JAHEZIAH Preparation

Crush Course
GKU4: Modern Physics (Relativity and Quantum Theory)
SKU4.1: Special Relativity

Topics:
1. Galilean transformations
• Galilean transformations are a set of equations used to relate the
coordinates and time of events as observed in two different inertial reference
frames (non-accelerating).
• Galilean transformations assume that time is absolute (the same for all
observers) and that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames.
• Galilean transformations are valid when the relative velocity of the two
frames is much less than the speed of light.
.
2. Postulates of special relativity.
• Special relativity is based on Einstein’s two postulates. (1) The laws of
physics are the same in all inertial frames. (2) The speed of light c is the
same in all inertial frames (3x108 m\s), independent of the relative motion of
the observer and the light source.
• Special relativity gives close agreement with the predictions of classical
(Galilean) relativity in the limit of low velocity.
• These postulates lead to profound implications, such as time dilation, length
contraction, and the equivalence of mass and energy (E=mc2)

3. Lorentz transformations.

• Lorentz transformations are mathematical equations used in special relativity

to describe how measurements of time and space change between two
observers moving relative to each other at a constant speed.
𝟏
• Lorentz factor 𝜸 is 𝜸= 𝟐
where v denotes the velocity of the particle.
√𝟏−𝐯𝟐
𝐜

4. Time dilation and length contraction.

• Time dilation is the lengthening of the time interval between two events when
seen in a moving inertial frame rather than the rest frame, so time appear
slows down for a moving observer.
∆𝒕𝒐
• Time dilation function: ∆𝒕 = 𝟐
√𝟏−𝒗𝟐
𝒄
• Length contraction means that moving objects appear shorter along the
direction of motion.
𝒗𝟐
• Length contraction function: 𝑳 = 𝑳𝒐 √𝟏 − 𝒄𝟐
 • Time dilation and length contraction appear only when the particle travels at
much high-speed v.
• In relativistic mechanics the distance between two points and the time
interval between two events are relative (depend on the frame of reference in
which they are measured).

5. Energy-mass relation.
• The energy-mass relation, expressed by Einstein's famous equation E0=mc2,
states that energy (E) and mass (m) are interchangeable; they are different
forms of the same thing.
• The relativistic kinetic energy 𝜥 = 𝜸𝒎𝒄𝟐 − 𝒎𝒄𝟐
• The total energy of a particle with mass m traveling at speed v is defined
𝟏
as E=γmc2 , where 𝜸 = 𝟐
√𝟏−𝐯𝟐
𝐜

6. Momentum and total energy.

𝒎𝒖
• The relativistic linear momentum 𝑷 = 𝟐
√𝟏−𝒗𝟐
𝒄
• The equation E2=(pc)2+(mc2)2 relates the relativistic total energy E and
the relativistic momentum p.
• At extremely high velocities, the rest energy mc2 becomes negligible,
and E=pc.

Learning outcomes:
1. Define the border between classical and modern physics and the need to
introduce the Special Theory of Relativity.
Example:
• What is the primary distinction between classical physics and modern physics?
A. Classical physics deals with phenomena at low velocities, while modern
physics addresses quantum and relativistic effects.
B. Classical physics focuses on theoretical models, and modern physics
emphasizes experimental results.
C. Classical physics is limited to solid-state physics, whereas modern physics
includes fluid dynamics.
D. Classical physics explains gravity, while modern physics does not.

Answer: Classical physics deals with phenomena at low velocities, while modern
physics addresses quantum and relativistic effects.
 • What fundamental assumption does the Special Theory of Relativity rely on?
A. The speed of light is constant in all inertial frames of reference.
B. Time is absolute and the same in all frames of reference.
C. The mass of an object remains constant regardless of its velocity.
D. Gravity acts instantaneously across distances.
Answer: The speed of light is constant in all inertial frames of reference.

2. Explain the concept of frame of reference and the application of Galilean

transformation .
Example:
• What is the key difference between an inertial and a non-inertial frame of
reference?
a) Inertial frames are stationary; non-inertial frames move
b) Non-inertial frames have fictitious forces; inertial frames do not
c) Non-inertial frames are used only for rotational motion
d) Inertial frames exist only in space
Answer: Non-inertial frames have fictitious forces; inertial frames do not.

• The Galilean transformation is valid for:

a) Low-speed motion compared to the speed of light
b) High-speed motion close to the speed of light
c) Rotational motion only
d) Quantum mechanical systems
Answer: Low-speed motion compared to the speed of light.

