjective constructs such as

attitudes and opinions. This quantification makes it easier to analyze and compare
data, facilitating empirical research.
▪ Scales with a standardized set of questions or items, ensuring that all respondents are
asked the same questions in the same way. This reduces the potential for bias in data
collection.
▪ Well-designed attitude scales can be highly reliable, meaning they consistently
measure the same construct across different administrations.
▪ With careful construction and validation, attitude scales can be valid, meaning they
accurately measure the construct they are intended to measure.

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▪ Scales are efficient data collection tools. They allow researchers to gather a large
amount of information from respondents in a relatively short amount of time.

Disadvantages of Attitude Scales:

• Respondents may provide socially desirable or biased responses, especially when

sensitive topics are involved. This can lead to inaccurate measurements if respondents
are not completely honest.
• Scales provide a structured framework, which may limit the depth of understanding.
They may not capture the richness and complexity of attitudes in real-life contexts.
• Constructing a valid scale can be challenging. If the scale does not measure the
intended construct accurately, the results will be invalid. This can happen due to poor
item selection, wording, or inappropriate response options.
• Some scales use fixed response options that might not capture the full range of
attitudes. Respondents may feel constrained by the available options.

In conclusion, attitude scales are valuable tools for quantifying and comparing
attitudes and opinions, but they have limitations and potential pitfalls that
teachers/researchers must consider. Careful design, validation, and interpretation are essential
to ensure the accuracy and reliability of measurements obtained from attitude scales. Teacher
can prepare own attitude scale to study the opinion of students towards different issues which
can be used for extension programmes in school.

Self-check Exercise-5.4
Develop an attitude scale to measure the attitude of students towards the use of Mobile for
learning.
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15.8. MEASUREMENT OF INTEREST AND SKILLS

Interest

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Interest is a dynamic and multifaceted construct that plays a fundamental role in education.
Interest can be defined as an individual's psychological state characterized by a positive
emotional response to a particular subject, activity, or domain. It is a multifaceted construct
that encompasses both affective and cognitive aspects. When students are interested in a
topic, they are more likely to be engaged, motivated, and eager to learn, which can lead to
improved academic performance and overall educational experiences.

Jones defines interest as “a feeling of liking, associated with a reaction either actual or
imaginary to a specific thing or situation.”

Super writes “interest is the product of interaction between inherited aptitude and endocrine
factors on the one hand and opportunity and social evaluation on the other.”

According to Bingham “an interest is a tendency to become absorbed in an experience and to

continue it.”

Methods of Measuring Interest

Understanding and measuring students' interests is crucial for educators and researchers in
the field of education. It provides valuable insights into what motivates and engages learners,
guiding the design of effective instruction, curriculum, and assessments. Some popular
methods of measuring interest are discussed below:

● Self-Report Surveys and Questionnaires: Self-report surveys and questionnaires are

one of the most widely used methods for measuring interest. Students are asked to
respond to a series of questions or statements about their preferences, likes, and
dislikes in specific areas. Responses are typically collected on a Likert scale, where
individuals rate their level of interest. These surveys are easy to administer and
provide insights into individual interests, but they may be subject to response bias.
● Observation: Observational methods involve watching individuals in real-life
situations to assess their interest and engagement. This can be particularly valuable in
educational settings where educators or researchers observe students' behavior, facial
expressions, and interactions during lessons or activities to gauge their level of
interest.
● Interest Inventory: Interest inventories are structured assessments that evaluate
individuals' interests across various domains, such as careers, hobbies, or academic

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subjects. Respondents typically rate their interest in different areas, and the results
help identify potential areas of interest.
Interest inventories are structured assessments that evaluate individuals' interests across
various domains, such as careers, hobbies, or academic subjects. Respondents typically rate
their interest in different areas, and the results help identify potential areas of interest. These
assessments can provide valuable insights into potential career paths and academic pursuits.
Some very popular interest inventories are discussed below:

Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB)-The "Strong Vocational Interest Blank" (SVIB)
is a career assessment tool created by Edward Kellog Strong, Jr. in 1927. Its purpose is to
help individuals identify their interests and make informed career choices. The test has
undergone revisions and expansions over the years, but its core features remain essential to
understanding vocational preferences. Initially, the test was only for men, but a version for
women was introduced in 1933 to promote inclusivity. The primary goal of the SVIB is to
assess an individual's interests, defined as the desire to explore and learn about something or
someone. The test is suitable for individuals aged 17 and above. It comprises 420 items, each
requiring responses categorized as Like, Indifferent, or Dislike. The items are distributed
across eight sections, which include Occupations, School Subjects, Activities, Leisure
Activities, Types of People, Preferences between Paired Activities, Pairing between Four
Items of Work, and Self-Descriptive Answers.

Kuder Interest Inventories- The Kuder Interest Inventory was designed by G. Frederic
Kuder to help measure interest from different angles and purposes. It was designed for
students of grade 9 and above in the form of three preference record i.e. Vocational,
Occupational, Personal. The Kuder Vocational Preference Record contains 10 scales such as
outdoor, mechanical, Computational, Scientific, persuasive, artistic, literary, musical, social
service, and clerical. The forced-choice triad items method is used to find out the preference
of the respondent. It presents respondents with sets of three occupations and requires them to
choose the one that best reflects their preferences or opinions. The forced choice nature of
these items makes respondents prioritize or rank their choices within each triad.

The second preference record i.e. Kuder Occupational Interest Inventory covers a
wide variety of occupations to choose from such as farmer, newspaper editor, minister,
mechanical engineer, architect, truck driver, lawyer etc.

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The third one is a personality inventory that intends to evaluate five very broad
characteristics of behavior. The characteristics are being active in a group, familiar and stable
situation, working with ideas, avoiding conflicts, and directing others. The score in each
characteristic suggests the respondent’s preference. A high score suggests high preference
and a low score suggests low preference.

Thurstone Interest Schedule-The Thurstone Interest Schedule was developed by L.L.

Thurstone. It is a schedule that asks individuals to express their preferences for various
occupations. The occupations are presented in pairs, and the participants are asked to indicate
their preference by checking the preferred option. They should assume that there is no
difference in income or prestige between the two options. If they like both options, they
should circle both, and if they dislike both options, they should cross them out. There is no
fixed time limit to complete the schedule but generally it takes 10 minutes to complete.

Self-check Exercise-5.5

Explore the role of observation in assessing students' interest, highlighting its advantages and
potential challenges in educational settings.

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15.9. MEASURING SKILLS

The traditional paradigm of education has shifted from a focus solely on academic
achievement to a more comprehensive approach that acknowledges the importance of diverse
skills. Skills are integral components of an individual's ability to perform tasks, solve
problems, and navigate various aspects of life. In the field of education, the assessment of

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skills goes beyond traditional academic measures, recognizing the importance of a holistic
approach to student development.

A skill is a learned ability or capacity to carry out a task with expertise, efficiency, and
effectiveness. Skills can be developed through training, practice, and experience, and they are
often specific to activities or domains like cognitive, technical, interpersonal, and soft skills.
In the educational context, skills extend beyond academic knowledge, encompassing a wide
range of competencies that prepare students for success in both academic and real-world
settings.

Essential Skills in Education

In today's dynamic and interconnected world, students need to be equipped with a wide range
of competencies to navigate complex challenges and opportunities. Let us discuss some skills
that are essential in the field of education.

Academic skills- Academic skills form the core of traditional education, encompassing
literacy, numeracy, critical thinking, and problem-solving. Proficiency in these areas provides
a strong foundation for further learning and intellectual development. Standardized tests and
assessments play a significant role in evaluating academic skills, providing a benchmark for
student performance.

Communication skills- Effective communication is a cornerstone of success in both

academic and real-world settings. Assessing verbal and written communication skills, along
with active listening abilities, ensures that students can express themselves clearly,
collaborate with others, and comprehend information from various sources. Beyond
conventional exams, projects and presentations offer insights into students' communicative
competence.

Socio-emotional skills- Education goes beyond the transmission of knowledge; it includes

the cultivation of social and emotional intelligence. Skills such as teamwork, collaboration,
empathy, and self-management contribute to a positive and supportive learning environment.
Classroom observations and self-assessment tools are valuable in gauging the development of
these interpersonal and intrapersonal skills.

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Creativity and Critical Thinking Skills- Encouraging creativity and critical thinking fosters
innovation and problem-solving abilities. Assessments that require students to think beyond
memorization and apply knowledge in novel ways help identify their capacity for creative
expression and analytical reasoning.

Life Skills- Life skills foster the ability to work effectively in teams, promoting cooperation
and collaboration. These skills prepare students to adapt to changing circumstances,
promoting flexibility and a positive response to new challenges. Moreover, life skill
education contributes significantly to career readiness by instilling job interview skills,
resume writing, and professional etiquette. It fosters a holistic approach to health and well-
being, promoting healthy lifestyle choices and stress management.

Methods of measuring skills

Observation

Observations conducted directly in the classroom setting offer a nuanced and real-time
understanding of students' non-academic skills, encompassing social, emotional, and
behavioral competencies. This method allows educators to gain valuable insights into the
multifaceted aspects of a student's development beyond mere academic achievements. By
keenly observing student interactions, educators can assess and analyze their abilities in areas
crucial for holistic growth.

One of the key dimensions assessed through classroom observations is social competence.
Educators can witness how students navigate social dynamics, engage with their peers, and
form relationships. This includes the observation of collaborative efforts during group
activities, discussions, and project work. The ability to work effectively within a team, share
ideas, and contribute constructively to group tasks becomes evident through direct
observation. This insight goes beyond what traditional assessments might capture, providing
a more authentic portrayal of a student's social skills.

Moreover, classroom observations shed light on students' communication skills. Educators

can witness firsthand how students express themselves, articulate their thoughts, and actively
participate in discussions. Effective verbal communication, clarity of expression, and the
ability to engage in meaningful dialogue are observable indicators that contribute to a
comprehensive understanding of a student's communication competencies. Non-verbal

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communication, such as body language and facial expressions, is also assessed, adding
another layer to the observation process.

Behavioral competencies, including leadership and adaptability, are particularly well-suited

for assessment through direct observation. In the classroom, educators can observe instances
where students take on leadership roles, guide their peers, or demonstrate initiative. These
observations provide insights into leadership potential and the ability to influence and inspire
others positively. Additionally, the adaptability of students to different learning
environments, their response to challenges, and their ability to adjust to unforeseen
circumstances can be gauged in real-time, offering a more accurate reflection of their
adaptability.

The real-time nature of classroom observations enhances the authenticity of the assessment.
Unlike standardized tests or retrospective self-reporting, observations capture students'
behaviors and interactions as they unfold naturally. This immediacy allows educators to
identify strengths and areas for improvement promptly. It also facilitates the identification of
patterns of behavior over time, enabling a more holistic and continuous evaluation of non-
academic skills.

Furthermore, the direct observation method provides educators with opportunities to offer
immediate feedback. Whether addressing a particular behavior, acknowledging a positive
interaction, or suggesting improvements, timely feedback can positively impact students'
awareness and growth in their non-academic skills. This feedback loop contributes to the
iterative nature of skill development, reinforcing positive behaviors and guiding students
toward continuous improvement.

In conclusion, direct observations in the classroom are a valuable and dynamic method for
assessing students' non-academic skills. Through this approach, educators gain a nuanced
understanding of social, emotional, and behavioral competencies, including teamwork,
communication, leadership, and adaptability. The real-time nature of observations enhances
the authenticity of the assessment, offering a holistic and continuous evaluation that goes
beyond traditional measures of academic success. This method not only informs educators
but also provides students with actionable feedback for their ongoing personal and
interpersonal development.

Project-Based Learning

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Project-Based Learning (PBL) is an educational approach that immerses students in hands-on

projects, fostering active engagement and facilitating deep learning experiences. Emphasizing
the real-world application of knowledge, collaboration, critical thinking, and problem-solving
skills, PBL transcends traditional teaching methods. Assessments within the context of
Project-Based Learning are thoughtfully designed to extend beyond conventional measures,
aiming for a comprehensive evaluation that encompasses various facets of student
performance.

At the core of PBL are hands-on projects that initiate an exploration into real-world scenarios
or issues, compelling students to delve into specific topics or problems. This immersive
learning method allows students to actively explore, experiment, and apply theoretical
knowledge to practical situations, creating an environment that mirrors authentic and
complex scenarios.

Critical thinking and independent problem-solving are inherent components of Project-Based

Learning. The nature of the projects often demands that students analyze information, make
decisions, and devise solutions autonomously. Assessments in PBL focus on the depth of
critical thinking demonstrated and the effectiveness of the solutions proposed during the
project, thereby gauging the student's ability to apply learned concepts to real-world
challenges.

Assessments within the realm of Project-Based Learning are deliberately multifaceted,

capturing various dimensions of student performance. Unlike traditional assessments that
predominantly focus on the final product, PBL assessments consider the entire project
lifecycle. This holistic approach involves evaluating the planning process, research, ideation,
and the iterative nature of project development. Recognizing the importance of the learning
process itself, PBL assessments include process evaluation. Students are assessed on how
well they manage their time, set goals, and navigate challenges throughout the project. This
acknowledgment of the learning journey ensures that students are developing essential skills
beyond the specific content of the project.

Project-based learning, as a method to measure essential skills, goes beyond traditional

assessments by providing a holistic and authentic evaluation of students' capabilities. By
integrating these skill assessments into real-world projects, it prepares students for success in

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an ever-evolving and dynamic world, where a combination of cognitive and non-cognitive

skills is crucial.

Self-check exercise-5.6
Design a project-based learning activity for students that integrates multiple skills, such as
critical thinking, communication, teamwork, and problem-solving.
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Portfolio

Portfolios serve as dynamic and comprehensive compilations that document a student's

academic and personal journey, offering a multifaceted representation of their growth and
proficiency across various skills over time. These collections, carefully curated and
thoughtfully presented, encapsulate not only the tangible outcomes of a student's learning but
also the evolution of their critical thinking, creativity, and application of knowledge.

The inclusion of written assignments within a portfolio offers insight into a student's ability
to articulate thoughts, convey ideas effectively, and demonstrate mastery of academic
content. These pieces not only showcase proficiency in the subject matter but also highlight
communication skills, analytical thinking, and the application of theoretical knowledge to
practical contexts. Project is another integral component of a portfolio, providing a tangible
representation of a student's ability to apply classroom learning to real-world scenarios.
Whether it be a science experiment, a research project, or a collaborative endeavor, projects
illustrate not only academic competencies but also critical thinking, problem-solving, and
teamwork. They offer a glimpse into a student's capacity to integrate knowledge across
disciplines and to approach challenges with creativity.

Reflections, often included in portfolios, provide a metacognitive dimension to the collection.

Students can articulate their learning experiences, personal growth, and insights gained
through various academic and extracurricular activities. Reflections showcase self-awareness,
the ability to learn from experiences, and a commitment to continuous improvement. This

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element of the portfolio fosters a deeper understanding of the learning process and allows
educators to gauge a student's capacity for self-assessment and reflective thinking.
Extracurricular activities, documented in a portfolio, extend beyond the classroom,
illustrating a student's engagement with the broader learning environment. The inclusion of
evidence from clubs, sports, community service, or leadership roles provides a holistic view
of a student's skills, including leadership, teamwork, communication, and adaptability. This
demonstrates a student's commitment to personal development beyond academic pursuits.

The significance of portfolios lies in its ability to offer educators a panoramic view of a
student's development. They serve as holistic assessment tools, allowing for a more
comprehensive evaluation of essential skills that go beyond traditional measures of academic
success. By examining the various components of a portfolio, educators can gain insights into
a student's strengths, areas for improvement, and the interplay of skills across different
contexts.

Portfolios are dynamic repositories that capture the essence of a student's educational
journey, showcasing growth and proficiency in a myriad of skills. They transcend traditional
assessments by providing a holistic view of a student's development, encompassing academic
achievements, critical thinking, creativity, communication skills, and engagement in
extracurricular activities. As a tool for assessment and reflection, portfolios empower both
educators and students to appreciate the richness and diversity of the learning experience. It is
very useful for teachers to monitor and assess the development of skills among students.

15.13. SUMMARY

• Measurement, the process of associating numbers with physical quantities and

phenomena.
• Achievement is very important for formal education as it determines the effectiveness
of educational machinery. It refers to the level of knowledge, skills, and competencies
that individuals have acquired through their educational experiences.
• Achievement Test-Achievement test is one of the most popular methods of measuring
achievement. It is a commonly used instruments to measure an individual's
knowledge, skills, or proficiency in a specific subject or set of subjects.