3. Recall Einstein’s postulates.

Example:
• According to Einstein's second postulate, what is true about the speed of light?
A. It changes depending on the observer's motion.
B. It remains constant regardless of the motion of the source or observer.
C. It is faster in some inertial frames than others.
D. It is only constant when the observer is stationary.
Answer: It remains constant regardless of the motion of the source or observer.

• Einstein’s postulates apply to which type of reference frames?

A. Only accelerated frames of reference.
B. Non-inertial reference frames.
C. Inertial reference frames only.
D. All possible reference frames.
Answer: Inertial reference frames only.
4. Relate space and time coordinates of two frames by applying Lorentz
transformation .
Example:
• What is the purpose of the Lorentz transformation in the theory of relativity?
A) To relate electric and magnetic fields
B) To relate the coordinates of events in two inertial reference frames moving
relative to each other
C) To describe gravitational effects on spacetime
D) To calculate the energy of a particle
Answer: To relate the coordinates of events in two inertial reference frames moving
relative to each other.

• Which of the following is a key assumption of the Lorentz transformation?

A) Time is absolute and the same for all observers.
B) The speed of light is constant in all inertial reference frames.
C) Space and time are separate and independent quantities.
D) Acceleration between frames must remain constant.
Answer: The speed of light is constant in all inertial reference frames.

5. Distinguish relativistic forms of kinetic energy, total energy, rest energy and
momentum .
Example:
• What is the formula for the relativistic total energy of a particle?
A) E = mc2
B) E = γmc2
C) E = pc2 + m2c4
D) E = 1\2 mv2
Answer: E = γmc2

• As a particle approaches the speed of light (v→ c) :

A. Its rest energy becomes infinite.
B. Its total energy remains constant.
C. Its momentum and kinetic energy increase without bound.
D. Its rest mass increases to infinity.
Answer: Its momentum and kinetic energy increase without bound.
(When the velocity of a particle approaches the speed of light its P and KE approaches
infinity).
6. Describe the mass-energy concept as one physical quantity.
Example:
• The mass-energy concept is best described by which of the following equations?
A) F= ma
B) E=mc2
C) p=mv
D) V=IR
Answer: E=mc2

• If a particle has a rest mass of zero, what can be said about its energy?
a) It has zero energy
b) It cannot exist
c) It must always move at the speed of light and its energy is determined by its
momentum
d) Its energy is infinite
Answer: It must always move at the speed of light and its energy is determined by
its momentum

7. Solve problems in kinematics and dynamics at relativistic velocities.

Example:
• If a certain amount of mass is converted entirely into energy, how much energy
would be produced from 1 kilogram of mass? (Use c = 3×108 m\s)
a) 9×1016 J
b) 3×108 J
c) 1.5×108 J
d) 9×108 J
Answer: E= 9×1016 J
(Hint: Use E=mc2)

• What is the speed of a particle whose kinetic energy is equal to its rest
energy?
a) 1.4 c
b) 0.87 c
c) C
d) 3x103
Answer: v= 0.87 c
(Hint: - Use relativistic kinetic energy equation,
- Substitute the kinetic energy with the rest energy equation since it is equal to it
as given.
𝟏
- Calculate the particle’s speed from Lorentz factor 𝜸 = 𝟐
)
√𝟏−𝐯𝟐
𝐜
 • If the speed of a particle is 0.8c, what is its Lorentz factor (γ) ?
a) 1.25
b) 1.67
c) 2.00
d) 3.99
Answer: 1.67
𝟏
(Hint: Use 𝜸 equation : 𝜸 = 𝟐
)
√𝟏−𝐯 𝟐
𝐜

GKU4: Modern Physics (Relativity and Quantum Theory)

SKU4.2: Nature of Waves and Particles

Topics:
1. Black body radiation.
• A black body is a perfect absorber and emitter of radiation.
• The classical approach does not explain the blackbody radiation curve.
• Planck assumed that the exchange of energy between radiation and cavity walls takes
place only in discrete quanta of energy.
• All bodies radiate energy. The amount of radiation a body emits depends on its
temperature.
• The peak intensity shifts to shorter wavelengths as temperature increases
(𝝀𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑻 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕.).
• The total energy (I) emitted is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature
(𝑰𝑻 = 𝝈𝑻𝟒 ).
2. Photoelectric effect.
• The photoelectric effect is the phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from the
surface of a metal, when it is exposed to light of sufficient energy.
• Threshold Frequency fc: Light must have a frequency f above a certain threshold (of the
metal fc) for the effect to occur.
• Emission of Electrons: If the photon's energy E exceeds the material's work function φ
(the minimum energy required to release an electron), electrons are emitted.
• photoelectric effect equation: eVs = Kmax = hf − φ

3. X-ray radiation.
• X-rays have short wavelengths (0.01–10 nanometers) and high energy,
• X-rays are ionizing radiation.
• X-rays can be absorbed through materials with various value depending on the material's
density and atomic number.
 • X-rays are used to analyze atomic structures through diffraction patterns.
• X-rays are generated when high-energy electrons collide with a metal target.