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• Teacher-made achievement tests are created and used by educators for their
classroom purpose. These assessments are tailored to align with the specific content
covered during instruction, making it highly context-dependent
• Standardized achievement tests are developed externally by testing organizations or
educational experts. These assessments are designed to be uniform, administered, and
scored consistently across a broad and diverse population of students
• Aptitude refers to a person's inherent or natural ability to excel or perform well in a
specific area or task. It is a quality or potential that individuals possess, often from
birth or early in life, which enables them to acquire certain skills, knowledge, or
talents more easily and effectively than others.
• Attitude refers to a psychological tendency or disposition to evaluate, react to, and
behave towards people, objects, situations, or concepts in a particular way
• Likert scale is the most popular type of attitude scale. It was developed by Rennis
Likert in the year 1932. It is also known as summative rating scale.
• Interest can be defined as an individual's psychological state characterized by a
positive emotional response to a particular subject, activity, or domain. It is a
multifaceted construct that encompasses both affective and cognitive aspects.
• Interest inventories are structured assessments that evaluate individuals' interests
across various domains, such as careers, hobbies, or academic subjects.
• Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB)-The "Strong Vocational Interest Blank"
(SVIB) is a career assessment tool created by Edward Kellog Strong, Jr. in 1927. Its
purpose is to help individuals identify their interests and make informed career
choices.
• The Kuder Interest Inventory was designed by G. Frederic Kuder to help measure
interest from different angles and purposes. It was designed for students of grade 9
and above in the form of three preference record i.e. Vocational, Occupational,
Personal.
• Project-Based Learning (PBL) is an educational approach that immerses students in
hands-on projects, fostering active engagement and facilitating deep learning
experiences. Emphasizing the real-world application of knowledge, collaboration,
critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, PBL transcends traditional teaching
methods.

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• Portfolios serve as dynamic and comprehensive compilations that document a

student's academic and personal journey, offering a multifaceted representation of
their growth and proficiency across various skills over time
15.14. UNIT END EXERCISE
● Define achievement? Explain about different methods of measuring achievement.
● Define attitude? Discuss about different methods of measuring aptitude.
● Define Intelligence? Explain about different methods of measuring intelligence.
● Define Interest? Discuss about different methods of measuring interest.
● What are different methods of measuring skills?
15.15. FURTHER READING
Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208

Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education

Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810

Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.

http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030

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BLOCK 04:
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST

Unit 16: Validity-concept, types and methods of validation

Unit 17: Reliability- concept and methods of estimating reliability
Unit 18: Objectivity- concept and methods of estimating
objectivity
Unit 19: Usability- concept
Unit 20: Usability- factors ensuring usability

UNIT -16
NEW TRENDS OF EVALUATION

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STRUCTURE

• Learning Objectives
• Introduction
• New Trends of Evaluation
• Grading
• Summary
• Unit End Exercise
• Suggestion for Further Reading

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, learners shall be able to;

• Define the new trends of evaluation system.
• Explain the Grading system and semester system
• Elaborate the continuous internal assessment and use of question bank
• Elaborate the use of computers in evaluation

INTRODUCTION

Evaluation should serve the purpose of formative evaluation, providing instant feedback,
outcome information, a diagnosis, and corrective action. One recent trend to assess a student's
performance is through grading. Evaluation is a concept that has emerged as a prominent
process of assessing, testing and measuring. Its main objective is Qualitative Improvement.
Evaluation is a process of making value judgements over a level of performance or
achievement.
Curriculum trends include integrating coding and computer science into various subjects,
empowering students with the ability to understand and create technology. This integration
allows students to develop problem-solving and critical-thinking skills while also fostering
creativity and innovation.

NEW TRENDS OF EVALUATION

Education is a dynamic field that continually adapts to evolving societal needs, technological
advancements, and pedagogical shifts. Central to this evolution is the way educators assess
and evaluate students' progress and performance. Traditional evaluation methods, such as
standardized testing and grades, have been supplemented and, in many cases, supplanted by

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innovative approaches that harness the power of technology, adapt to diverse learning styles,
and emphasize the development of real-world skills.

This section aims to discuss the new trends in evaluation in education, focusing on
grading systems, the semester system, continuous internal assessment, the development of
question banks, and the use of computers in evaluation. These trends are reshaping the way
we assess and measure student performance, providing a more comprehensive and holistic
view of their abilities and progress.

GRADING

The word 'grade' originates from the Latin term 'gradus' which means 'step'. Grading is a
process used to categorize subjects based on predetermined standards. In an educational
setting, grading is a way to communicate the level of achievement of students. It involves
using a set of symbols that are clearly defined and understood by students, teachers, parents,
and others involved. Without clear understanding of these symbols, the purpose of awarding
grades is lost. It is crucial to define the meaning of each grading symbol while developing the
grading system. Examiners must adhere to the specified system of grading. However, this
does not limit the examiner's autonomy to determine the grade awarded to a student. A well-
introduced grading system can not only allow for comparison of students' performance but
also indicate the quality of performance in relation to the effort and knowledge acquired at
the end of the course.

Functions of Grades

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Grades serve multiple purposes. Firstly, it shows how well a learner has achieved the
instructional goals. This information is valuable not only for the learner and teacher but also
for parents. Secondly, grades provide a permanent record of a learner's development, which
can be useful for higher education institutions and prospective employers. Thirdly, grades
help schools make decisions about placement and promotion. Fourthly, grades can assist in
reviewing teaching strategies and curricular appropriateness. Additionally, grades factor into
calculating a student's Grade Point Average (GPA) for awarding merit scholarships at many
higher education institutions.

Methods of Assigning Grades

Depending upon the reference point, grading can be done in a variety of ways. Based on the
approach, grading can be of two types that is direct and indirect grading. Also based on the
'standard of judgment', the grading may be classified as absolute grading and relative
grading.

Direct grading- The method of direct grading involves assessing the performance of
examinees in qualitative terms and expressing the examiner's impression using letter grades.
This approach is applicable to both cognitive and non-cognitive educational achievements.
Direct grading is particularly useful for assessing non-cognitive learning outcomes. It is
recommended to evaluate and report non-cognitive traits separately in terms of letter grades.
The grading scale used should be determined based on the nature and quality of the attribute
being evaluated, such as a three-point or five-point scale. Direct grading has the advantage of
reducing inter-examiner variability and is easier to use than other methods. Nonetheless, it
lacks clarity and diagnostic significance, and may not promote competition to the desired
extent.

Indirect grading- In the indirect grading process, grades are not awarded directly. Rather,
pupils are given marks, which are subsequently transformed into letter grades using various
approaches while keeping the aim of assessment in mind. First marks are awarded for each
question as usual. This procedure for awarding marks for individual questions is done using a
prescribed marking scheme. Once marks are awarded to each question, the final score is
calculated by adding up individual marks. Then the marks are converted into grades which
can be done in two ways.

• Absolute Grading
• Relative Grading
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Absolute Grading:

In this process of Grading, marks are given on a 100- or 101-point scale are converted into
5,7-,9- or 11-point scale. For each grade, some fixed range of scores determined in advance.
The score a student obtain in a paper are converted into their corresponding grade based on
this predetermined range. It is also known as Criterion Referenced Grading or Reflect
Absolute Performance. Let us consider some examples to understand the concept of Absolute
Grading.

Score Category Description Grade

75% and above Distinction A

60% to <75% First Division B

45% to <60% Second Division C

33% to <45% Third Division D

Below 33% Unsatisfactory E

These categories and corresponding grades are associated with predefined standards.

For example: Those who score between 91 and 100 marks may be given ‘A’ grade. Those
who score between 71 and 90 marks may be given ‘B’ grade and so on. If a student scores 95
marks, s/he gets an ‘A’ grade but if the score is 73, s/he gets a ‘B’ grade.

In Absolute Grading, the grades of a student are independent of the grades obtained by other
students. Thus, it can be said that Absolute Grading is a type of Criterion-referenced grading
which uses absolute standards. In this type of grading the teacher does not have advanced
information on how many students will pass or fail the test.

Relative Grading-

In this process of grading, the grade range is not determined or fixed in advance. It is
also known as Norm-Referenced Grading or Reflect Relative Performance. Instead, it varies
according to the relative position of a student within a group. The performance of a student is
compared with that of their peers. It is based on the premise that if the results of an evaluation
are represented on a graph it will be in the form of a Normal Probability Curve (extends from

- ∞ to + ∞). The number of students falling into each category is fixed based on Normal

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Distribution which is a statistical principle. The same percentage of cases lie below and
above the mean and the distance is measured in standard deviation units(σ). This gives the
relative ranking of an individual. The normal distribution principle presupposes that the
performance of individuals in a sizable group adheres to a specific pattern, which can be
illustrated through a normal curve. This type of grading can be done on the curve.