4. Compton effect.
• Compton Effect refers to the scattering of X-rays or gamma rays when they interact with
matter (electrons).
• When high-energy photons collide with electrons, some of the photon's energy is
transferred to the electron, causing it to move (recoil) while the photon is scattered at a
lower energy (longer wavelength).
• Compton Effect demonstrates the particle-like behavior of light.
𝐡
• Compton equation: Δλ = 𝐦 𝐜 (1 − cos θ) ( where θ is scattering angle of the photon).
𝐞

5. Photon energy.
• The energy of the light is carried by photons.
• Each photon must have energy E=hf = hc\λ

6. De Broglie wavelength.
• The De Broglie wavelength describes the wave-like behavior of particles.
• Every particle with momentum has an associated wavelength ( λde = h\p).
• The effect is noticeable only for tiny particles, like electrons.
• Wave-Particle Duality: Electrons are particles but also have a wavelength, the
wavelength of an electron is given by the de Broglie.
• When a beam of electrons passes through a crystal lattice, it produces an interference
pattern, leading to a pattern of bright and dark spots.
• This diffraction occurs if λde is on the order of the lattice spacing.

7. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

𝟏
• Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: ∆𝒙 ∆𝒑𝒙 ≥ 𝟐 ℏ (where Δx is the uncertainty in
position, Δp is the uncertainty in momentum).
• The more precisely one of these properties is measured, the less precisely the other can
be known.
• Uncertainty Principle is noticeable only for tiny particles so it could not notice in our
daily life.

Learning outcomes:
1. Discuss the failure of the wave theory to explain the photoelectric effect and
blackbody radiation leading to the birth of quantum theory .
Example:
• Which observation regarding the photoelectric effect contradicted the wave
theory of light?
 a) The emission of electrons is dependent on the intensity of light.
b) Electrons are emitted only when the frequency of light is above a certain
threshold.
c) The number of electrons emitted increases with the frequency of light.
d) Electrons are emitted even in the absence of light.
Answer: Electrons are emitted only when the frequency of light is above a certain
threshold.

• Why did the classical wave theory fail to explain blackbody radiation?
a) It predicted the energy of radiation would increase without limit at low
frequencies.
b) It predicted the energy of radiation would decrease without limit at high
frequencies.
c) It predicted the energy of radiation would be equal across all frequencies.
d) It predicted the energy of radiation would increase without limit at high
frequencies.
Answer: It predicted the energy of radiation would increase without limit at high
frequencies.

2. Describe the concept of quantization of energy and photons .

Example:
• What is the primary idea behind the quantization of energy?
a) Energy is continuous and can take any value.
b) Energy is divided into small, discrete packets called quanta.
c) Energy is only present in waveforms.
d) Energy can only be created, not destroyed.
Answer: Energy is divided into small, discrete packets called quanta.
• A photon is best described as:
a) A particle of mass.
b) A wave of continuous energy.
c) A discrete packet of electromagnetic energy.
d) A particle with infinite energy.
Answer: A discrete packet of electromagnetic energy.

3. Justify the wave-particle duality based on the interpretation of scientific

experiments .
Example:
1. Which scientific experiment provided the first evidence of the wave nature of
light?
A) Double-slit experiment by Thomas Young
B) Photoelectric effect by Albert Einstein
C) Rutherford's gold foil experiment
D) Millikan's oil-drop experiment
Answer: Double-slit experiment by Thomas Young.

2. In the double-slit experiment with electrons, what pattern is observed on the

screen?
A) A random scatter of dots
B) A pattern of two bright spots corresponding to the slits
C) An interference pattern of alternating bright and dark fringes
D) A single bright spot at the center
Answer: An interference pattern of alternating bright and dark fringes.
(The double-slit experiment can be conducted with light to proof its wave nature, while it
conducted with a particle to proof its wave – like behavior)

3. Solve problems in quantum physics using the ideas of wave-particle duality and
the uncertainty principle.
Example:
• A photon has a wavelength of 500 nm. Calculate the momentum and the energy of
the photon.
A. P= 1.33x10-27 Js\m , E= 3.98x10-19 J
B. P= 1.33x10-34 Js\m , E= 3.98x10-21 J
C. P= 2.53x10-17 Js\m , E= 4.76x10-9 J
D. P= 2.38x10-15 Js\m , E= 2.48x10-19 J
Answer: P= 1.33x10-27 Js\m , E= 3.98x10-19 J
(Hint: To calculate momentum use P=h\λ , To calculate Energy, use E=pc or E=hc\ λ)

• What velocity would an electron need to have a de Broglie wavelength of 3 x 10-10

m?
A. 2.4x106 m\s
B. 68.3 x104 m\s
C. 87x10-3 m\s
D. 0.97 m\s
Answer: v= 2.4x106 m\s
(Hint: Use de Broglie wavelength equation λ=h\p and momentum equation p=mv)

• A ball of mass 50 g , has an uncertainty in its velocity about 0.01 m / s.

Find the error in its placement?
A. 2.11x10-31 m
 B. 23 m
C. 4.56x103 m
D. 1.90x10-2 m
Answer: ∆X= 2.11x10-31 m
(Hint: Use the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, notice that the uncertainty in
placement is so small for ordinary particle)

• In an electron microscope, what accelerating voltage is needed to produce electrons

with wavelength of 0.0600 nm ?
A. 418.85 volt
B. 0.97 volt
C. 26 volt
D. 5.2 x10-3 volt
Answer: V= 418.85 volt
Hints:
- Use the de Broglie wavelength formula: λ=hp to calculate momentum P.
- Use the equation P = (2meKE)1\2, where me=9.1×10−31 kg to calculate KE.
- Use the equation KE=eV, where e =1.6×10−19 C to calculate the Voltage.

GKU4: Modern Physics (Relativity and Quantum Theory)

SKU 4.3: Matter, Atomic, and Nuclear Structures

Topics:
1. Bohr theory:

Bohr theory modified the atomic structure model by explaining that electrons move in fixed orbitals
(shells) and not anywhere in between and he also explained that each orbit (shell) has a fixed energy.
Rutherford explained the nucleus of an atom and Bohr modified that model into electrons and their
energy levels.
Bohr’s model consists of a small nucleus (positively charged) surrounded by negative electrons moving
around the nucleus in orbits. Bohr found that an electron located away from the nucleus has more energy,
and the electron which is closer to nucleus has less energy.

a. Bohr’s Postulates

1. In an atom, electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the positively charged

nucleus in a definite circular path called orbits or shells.
2. Each orbit or shell has a fixed energy and these circular orbits are known as
orbital shells.
3. The energy levels are represented by an integer (n=1, 2, 3…) known as
the quantum number. This range of quantum number starts from nucleus side
 with n=1 having the lowest energy level. The orbits n=1, 2, 3, 4… are assigned as K, L,
M, N…. shells and when an electron attains the lowest energy level, it is said to be
in the ground state.
4. The electrons in an atom move from a lower energy level to a higher energy level
by gaining the required energy and an electron moves from a higher energy level
to lower energy level by losing energy

Explanation:
The quantum laws apply to jumps between different states characterized by discrete values of
angular momentum L.
The Angular momentum is given by:

L = mV r = n h / 2p = n
Where:
n = an integer: 1, 2, 3, …
h = Planck’s constant
The Planck-Einstein equation, E = hν holds for emission and absorption. If an electron makes a
transition between two states with energies E1 and E2, the frequency of the spectral line is given
by:
hν = E1 – E2
ν = frequency of the spectral line
E = energy of the allowed stationary state

In any transition Ei  E f

Electron frequency: Ei − E f
=
h

Concepts:
1- The energy and the orbitals radiuses are quantized.

The orbital angular momentum is :

L = mV r = n h / 2p = n

so
n
V=
mr
from Newton second Law:
e2
K = m ar (1)
r2
 V2
ar =
r

e2 V2
K 2 =m
r r
1 e2
K .E = 1 / 2mV 2 = K
2 r

Definition:
The energy is needed to move the charge for a distance r is the P.E

e2
K r = mar r
r2
K e2
P.E = −
r

1 K e2
E = P.E + K .E = -
2 r
n22

r = rn =
K m e2

At n=1,

First orbital radius in Hydrogen atom:

2
r1 =
K m e2
so

rn = n 2 r1

and the energy for hydrogen is :

1 K 2m e4 1
En = - . 2
2 2
n

Putting rn in total energy equation:

1 K e2
E=-
2 r
we found

1 K 2m e4 1
En = − . 2
2 2 n

The energy states in Hydrogen atom when n=1 is:

13.6
En = - eV
n2
 At n=1, E1 is the ground state energy level:

E1 = -13.6 eV

2.1 Spectral lines:

When electron falls from ni to nf

Then the emitted photon has the frequency:

Ei - E f
n=
h
Putting the energy in the electron frequency equation

1 2 p 2 K 2 m e4 æ 1 1ö
= çç 2 - 2 ÷÷
l h 3c è n f ni ø

2 p 2 K 2 m e4
R=
h3c
The energy absorbed or emitted from the process of an electron transition can be
calculated by the equation:

1 æ 1 1 ö
= Rçç 2 - 2 ÷÷
l è n f ni ø

ni and nf are the initial and final energy levels of the electron.