For example: In a test the top 10 students may be awarded ‘A’ grade. The ‘A’ grade in one
subject might be quite different from the ‘A’ grade in another subject. A teacher may award
‘A’ grade to students who scored 95 marks or above in Mathematics but for language
subjects, the same teacher may place students who score 85 marks or above in ‘A’ grade.

Self-check Exercise-5.7

Differentiate between direct grading and indirect grading.

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Merits of Grading

● It allows the assessment of examinees' achievements in different subjects separately.

● It minimizes errors of measurement, facilitating easy comparison of achievements
among different students.
● Grading system enables inter-subject comparison of the same examinee and inter-
examinee comparison within a specific subject.
● It shifts emphasis away from marks, promoting a focus on the grading system.
● The grading system is more significant and practical when contrasted with the
marking system.
● The system is particularly beneficial for both low achievers and high achievers.
● It lessens anxiety and complexities among students by reducing unhealthy
competitions.

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Demerits of Grading

● There is an absence of agreement among educators regarding the scale's points and
corresponding marks.
● The grading system exhibits high sensitivity; transitioning from 70 to 75 is more fluid
in marking than in grading.
● Subjectivity in evaluation, akin to the marking system, is possible in grading.
● Converting marks into grades is straightforward, but the reverse process is
challenging.
● Lack of consistency in grading leads to confusion and difficulties in result
interpretation.

Grading is one of the widely accepted ways of declaring results at all levels of education from
school to universities. It has replaced the old marking system which created stress and
anxiety among learners. Grading system has been accepted in Indian school boards such as
CBSE, State Boards for the publication of results.

SUMMARY
School measures students on different traits such as aptitude, intelligence, attitudes, skills
along with achievement in different subjects. Achievement of students can be measured by
essay test and objective test, teacher made test and standardized test. Teacher made-test are
suitable for school as they are prepared by the teachers based on the school curriculum.
Aptitude can be of different types which require a test battery like Differential Aptitude
Testing (DAT). Aptitude test can indicate the students' suitability for a future course or
career. Mental ability or intelligence can be measured by verbal, non-verbal and performance
tests, each having its advantages and limitations. Intelligence tests can be administered
individually or in groups. Other psychological traits like attitude, interest and skills can be
measured by scales, checklists, and observations.

The evaluation system has been changing with time and pedagogical & educational
advancement. The recent trend in evaluation is grading, semester examination, internal
assessment, question banks and use of computers in evaluation. The grading can be of
absolute or relative in nature. Semester examination has simplified the assessment process by
making it as internal part of education process. These innovations have made the evaluation
system systematic, objective, unbiased, and faster.

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UNIT END EXERCISE

1. Differentiate between Teacher-made Achievement Test and Standardized Achievement
Test.

2. A child of 13 years scores 88 in an IQ test. Calculate his mental age.

3. Create a test paper with a mix of questions covering different aptitude areas.

4. Compare Thurstone scale and Likert scale, highlighting the differences in their methods
and applications for measuring social attitudes.

5. Provide details about some other interest inventories including its name, purpose, target
audience, and any unique features it offers for assessing interests?

7. Conduct a brief classroom observation and identify non-academic skills demonstrated by

students. Provide examples of social, emotional, and behavioral competencies observed.

8. Brainstorm creative ways teachers can use question banks beyond traditional examinations,
such as in classroom activities, formative assessments, or as a resource for personalized
learning.

9. Develop a comparative analysis between direct grading and indirect grading. Highlight the
advantages and disadvantages of each method. Provide scenarios where each grading method
might be more suitable.

10. Reflect on the future trends and advancements in computer-based evaluation. Discuss
emerging technologies and their potential influence on assessment methods.

FURTHER READINGS
Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208
Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education
Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810
Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030
Kochhar S.K. (1984). Guidance and Counseling in Colleges and Universities.

UNIT – 17
SEMESTER SYSTEM
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STRUCTURE

• Learning Objectives
• Introduction
• New Trends of Evaluation
• Grading
• Summary
• Unit End Exercise
• Suggestion for Further Reading

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, learners shall be able to;

• Define the new trends of evaluation system.
• Explain the semester system
• Elaborate the key features, merits and demerits semester system

INTRODUCTION

The semester system is a widely adopted academic structure used in educational institutions
to organize and divide the academic year into distinct periods for instructional and
assessment purposes. Typically, a semester lasts around 15–18 weeks, and it is designed to
give students enough time to cover specific portions of the curriculum before they are
evaluated and move on to the next phase of learning. The semester system contrasts with the
annual system, which divides the academic year into a single long-term period, often
without breaks between major evaluations.

In the semester system, the academic year is divided into two primary terms: the Fall
Semester (often starting in August or September) and the Spring Semester (usually starting
in January). Some institutions may also have a Summer Semester or Winter Term, which
are optional or shorter periods offering more specialized or intensive courses.

SEMESTER SYSTEM

The semester system was created to improve upon the annual examination system. Under this
system, a programme of study is divided into equal parts based on months, and an
examination is conducted after the completion of each part. For example, a two-year
programme would have four semesters, while a three-year programme would be divided into

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six semesters. If student fails in one subject in one semester, they are not declared to have
failed. Instead, they are allowed to continue to the next semester and re-study the subject.
They can then retake the exam in that subject in that semester. The semester system aims to
reduce stress and strain among students by integrating examinations into the daily routine. It
also broadens the outlook of students and instills in them a sense of responsibility and
confidence. The semester system is very dynamic, engaging both faculty and students
throughout the year in academic activity. It reduces the burden of examinations. Both systems
have their merits and demerits. Let us explore the pros and cons of the semester system.

Key Features of the Semester System

1. Division of the Academic Year: The semester system divides the academic year into
two or three segments, each typically lasting between 15 to 18 weeks. These segments
are referred to as semesters (fall and spring) or terms (quarter, trimester, or shorter
periods).

2. Course Load and Structure: Each semester typically consists of a set number of
credit hours, usually around 15 to 18 credits in total. Students generally take 4-5
courses per semester, depending on their academic program and institution.

3. Regular Evaluation: The semester system includes frequent assessments such as

mid-term exams, quizzes, assignments, and projects, in addition to a final exam or
project. These evaluations contribute to the overall grade for the course and offer
students opportunities to improve their performance over the course of the semester.

4. Time for In-depth Study: The duration of a semester allows students to engage in
more detailed and thorough study. It provides time for reflection, revision, and the
application of knowledge in practical or project-based contexts.

5. Breaks Between Semesters: One of the most significant advantages of the semester
system is the built-in breaks between the fall and spring semesters, typically a winter
break (between December and January) and a summer break (usually between May
and August). These breaks allow students time to recharge, pursue internships, or
engage in personal or academic projects.

Merits of Semester System

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● It engages the pupils in studies throughout the semester as they must appear both internal
and semester examinations.
● Students’ progress is assessed constantly and continuously. So, their knowledge gets
improved by getting remedial instructions from teachers and by self-effort.
● The interaction between teachers and students increases in the semester system due to
continuous class and internal test.
● The workload of students decreases as programme get equally distributed in all semesters.
It supports learner psychological needs to learn in chunks.
● The semester system discourages students from studying at the last minute and encourages
consistent and regular academic engagement throughout the course duration. It fosters a
proactive approach to learning, facilitates deeper understanding of the subject matter, and
supports effective time management.
● Continuous internal assessment and periodic tests stand out as significant advantages of
this system.
● Students have the liberty to converse about their performance, ensuring transparency in the
assessment process.
● This approach diminishes stress and pressure, contributing to a purposeful, enjoyable, and
pleasant learning experience.
Demerits of Semester System
● Continuous examinations in the semester system keep students consistently facing the
challenge of examinations.
● This system is suitable primarily for higher education not for school education.
● Formulating an appropriate syllabus for each semester poses a challenging task for the
curriculum developers.
● Gaps between semesters can occasionally result in losses of learning by students.
● Both teachers and students experience an increased workload and stress to complete the
course and examinations.
● At times, there is a perception that examinations outweigh the actual study process.
● The curriculum engagement may impede other aspects of students' development.