2 Atomic Quantum numbers

Concepts:
 According to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, it is not possible to give the exact
position of an electron and its energy at the same time.
 But the probability of finding an electron in an orbital of given energy can be
determined using many ways such as quantum numbers.

2.1 The main 4 Quantum Numbers:

a) Principal Quantum Number n:
An increase in n means increase in the energy of the electron in the orbital.
n= 1, 2, 3….
and its also control the size of the orbital
 maximum no. of orbitals = n2
 maximum no. of electrons = 2n2
 The size of the orbital rn = n 2 r1

B) Orbital Quantum Number L :

 also called Angular Momentum Number.
 defines the shape of the orbital.
 values range from 0 to n-1.
  l =0,1,2,3…..(n-2),(n-1)
 And it must be less than n
last l value must be equal to n - 1

c) Magnetic Quantum Number, ml

 describes the orientation of the orbital in space.
 values are. from –l to +l with zero if n is integer.
 values per sublevel = 2l +1.
 m =0,±1,±2,±3……..± l
l

d) Spin Quantum Number, ms

 spin of the electron
 values are :
+1/2 and -1/2
 clockwise and counterclockwise
 opposite spins (Pauli Exclusion Principle).

Learning outcomes:
1 .Derive Rydberg equation based on quantization of angular momentum
1. Example:
Find the red line wavelength in Hydrogen atom, R=1.0967758x10-3 A-1
Answer:

Red line is the line begins from ni =3t o nf=2, this line is the longest line in Balmer
series.

Using the Rydberg equation:

1 æ 1 1 ö
= Rçç 2 - 2 ÷÷
l è n f ni ø
𝜆 = 6563 𝐴0

2. Example:
Give the values of l, when n=3
Answer:
l=0,1,2

Topics:

3. Crystal Structure and Bragg's Law:

3. 1. What is a Crystal Structure?
A crystal structure describes the arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a crystalline solid.
These entities are organized in a repeating three-dimensional pattern called a lattice, which
gives the material its unique physical properties.

▪ Components of a Crystal Structure

• Unit Cell: The smallest repeating unit of the lattice that fully describes the crystal's
structure. It defines the symmetry and dimensions of the entire crystal.
• Lattice Points: Positions within the crystal where atoms, ions, or molecules are located.
• Lattice Parameters: These include the lengths of the edges of the unit cell (a,b,ca, b,
ca,b,c) and the angles between them (α,β,γ\alpha, \beta, \gammaα,β,γ).

▪ Types of Simple Crystal Structures

Some of the simplest and most common crystal structures are:

a) Simple Cubic (SC)

• Description: Atoms are located at the corners of a cube.

• Coordination Number: 6 (each atom is in contact with 6 neighboring atoms).
• Atoms per Unit Cell: 1 (8 corner atoms, each shared among 8 neighboring unit cells).
• Packing Efficiency: ~52% (low density).
• Example: Polonium.

b) Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)

• Description: Atoms are located at the corners of the cube and one atom is in the center.
• Coordination Number: 8.
• Atoms per Unit Cell: 2 (1 from the corners and 1 from the center).
• Packing Efficiency: ~68% (moderate density).
• Example: Iron, tungsten.

c) Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)

• Description: Atoms are located at the corners and the centers of each face of the cube.
• Coordination Number: 12.
• Atoms per Unit Cell: 4 (8 from the corners, 6 from the faces).
• Packing Efficiency: ~74% (high density, maximum efficiency for spheres).
• Example: Aluminum, copper, gold.

d) Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)

• Description: Atoms are arranged in a hexagonal lattice with alternating layers of atoms.
• Coordination Number: 12.
• Atoms per Unit Cell: 6.
• Packing Efficiency: ~74% (like FCC).
• Example: Magnesium, titanium.
 ▪ Crystal Systems

Crystals are classified into seven crystal systems based on unit cell parameters and symmetry:

1. Cubic (e.g., SC, BCC, FCC)

2. Tetragonal
3. Orthorhombic
4. Hexagonal
5. Trigonal
6. Monoclinic
7. Triclinic

▪ Importance of Crystal Structures

• Material Properties: Crystal structures influence the physical, mechanical, thermal, and
electrical properties of materials. For instance, metals with FCC structures (like gold and
aluminum) are more ductile than those with BCC structures (like tungsten).
• Applications: Understanding crystal structures is essential for materials science, solid-
state physics, and engineering applications like designing semiconductors, alloys, and
ceramics.