Self-check Exercise-5.8

Write about your experience with the semester system and how it influenced your learning.

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Share your thoughts on the effectiveness of this system.

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SEMESTER SYSTEM AROUND THE WORLD

The semester system is commonly used in many countries, though the exact structure may
vary:

• United States and Canada: The semester system is standard at most colleges and
universities, with Fall and Spring semesters. Many institutions also offer a summer
session for additional courses or research.

• Europe: Many European universities follow the semester system, though variations
exist across countries. For example, the Bologna Process in Europe aims to
standardize academic structures, and most European universities now follow a two-
semester academic year.

• India: The semester system is widely used in universities and colleges in India,
especially in professional courses like engineering, law, and business administration.
Some Indian universities have adopted the semester system to offer more flexibility
and better align with global standards.

• Australia: The semester system is also prevalent in Australian universities, with the
academic year split into two main semesters (usually Feb-June and July-November),
along with optional summer terms.

SUMMARY
The semester system is one of the most widely adopted structures in modern education,
providing a balanced and flexible framework for organizing courses, assessments, and

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academic progress. Its division of the academic year into shorter, more manageable terms
enables better time management, regular feedback, and focused learning. While the system
has its challenges—such as pacing and the pressure of frequent evaluations—it remains
popular for its adaptability, opportunities for specialization, and support for student success.
As educational institutions continue to innovate and respond to evolving student needs, the
semester system will likely remain an integral part of the educational landscape globally.

UNIT END EXERCISE

1.How does the semester system impact student learning and retention compared to the
annual system?

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the semester system for both students and
teachers?

3. In what ways does the semester system promote or hinder the development of critical
thinking and in-depth learning?

4. How does the semester system support or limit opportunities for students to engage in
extracurricular activities, internships, or study abroad programs?

5. How can the semester system be adapted or improved to better accommodate diverse
learning styles and needs of students?

FURTHER READINGS
Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208
Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education
Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810
Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030
Kochhar S.K. (1984). Guidance and Counseling in Colleges and Universities.

UNIT -18

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INTERNAL ASSESSMENT
STRUCTURE

• Learning Objectives
• Introduction
• Continious Internal Assessment
• Summary
• Unit End Exercise
• Suggestion for Further Reading

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, learners shall be able to;

• Define the Continuous Internal Assessment (CIA).
• Explain the key features of Continuous Internal Assessment (CIA)
• Elaborate the merits and demerits of continuous internal assessment
• Elaborate the implementation of Continuous Internal Assessment (CIA)
INTRODUCTION
Continuous Internal Assessment (CIA) is an approach to evaluating students' performance
over an extended period, rather than relying solely on end-of-term exams or final
assessments. It focuses on the ongoing evaluation of students' progress through a variety of
assessments that are conducted regularly throughout the academic term. The CIA system
aims to assess a broader range of student skills, including academic knowledge, problem-
solving, critical thinking, creativity, participation, and personal development.
In the CIA system, teachers continuously monitor and evaluate students’ performance
through various methods such as quizzes, assignments, projects, presentations, class
participation, group work, and even regular feedback. The idea is to provide a more holistic
view of a student’s abilities, offering opportunities for improvement throughout the term
rather than placing undue pressure on a single exam or assignment.
CONTINUOUS INTERNAL ASSESSMENT
It is often said that the classroom is the second home for students. With most of their time
spent in school, it is important to ensure that their progress is being monitored and evaluated
on a regular basis. Teachers, being the ones who interact with the students every day, are the
most suitable individuals to assess their performance in various areas. To ensure that students
are receiving the best education possible, it is highly recommended that internal assessments

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be conducted. These evaluations should be done continuously and form an integral part of the
teaching and learning process. It is through these assessments that teachers can identify areas
where students may be struggling or excelling, and offer the necessary support and guidance.
Continuous internal evaluations help in the identification of gaps in the curriculum, which
can be addressed immediately. This ensures that students are kept up-to-date with the latest
information and are well prepared for any assessments that may be coming up. Additionally,
these evaluations provide valuable feedback to students, helping them to understand their
strengths and weaknesses and work on improving their skills. In conclusion, internal
assessments play a vital role in the education system. It is imperative that teachers conduct
these evaluations regularly to ensure that students are receiving the best education possible.
By identifying areas where students may be struggling, teachers can offer the necessary
support and guidance, helping students to achieve their full potential. The objectives of
implementation of continuous internal evaluation are as follows:

● To conduct a comprehensive evaluation of a student's cognitive and non-cognitive

areas of learning.

● To inspire both students and teachers to enhance the effectiveness of the teaching-
learning process.

● To offer feedback to teachers, students, and parents about learning progress and
suggesting suitable remedial measures.

● To reduce the emphasis on memorization and rote learning as contents are taught in
small sections.

● To prioritize the assessment of non-academic facets of a child's personality that can

facilitate in holistic development.

● To enhance the meaningfulness, reliability, validity, and objectivity of the evaluation

system.

Key Features of the CIA System

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1. Ongoing Evaluation: The CIA system ensures that assessments occur throughout the
course, providing a more accurate reflection of a student’s abilities over time. Instead of a
one-time examination, students' learning is evaluated continuously.
2. Diverse Assessment Methods: A wide variety of assessment methods are used under the
CIA system. These can include:
o Written tests/quizzes (both announced and surprise)
o Assignments and homework
o Projects and presentations
o Group discussions or seminars
o Class participation
o Practical or lab work
o Peer assessments and self-assessments
These methods ensure that different learning styles and abilities are taken into account.
3. Feedback and Improvement: One of the key strengths of CIA is that it allows for regular
feedback. This continuous feedback loop helps students understand their strengths and
areas for improvement early in the term. They can act on the feedback to improve their
learning, giving them the chance to adapt and adjust their study methods.
4. Formative and Summative Assessments: The CIA system blends both formative
(ongoing) and summative (final) assessments. While formative assessments help students
improve throughout the course, summative assessments evaluate their final level of
achievement in the subject.
5. Holistic Evaluation: In addition to academic performance, CIA often assesses non-
cognitive aspects of learning such as critical thinking, collaboration, communication, and
creativity. This holistic approach helps in the overall development of the student, not just
their ability to memorize facts.
Merits of Internal Evaluation
● It involves continuous observation and occasional testing students by teachers.
● Continuous internal assessment serves dual purposes, being both formative for
instructional improvement and summative to complement final exam results.
● It strengthens the relationship between students and teachers.
● It encompasses evaluation in cognitive as well as other dimensions of students'
personalities.

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● This system encourages students to maintain attentiveness and regularity throughout

the duration of their studies.
Demerits of Internal Evaluation
● Internal evaluation system requires a reasonable teacher-taught ratio in the class for its
effective use.
● There is a chance of biasness and favoritism by teachers in the internal assessment.
● A positive atmosphere within the institution/school is essential for the system's
effectiveness.
● In this system, students who seek recommendations, impress their teachers, or establish
close relationships may receive higher marks/grades than warranted.
● Due to undue pressure, teachers may experience feelings of insecurity and stress.
● The distribution between internal and external assessment in the system is a matter of
debate.

Self-check Exercise-5.9

Reflect how continuous internal assessment enhances rapport between students and teachers.

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Implementation of CIA in Education

To implement a successful Continuous Internal Assessment system, institutions need to:

1. Develop Clear Guidelines: Schools and universities must establish clear criteria and
guidelines for assessments to ensure fairness and consistency. Rubrics and grading
scales for assignments, projects, and presentations should be made available to
students at the start of the course.

2. Balanced Assessment: A mix of different assessment types should be used (e.g.,

quizzes, assignments, projects, class participation, etc.) to ensure a well-rounded

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evaluation. It is important to ensure that no single form of assessment

disproportionately affects the overall grade.

3. Use of Technology: Educational institutions can leverage technology, such as

Learning Management Systems (LMS), to facilitate the submission of assignments,
track progress, and provide feedback. This can also help reduce administrative burden
on teachers.

4. Regular Feedback Mechanisms: Students should receive timely and constructive

feedback throughout the course to ensure they understand their progress and how to
improve. Regular interaction between teachers and students is crucial for a successful
CIA system.

5. Teacher Training: Teachers need to be trained in the CIA methodology and how to
fairly assess students across various formats. This includes developing rubrics,
conducting peer assessments, and offering constructive feedback.