3.2 Bragg's Law and Its Application to Crystalline Materials

Bragg's Law describes the condition for constructive interference of X-rays scattered by the
atoms in a crystal lattice. It is fundamental to understanding how X-rays interact with crystalline
materials and is the basis for X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques used to study crystal
structures.

The mathematical form of Bragg's Law is:

nλ=2dsin θ

where:

• n = integer (order of diffraction),

• λ = wavelength of the incident X-rays,
• d = interplanar spacing between crystal planes,
• θ = angle of incidence (Bragg angle).

➢ Derivation of Bragg's Law

Bragg's Law is derived by considering the interference of X-rays reflected from two parallel
planes of atoms in a crystal lattice.

1. Incident X-rays: When X-rays are incident on a crystalline material, they scatter off the
atomic planes within the crystal.
 2. Path difference: The difference in path length between rays reflected from adjacent
planes is 2dsin θ, where d is the spacing between the planes, and θ is the angle of
incidence.
3. Constructive interference: For the reflected X-rays to interfere constructively
(reinforce each other), the path difference must be an integer multiple of the wavelength
nλ=2dsin θ

➢ 3.3 Application of Bragg's Law

Bragg's Law is widely used in the study of crystalline materials, particularly in X-ray
diffraction (XRD), which is a powerful tool for determining crystal structure.

• Determining Interplanar Spacing (d):

Given the wavelength (λ) and the Bragg angle (θ), the interplanar spacing (d) can be
calculated.
• Identifying Crystal Structures:
By measuring diffraction angles (θ) for various crystal planes, the arrangement of atoms
in the crystal and the lattice parameters can be determined.
• Material Characterization:
Bragg's Law is used to identify unknown materials, study defects in crystals, and
analyze the size and shape of crystalline domains.

➢ Conditions for X-ray Diffraction

• The crystal must have a periodic arrangement of atoms (a regular lattice).

• The wavelength of the X-rays must be comparable to the spacing between atomic planes
(typically 0.1–10 nm).
• The angle of incidence (θ) must satisfy Bragg's condition for constructive interference.

➢ 3.5 Applications of Bragg's Law

• X-ray Crystallography: Used to determine the atomic structure of complex molecules,

such as proteins and DNA.
• Material Science: Characterizes phases, defects, and crystallite sizes in materials.
• Mineralogy and Geology: Identifies minerals and analyzes their crystalline properties.
• Solid-State Physics: Studies the arrangement of atoms in solids, including
semiconductors and metals.

4. Nuclear structure:

Definition: The nuclear structure refers to the arrangement and behaviour of protons and
neutrons (collectively called nucleons) within an atomic nucleus.
Nucleus Components:
Protons: Positively charged particles.
Neutrons: Neutral particles that contribute to nuclear stability.
Nuclear Force:
The nuclear force, also known as the strong nuclear force, is responsible for binding protons and
neutrons (nucleons) in the nucleus.
Nuclear Force Characteristics:
1. Short-Range Force: The nuclear force is effective only at very short distances, typically
less than 2-3 femto-meters (fm). Beyond this range, its strength diminishes rapidly.
2. Strongest Force in Nature: It is significantly stronger than electromagnetic, gravitational,
and weak nuclear forces. Its magnitude is about  times stronger than gravity and much
stronger than the repulsive electromagnetic force between protons.
3. Charge Independence: The nuclear force is almost the same between proton-proton,
neutron-neutron, and proton-neutron interactions. It depends only on the distance
between the nucleons and not on their charges.
4. Attractive at Moderate Distances: The nuclear force is strongly attractive at distances of
about 0.8–2.5 fermi, which helps hold the nucleus together.
5. Repulsive at Very Short Distances: At distances less than about 0.5 fm, the nuclear force
becomes repulsive. This prevents nucleons from collapsing into each other.
6. Spin Dependence: The nuclear force depends on the spin orientation of the nucleons.
Parallel or anti-parallel spins can affect the strength of the force.
7. Saturation Property: Each nucleon interacts only with a limited number of neighbouring
nucleons, regardless of the size of the nucleus. This saturation property explains why the
binding energy per nucleon is nearly constant for larger nuclei.
8. Non-Central Force (Tensor Force): The nuclear force is partly a tensor force, meaning it
has components that depend on the relative orientation of nucleon spins and positions.
This property is essential for understanding deuteron structure and nuclear spin states.

5. Ionizing Radiation
Definition: Ionizing radiation is high-energy radiation capable of removing tightly bound
electrons from atoms, creating ions. This process is important in studying Radiation Detection
or Radiation Shielding, where the ionizing radiation process, deposit all its energy. To
understand the Ionizing process, we should study:
Interaction of Radiation with matter
The interaction of radiation with matter involves various processes by which radiation transfers
energy to the material it passes through. The type of interaction depends on the nature of the
radiation (e.g., alpha, beta, gamma, neutrons) and the properties of the material.
1. Alpha Particles (α)
Nature: Helium nuclei (2 protons and 2 neutrons) positively charged.
Interaction Mechanism:
• Ionization and Excitation: Alpha particles transfer energy to electrons in the
material, ionizing atoms or exciting them to higher energy states.
• High Linear Energy Transfer (LET): Lose energy quickly in matter due to
strong interactions with electrons.
Range: Limited to a few centimetres in air and micrometres in solids/liquids.
2. Beta Particles (β− and β+)
Nature: Electrons (β−) or positrons (β+), negatively or positively charged.
Interaction Mechanism:
• Ionization and Excitation: Beta particles can eject electrons from atoms or raise
them to higher energy states.
• Bremsstrahlung Radiation: As high energy beta particles are deflected by
nuclei, they produce secondary X-rays.
• Positron Annihilation: Positrons interact with electrons, annihilating to produce
gamma rays.
Range: Longer than alpha particles but still relatively short, depending on energy.
3. Gamma Rays (γ\gammaγ) and X-rays
Nature: High-energy photons (electromagnetic radiation).
Interaction Mechanism:
• Photoelectric Effect: A gamma photon transfers all its energy to an inner shell
(K,L,or M) electron, ejecting it from the atom.
• Compton Scattering: A gamma photon transfers part of its energy to a free ( or
outer shell) electron, changing direction and energy.
• Pair Production: A gamma photon (with energy >1.022 MeV) creates an
electron-positron pair near a nucleus field.
Range: Deep penetration into matter; attenuation depends on material density and atomic
number.
Neutrons
Nature: Neutral particles, indirectly ionizing.
Interaction Mechanism:
• Elastic Scattering: Neutrons collide with nuclei, transferring energy to the
nucleus.
 • Inelastic Scattering: Neutrons excite a nucleus, which later emits gamma
radiation.
• Capture: Neutrons are absorbed by nuclei, leading to radioactive decay or
fission.
Range: Highly penetrating, requiring heavy shielding materials (e.g., water, concrete, or boron-
rich substances).
Definitions
Linear Energy Transfer (LET)
Definition: The rate at which radiation loses energy to the material per unit distance.
High LET: Alpha particles (dense ionization).
Low LET: Gamma rays and X-rays (sparse ionization).
Attenuation
Definition: Reduction in radiation intensity as it passes through matter.
Mechanisms: Absorption, scattering, or energy loss.
Half-Value Layer (HVL): Thickness of material needed to reduce radiation intensity by half.
Radiation Penetration and Shielding
• Alpha: Stopped by paper or skin.
• Beta: Stopped by plastic or a few millimetres of metal.
• Gamma/X-rays: Require dense materials like lead or concrete.
• Neutrons: Require materials rich in hydrogen (e.g., water, polyethylene).

6. Nuclear Decay
Definition: Nuclear decay is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses
energy by emitting radiation.
Types:
• Alpha Decay: Emission of an alpha particle, reducing atomic number by 2 and mass
number by 4.

Beta Decay:
β⁻ Decay: A neutron transforms into a proton, emitting an electron and a neutrino.
• Example:

β⁺ Decay: A proton transforms into a neutron, emitting a positron and neutrino.

 • Example:.

Gamma Decay: Emission of gamma rays as the nucleus transitions to a lower

energy state without changing the number of protons or neutrons.
• Example

Spontaneous Fission: Splitting of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei and neutrons.
• Example

Half-life: The time required for half of a radioactive sample to decay.

Applications: Carbon dating, medical imaging, and nuclear power generation.

Learning Outcomes:
3.Describe simple crystal strctures .

1. What is the smallest repeating unit in a crystal structure called?

A) Lattice point
B) Unit cell
C) Crystal lattice
D) Coordination number
Answer: B

2. In a simple cubic (SC) crystal structure, how many atoms are effectively
present in one unit cell?

A) 1
B) 2
C) 4
D) 8
Answer: A
3. What is the coordination number of an atom in a body-centered cubic (BCC)
structure?

A) 4
B) 6
C) 8
D) 12
Answer: C

4.Derive and apply Bragg law to crystalline materials

A. What is Bragg's Law?

A) nλ=dcosθ.