SUMMARY
The Continuous Internal Assessment (CIA) system represents a shift towards a more
holistic and student-centered approach to evaluation in education. By offering regular
feedback, a variety of assessment methods, and a focus on a wide range of skills, the CIA
system aims to enhance learning, reduce stress, and foster the overall development of
students. However, successful implementation requires careful planning, clear guidelines, and
an ongoing commitment to fairness and equity. When done well, CIA can significantly
improve the educational experience by providing a more comprehensive and balanced
evaluation of student progress.

UNIT END EXERCISE

1. How does the implementation of the Continuous Internal Assessment (CIA) system
impact student motivation and engagement in their learning process?

2. What are the challenges teachers face in managing Continuous Internal Assessments,
and how can these challenges be addressed?

3. How does the CIA system contribute to the development of critical thinking,
creativity, and problem-solving skills in students?

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4. What are the potential biases or limitations in the Continuous Internal Assessment
system, and how can they be mitigated?

5. How can the integration of technology enhance the effectiveness of the Continuous
Internal Assessment system in modern education?

FURTHER READINGS
• Buchberger, F., & Klieme, E. (2004). Assessment and Evaluation: Continuous
Assessment in Schools. European Educational Research Journal, 3(4), 357–370.
• Guskey, T. R. (2007). Closing the Achievement Gap: A Vision for Changing Beliefs and
Practices.Corwin Press.
• Reddy, P., & Andrade, H. (2010). A Review of Rubrics in Higher Education:
Accuracy, Consistency, and Utility. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education,
35(4), 423–438.
• Wiggins, G. (1998). Educative Assessment: Designing Assessments to Inform and
Improve Student Performance. Jossey-Bass.
• Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and Classroom Learning. Assessment in
Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 5(1), 7–74.
• Assessment Reform Group (2002). Testing, Motivation, and Learning. Research
Papers in Education, 17(1), 87-113.
• Lizzio, A., & Wilson, K. (2006). Course Completion: The Influence of Perceived
Quality of Teaching and Assessment.Studies in Higher Education, 31(1), 45-64.

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UNIT 19
QUESTION BANK

STRUCTURE

• Learning Objectives
• Introduction
• New Trends of Evaluation
• Grading
• Summary
• Unit End Exercise
• Suggestion for Further Reading

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, learners shall be able to;

• Define the new trends of evaluation system.
• Explain the Grading system and semester system
• Elaborate the continuous internal assessment and use of question bank
• Elaborate the use of computers in evaluation
INTRODUCTION

A question bank is a collection of pre-written questions used in the process of assessing and
evaluating students' knowledge and understanding in an academic setting. It serves as a
valuable resource for educators to generate assessments like quizzes, exams, and practice
tests. These questions are typically organized according to different subject areas, difficulty
levels, types of questions (e.g., multiple-choice, short-answer, essay), and learning objectives.
The use of a question bank allows for greater efficiency in the creation of assessments while
maintaining consistency and fairness.

QUESTION BANKS

Question banks refer to collections of questions that can be shared across various courses and
programs of study. It is essentially a list of questions from a specific subject, which is
compiled through collaborative efforts for the benefit of students, teachers, and assessors.

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Question banks may also be known as "item banks," "item pools," "item collections," "item
reservoirs," or "test item libraries."

A question bank is a collection of large test items developed by a group of trained and
experienced professionals and printed on index cards or stored in the memory of a computer
along with certain supporting data and capable of being reproduced whenever needed
(Agrawal, 2005). Question banks can be searched to find questions that meet specific criteria
and create assessments. Users with appropriate access can create questions in the banks.
Question banks serve several purposes. Teachers can use it during pre-testing, to create
question papers, measure student achievement, etc. Practicing teachers should prepare the
questions for the question banks. Question enrichment should be an ongoing process that
includes updating, rejecting, replacing, modifying, and adding new questions. In question
banks, all types of questions - objective, short answer, as well as long answer - are included
for a particular topic. Question banks are crucial for teaching, general exams, competitive
exams, and entrance tests. They can also increase the importance of large-scale public exams
by covering a wider range of content. The primary reasons for creating question banks
include:

● Addressing the requirements of an expanding student population across various

programmes.
● Enhancing knowledge and striving for competitiveness in all facets of life.
● Cultivating testing techniques that are more reliable, valid, comprehensive, fair, and
objective.
● Structuring testing programs that are more efficient, cost-effective, and
comprehensive.
● Employing scientific and technological tools for data processing.
● Elevating the efficiency of testing programs.

Question banks can enhance testing techniques by making them more efficient and objective.
Let us discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using question banks.

Key Features of a Question Bank

1. Variety of Question Types: A well-designed question bank contains a diverse range

of question formats, including:

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o Multiple-choice questions (MCQs)

o True/false questions

o Short answer questions

o Long answer or essay-type questions

o Matching and fill-in-the-blank questions

o Problem-solving or case study questions (particularly for practical subjects)

2. Categorization: Questions are often categorized by various criteria:

o Subject Area: Grouped by topics, units, or themes (e.g., mathematics, history,

science).

o Difficulty Level: Questions may be classified into easy, moderate, and

difficult categories.

o Learning Objectives: Questions may be aligned with specific learning goals

or competencies, such as understanding concepts, applying knowledge,
analyzing data, or evaluating outcomes.

3. Reusable: One of the primary benefits of a question bank is that it can be reused for
multiple tests or assessments over time, saving teachers significant time in question
preparation.

4. Randomized Question Selection: Many electronic or computer-based question banks

support the randomization of questions. This means that when an exam is generated
from a question bank, the questions can be selected randomly, ensuring that each
student receives a unique set of questions. This helps reduce the chances of cheating
or collaboration during exams.

5. Alignment with Curriculum and Learning Outcomes: Effective question banks are
closely aligned with the course syllabus, curriculum guidelines, and learning
outcomes. This ensures that the questions assess the content and skills that students
are expected to master.

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Advantages of Using a Question Bank

1. Efficiency in Exam Preparation: Creating exams or quizzes from a pre-existing

question bank allows teachers to save time. Instead of writing new questions for every
exam, educators can select or modify questions from the bank based on the topics
they want to assess.

2. Consistency and Fairness: Since the questions in the bank are pre-written and
categorized, it becomes easier to create exams that are consistent in terms of difficulty
level, coverage of content, and alignment with the learning objectives. This helps
ensure fairness in testing, as all students are assessed using similar question types and
standards.

3. Variety of Assessment: A question bank allows for a diverse range of assessment

tools, from multiple-choice tests to long-form essays, enabling teachers to assess
students’ knowledge from different angles and in various formats. This can cater to
different learning styles and reduce the reliance on one single mode of assessment.

4. Personalized Assessment: With larger question banks, teachers can create different
versions of an exam or quiz, allowing them to personalize assessments for individual
students or groups of students. This can be especially useful in large classes, helping
to mitigate the risks of cheating.

5. Tracking Student Progress: When teachers use a question bank over multiple terms
or courses, they can track which types of questions are most challenging for students.
This allows for the identification of areas where students consistently struggle,
enabling instructors to adjust their teaching methods accordingly.

6. Helps in Formative Assessment: Question banks can be used not just for summative
assessments (final exams), but also for formative assessments—regular quizzes,
practice tests, or in-class exercises that gauge student learning throughout the course.
This approach provides continual feedback to both students and teachers.

Merits of Question Bank

● There is minimal risk of question paper leaks, as even experts are unaware of whether
their questions are included in the test.

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● Teachers are aware of the types of questions expected in the examination, allowing
them to tailor their instruction accordingly.

● Question papers can be promptly prepared, even in emergency situations by using

question bank.

● The question bank functions as a tool for facilitating comprehensive learning from
diverse perspectives.

● Paper setters can use the question bank as a reference guide.

● The involvement of various instructors and specialists in item construction ensures

objectivity in evaluation.

● Question banks are frequently employed for admission and examination purposes.

● The standardized scoring procedure upholds the reliability and objectivity of test
results.

● The issue of non-comparability of marks across different times or years is addressed

by assuming that sample tests chosen from the bank are parallel or equivalent in all
aspects.

Demerits of Question Bank

● Educators hold diverse views regarding the confidentiality of the question bank.

● The creation of questions for question papers often lacks originality if it is drawn from
the question bank.

● In the present system, where the objective of an examination is merely to ascertain a

pass or fail outcome, there seems to be no justification for the existence of such banks
for students or teachers.

● Item writers need subject expertise and specialized training to modify the items of
question bank before its use for formal testing.

● The item writer might be unfamiliar with the psychological traits of the students
intended to take or use the test.

Self-check Exercise-5.6
Develop a small question bank for a subject of your choice. Include various types of questions
(objective, short answer, long answer).
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How to Build an Effective Question Bank

To build an effective and useful question bank, educators should follow these steps:

1. Define Learning Objectives: Clearly define what students are expected to learn and be
able to do by the end of the course. Questions should be mapped to these objectives.

2. Variety and Balance: Include a variety of question types (MCQs, essays, practical
problems) to assess different skills. Balance between easy, moderate, and difficult
questions to ensure the assessment reflects a range of student abilities.

3. Regular Updates: Regularly review and update the question bank to ensure relevance
and fairness. This includes ensuring that questions are free from bias and reflect any
changes in the curriculum.

4. Pilot Testing: Before fully implementing a new set of questions, pilot them with a
small group of students or colleagues to test their clarity and difficulty level.

5. Review and Refine: Continuously assess the effectiveness of the question bank by
collecting feedback from students and teachers, and refine it based on performance
data.

SUMMARY
A question bank is an essential tool in modern educational assessment. By providing a
repository of pre-made, organized questions, it saves time in exam preparation, ensures
consistency, and allows for varied types of evaluation. When designed and used thoughtfully,
it can improve both the quality and fairness of assessments. However, it is important to
ensure that the question bank is continually updated, diverse, and aligned with the curriculum
to prevent issues like over-reliance on factual recall and ensure that higher-order thinking is
also adequately tested.

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UNIT END EXERCISE

1. Differentiate between Teacher-made Achievement Test and Standardized Achievement
Test.

2. A child of 13 years scores 88 in an IQ test. Calculate his mental age.

3. Create a test paper with a mix of questions covering different aptitude areas.

4. Compare Thurstone scale and Likert scale, highlighting the differences in their methods
and applications for measuring social attitudes.

5. Provide details about some other interest inventories including its name, purpose, target
audience, and any unique features it offers for assessing interests?

7. Conduct a brief classroom observation and identify non-academic skills demonstrated by

students. Provide examples of social, emotional, and behavioral competencies observed.

8. Brainstorm creative ways teachers can use question banks beyond traditional examinations,
such as in classroom activities, formative assessments, or as a resource for personalized
learning.

9. Develop a comparative analysis between direct grading and indirect grading. Highlight the
advantages and disadvantages of each method. Provide scenarios where each grading method
might be more suitable.

10. Reflect on the future trends and advancements in computer-based evaluation. Discuss
emerging technologies and their potential influence on assessment methods.

FURTHER READINGS
Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208
Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education
Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810
Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030
Kochhar S.K. (1984). Guidance and Counseling in Colleges and Universities.

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UNIT -20

USE OF COMPUTER IN EVALUATION

STRUCTURE

• Learning Objectives
• Introduction
• New Trends of Evaluation
• Grading
• Summary
• Unit End Exercise
• Suggestion for Further Reading

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, learners shall be able to;

• Define the new trends of evaluation system.
• Explain the Grading system and semester system
• Elaborate the continuous internal assessment and use of question bank
• Elaborate the use of computers in evaluation
INTRODUCTION

The integration of computers and information technology in educational assessment has

transformed traditional evaluation practices. Computers have significantly enhanced the
efficiency, accuracy, and accessibility of evaluation systems, providing both educators and
students with powerful tools for assessment, feedback, and learning. The use of computers in
evaluation spans multiple dimensions—from test administration and grading to data analysis
and personalized feedback.

Use of Computer in evaluation

In recent years, the incorporation of computers into educational practices has become
increasingly prevalent. One of the areas witnessing significant change in the evaluation
process is use of computers. Traditional methods of assessment are giving way to more
dynamic, flexible, and efficient computer-based evaluation strategies. The computers can be
used in diverse ways from planning to publication of results in the education system.

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Traditionally, teachers write the draft questions many times before finalization manually. But
now computers can be utilized to draft questions, saved, retrieved, and edited as and when
required. That means the computer has made the task of preparing questions easy. Computers
can be useful for administering the test items on students through online testing at same time
across countries and school boards. Now the publication of results and communication of
examination results becomes very easy due to computer software and mailing services.

1. Online Assessments-The advent of online assessments has revolutionized the way

educators evaluate students. With the capacity to create and administer quizzes and exams
digitally, the geographical and temporal constraints of traditional evaluations are dismantled.
Educators can leverage various question formats, including multiple-choice, true/false, and
fill-in-the-blank, while automated grading systems streamline the evaluation process,
providing prompt feedback to both educators and students.

2. Interactive Learning Platforms-Learning Management Systems (LMS) have become the

cornerstone of modern education. Platforms such as Moodle, Canvas, and Blackboard offer a
plethora of tools for designing, delivering, and evaluating assignments. The interactive nature
of these platforms facilitates collaborative learning, allowing students to engage in
discussions, submit assignments, and receive feedback in a digital environment.

3. Simulations and Virtual Labs- Practical assessments are integral to evaluating hands-on
skills and real-world application of knowledge. Simulations and virtual labs provide a risk-
free yet immersive environment for students to apply theoretical concepts. Educators can
assess problem-solving abilities, critical thinking skills, and the practical application of
knowledge in fields ranging from science and engineering to healthcare.

4. E-Portfolios-The traditional portfolio has undergone a digital transformation with the

advent of e-portfolios. These digital showcases allow students to compile a comprehensive
collection of their work, projects, and achievements. E-portfolios provide educators with a
holistic view of a student's progress, emphasizing not only the final outcomes but also the
learning process, growth, and reflective insights.

5. Automated Writing Evaluation- The emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) in

education has extended to the evaluation of written assignments. Automated writing
evaluation tools, powered by Natural Language Processing (NLP), analyze written content

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for grammar, style, and content. This not only expedites the grading process but also provides
students with instant, personalized feedback to support their learning journey.

6. Adaptive Learning Platforms- Addressing the diverse learning needs of students,

adaptive learning platforms personalize assessments based on individual performance. These
platforms dynamically adjust the difficulty level of questions to match each student's
proficiency, ensuring a customized learning experience. The data generated from adaptive
systems further contribute to informed decision-making for educators.

7.Remote Proctoring- Maintaining the integrity of online assessments is a paramount

concern. Remote proctoring tools address this challenge by monitoring students during
exams. These tools utilize webcam and microphone technology to ensure a secure testing
environment, mitigating the risk of academic dishonesty and upholding the credibility of
evaluation outcomes.

8. Data Analytics and Learning Analytics: The use of data analytics plays a pivotal role in
shaping educational strategies. Data analytics enable educators to analyze trends in student
performance, identifying areas of strength and weakness. Learning analytics, on the other
hand, dig into how students interact with educational content, offering insights that can
inform instructional design and interventions.

9. Applications for assessment: Many computer and mobile applications have been
developed by the educationist and computer scientist during the Covid-19 for conducting
assessment. The applications such as Google form, Google classroom, Multimeter, Kahoot
etc. can be used for testing students in offline and online classes. The beauty of these
applications is that students get immediate feedback about their results and teachers can do
very quick result analysis and identification of students who need improvement.

10. Rubrics for assessment: The computer not only helps in writing and administering the
test items but also helps in systematic evaluation of answer scripts and projects/ assignments.
Rubrics is a set of criteria or guidelines to be used for evaluating the student's product such as
essay, project, and assignments. The online and free rubric like Rubi star is very helpful for
teachers for developing rubrics which can be useful for evaluation of students' answers.

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Key Areas of Computer Use in Evaluation

1. Automated Testing and Exam Administration

• Online Quizzes and Exams: Computers enable the creation, distribution, and
administration of online quizzes and exams. Students can take assessments remotely,
which makes testing more flexible and accessible. These online tests can include
multiple-choice questions (MCQs), short-answer questions, true/false questions, and
even essay-style responses.

• Randomization of Questions: Computerized assessment systems can randomize the

order of questions and answers, ensuring that each student receives a unique version
of the test. This helps reduce cheating and ensures fairness.

• Timed Assessments: Computers can track time during assessments, automatically

ending the exam when the allotted time expires. This reduces human error and ensures
that all students are given equal testing time.

2. Automated Grading and Feedback

• Instant Grading: One of the most significant advantages of using computers in

evaluation is automated grading. Systems can quickly grade objective-based
questions (e.g., MCQs, true/false, matching) without any human intervention. This
provides immediate results to students and teachers.

• Error-Free Grading: Computerized grading eliminates the risk of human error in

scoring, ensuring accuracy and consistency. This is especially important in large
classes or for standardized testing.

• Detailed Feedback: Some computer systems are designed to provide instant

feedback to students after they complete an assessment. This feedback can include
explanations for correct and incorrect answers, offering students an opportunity to
learn from their mistakes immediately.

3. Data Collection and Analysis

• Performance Tracking: Computers can collect and store data on students'

performance over time. Teachers can use this data to identify trends in student

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learning, track individual progress, and monitor class-wide performance. This

information helps in making informed decisions about future teaching strategies.

• Learning Analytics: Advanced software can analyze patterns in student responses,

engagement, and behavior to predict learning outcomes. Learning analytics tools can
generate reports that highlight areas where students are excelling or struggling,
allowing for targeted interventions.

• Statistical Analysis: Computers facilitate statistical analysis of student performance,

enabling the creation of sophisticated evaluation metrics such as grade distributions,
correlation between question difficulty and student performance, and analysis of bias
in assessments.

4. Personalized Learning and Adaptive Assessments

• Adaptive Testing: Adaptive assessments adjust the difficulty of questions based on

the student’s performance. If a student answers a question correctly, the system
presents a more challenging question next. If a student answers incorrectly, the system
may provide an easier question. This approach helps evaluate the student’s actual
level of competence and provides a more personalized assessment experience.

• Tailored Feedback: Computers can generate personalized feedback based on a

student's performance. For example, if a student struggles with a particular topic, the
system can suggest resources, exercises, or remedial lessons to help them improve.

5. Computer-Based Simulation and Practical Assessments

• Virtual Labs and Simulations: In fields like science, engineering, medicine, and
economics, computers enable the creation of virtual simulations where students can
demonstrate their practical skills without the need for physical labs. These computer-
based assessments allow students to engage in hands-on learning in a controlled,
virtual environment.

• Simulated Scenarios: For subjects like medicine, law, or business, simulations of

real-world scenarios (e.g., diagnosing patients, legal case simulations, or business
management exercises) can be used to assess decision-making, problem-solving, and
practical application of knowledge.

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6. Online Portfolios and E-assessment Tools

• E-portfolios: Computers facilitate the creation of electronic portfolios where

students can submit and store evidence of their learning, such as essays, projects,
presentations, and videos. These portfolios can be assessed regularly, providing a
more holistic view of a student’s progress over time.

• E-assessment Tools: Many educational platforms now provide comprehensive tools

for conducting assessments. These systems offer features such as question banks,
automated grading, progress tracking, and real-time data analytics, all of which
streamline the evaluation process.

7. Support for Multiple Learning Styles

• Multimedia Assessments: Computers allow educators to incorporate a variety of

media (such as videos, images, sound clips, and interactive elements) into
assessments, catering to different learning styles. For example, visual learners might
benefit from assessments that include diagrams or infographics, while auditory
learners could benefit from audio-based questions.

• Interactive Assessment Formats: Interactive quizzes and gamified assessments can

engage students more effectively. For example, interactive drag-and-drop questions or
simulation-based assessments can be used to test knowledge in a more engaging way.

Merits of Computer for Assessment

● It reduces the time and effort required for evaluation, allowing educators to focus on
providing meaningful feedback and adapting instructional strategies.
● Computer-based evaluations provide flexibility in terms of timing and location.
Students can access assessments remotely, accommodating diverse learning styles and
schedules.
● It offers instant feedback to students, enabling them to quickly identify and rectify
errors. This immediate feedback promotes a continuous learning process and timely
intervention when needed.

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● Adaptive learning platforms tailor assessments to individual student proficiency

levels, providing a personalized learning experience. This approach caters to diverse
learning needs and supports students in reaching their full potential.
● Computers enable the use of multimedia elements in assessments, such as video
submissions and interactive simulations. This allows for a more comprehensive
evaluation of students' skills and abilities beyond traditional written tests.
● Over time, the use of computer-based evaluations can be cost-effective, especially
when considering the reduction in paper, printing, and manual grading expenses. It
also eliminates the need for physical storage space for documents.

Demerits of Computers for Assessment

● Unequal access to technology can create disparities in students' ability to participate

in computer-based assessments.
● The initial costs associated with implementing computer-based evaluation systems,
including software, training, and infrastructure, can be substantial. Educational
institutions may face budget constraints in adopting such technologies.
● Educators may require time and training to adapt to new evaluation technologies. The
learning curve for mastering assessment tools and platforms can initially impact
efficiency.
● Ensuring standardized evaluation across diverse settings and institutions can be
challenging.
● Computer-based evaluations may lack the personal touch and nuanced understanding
that educators can provide through face-to-face interactions.
● While automated grading systems are efficient, they may not capture the complexity
of certain subjective assessments, such as essays or projects.
● The use of data analytics raises ethical concerns regarding student privacy. Protecting
confidential information and guaranteeing compliance with data protection laws is an
essential aspect to consider

Challenges of Using Computers in Evaluation

1. Technical Issues and Accessibility:

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o Not all students have access to computers, the internet, or the necessary digital
literacy skills. This digital divide can create inequities, especially in lower-
income or rural areas.

o System Downtime: Technical failures, such as server crashes or software

glitches, can disrupt the exam-taking process, potentially leading to unfair or
incomplete evaluations.

2. Security and Integrity:

o Online assessments are vulnerable to cheating, especially in cases where

students have access to the internet during assessments. Educators must
implement security measures like proctoring software, randomized question
banks, and browser lockdowns to ensure the integrity of the exam.

o Plagiarism: Students may copy content from the internet or other sources,
particularly in assignments and essays, making it harder to evaluate their
original thinking.

3. Over-Reliance on Automated Grading:

o While computers excel at grading objective questions, they may struggle with
more complex assessments, such as essays or long-answer questions. Some
systems attempt to grade these using artificial intelligence, but this technology
is still not perfect and may fail to appreciate nuances in student responses.

4. Data Privacy and Security:

o Storing large amounts of student data online raises concerns about data
privacy and security. Institutions need to ensure that the data is protected from
unauthorized access and that students' personal information is handled
securely.

5. Lack of Human Judgment:

o While automated systems are effective for grading objective questions, they
cannot replicate the nuanced judgment of human evaluators. Some
assessments, such as group work, presentations, or essays, require a more

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holistic evaluation that combines subject knowledge with critical thinking,

creativity, and communication skills.

SUMMARY
The use of computers in evaluation offers numerous advantages, including efficiency,
scalability, and accessibility. It enables the automation of many aspects of assessment, such
as test creation, grading, and feedback, which improves the overall learning experience for
students and reduces administrative burdens for educators. However, there are challenges
related to technical issues, security, and data privacy that need to be addressed. When
implemented thoughtfully, computer-based evaluation can enhance the quality, fairness, and
reach of educational assessments, making it an essential tool in modern education.

UNIT END EXERCISE

1. Differentiate between Teacher-made Achievement Test and Standardized Achievement
Test.

2. A child of 13 years scores 88 in an IQ test. Calculate his mental age.

3. Create a test paper with a mix of questions covering different aptitude areas.

4. Compare Thurstone scale and Likert scale, highlighting the differences in their methods
and applications for measuring social attitudes.

5. Provide details about some other interest inventories including its name, purpose, target
audience, and any unique features it offers for assessing interests?

7. Conduct a brief classroom observation and identify non-academic skills demonstrated by

students. Provide examples of social, emotional, and behavioral competencies observed.

8. Brainstorm creative ways teachers can use question banks beyond traditional examinations,
such as in classroom activities, formative assessments, or as a resource for personalized
learning.

9. Develop a comparative analysis between direct grading and indirect grading. Highlight the
advantages and disadvantages of each method. Provide scenarios where each grading method
might be more suitable.

10. Reflect on the future trends and advancements in computer-based evaluation. Discuss
emerging technologies and their potential influence on assessment methods.

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FURTHER READINGS
Gronlund, N. E. (1965). Measurement and evaluation in teaching.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA12623208
Goswami, M. (2013). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education
Lee, W. Y. (2010). Assessment and evaluation in higher education.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB11596810
Patel, R. N. (2014). Educational evaluation theory and practice.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA29677030
Kochhar S.K. (1984). Guidance and Counseling in Colleges and Universities.

[200]