B) nλ=2dsinθ
C) λ=dsinθ\l
D) 2λ=ndcosθ
Answer: B

B. In Bragg's Law (nλ=2dsinθ )what does d represent?

A) The wavelength of X-rays

B) The distance between adjacent atoms
C) The distance between parallel crystal planes
D) The diffraction angle
Answer: C

5. Identify nuclear particles and decay processes.

Examples:

• Which of the following decay modes can change a neutron-rich isotope

into a more stable configuration?

A. Alpha decay
B. Beta-minus decay
C. Beta-plus decay
D. Gamma decay

Answer: B. Beta-minus decay

(Neutrons are converted into protons, emitting an electron and an antineutrino.)

• A radioactive isotope has an activity of 100 Bq and a half-life of 6

hours. What will the activity be after 18 hours?
A. 50 Bq
B. 25 Bq
C. 12.5 Bq
D. 6.25 Bq

Answer: C. 12.5 Bq
(After 18 hours, 3 half-lives have passed: 100→50→25→12.5 Bq

6. Calculate the nuclear reaction energy based on mass changing

If the binding energy per nucleon of 56Fe is 8.79 MeV, what is the approximate total
binding energy of the nucleus?

A. 492 MeV
B. 491 MeV
C. 486 MeV
D. 470 MeV

Answer: B. 491 MeV

(Using 8.79⋅56=491.04 MeV)

For the fission of 235U, if the combined mass of products is 0.20 u less than the initial mass,
what is the energy released?

A. 186.3 MeV
B. 200.0 MeV
C. 217.5 MeV
D. 100.5 MeV

Answer: A. 186.3 MeV

(Using ΔE=0.20⋅931.5=186.3 MeV)

4. What is the Q-value of the following reaction?

14
N+4He→17O+p

Given:

• Mass of 14N: 14.0031 u

• Mass of 4He: 4.0026 u
• Mass of 17O: 16.9991 u
• Mass of p: 1.0073 u

A. 1.95 MeV
B. 1.00 MeV
C. 2.22 MeV
D. 0.73 MeV

Answer: C. 2.22 MeV

(Using Δm =(14.0031+4.0026)−(16.9991+1.0073)=0.0013 u
 ΔE=0.0013⋅931.5=2.22MeV.)

(SKU4.4): Semiconductors

GKU4: Modern Physics (Relativity and Quantum Theory)

Topics:
2. Band structures and bandgap
The Atom
• The Bohr model has a central nucleus consisting of protons and neutrons orbited
by electrons at varying distances from the nucleus.
• An electron shell contains orbiting electrons at a certain energy level. Each shell
of a given atom is at a different energy level.
• A valence electron is one that is in the outer shell of an atom.
• A free electron is a valence electron that has broken free of its parent atom, so the
escaped valence electron is called a free electron.
• When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the valence
band within the crystal. This vacancy is called a hole.
• The process of losing an electron is called ionization.
• Energy increases as the distance from the nucleus increases.
Comparison of materials
• Insulators is a material that does not conduct electrical current under normal conditions.
Most insulators are compounds and have very high resistivities. Valence electrons are
tightly bound to the atoms. Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, and mica.
There is large energy gap.
• Conductors is a material that easily conducts electrical current. Most metals are good
conductors. The best conductors are single-element materials, such as (Cu), (Ag), (Au),
and (Al), which are characterized by atoms with only one valence electron very loosely
bound to the atom. There is an overlap between the valence band and conductivity, So
There is no forbidden gap in metals.
• Semiconductors is a material that is between conductors and insulators in its ability to
conduct electrical current. The single-element semiconductors are characterized by atoms
with four valence electrons. Silicon and Germanium are the most commonly used
semiconductor. Semiconductors have four valence electrons. There is low gap in energy
bands.
Materials Used in Electronics; Semiconductors:
• Semiconductors are crystalline materials that are characterized by specific energy
bands for electrons.
• Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of valence electrons with neighboring
atoms.
• Between the bands are gaps; these gaps represent energies that electrons cannot
have.
• The next to the last band is the valence band, which is the energy level
associated with electrons involved in bonding.
 • The last energy band is the conduction band, where electrons are mobile.
• An intrinsic material is one that is in a pure state.
• At a temperature of absolute 0 Kelvin (it's means, there is no external energy
such as heat.) the pure atom (intrinsic) silicon crystal it's be unexcited.
3. Free charge carriers:
• An intrinsic, is a pure semiconductor without any doped. The number of charge carriers
is therefore determined by of properties of material itself instead of the amount of
impurities.
• The electrons in the conduction band and the holes in the valence band are the charge
carriers.
• For every electron raised to the conduction band by external energy, there is one hole
left in the valence band, creating what is called an electron-hole pair.
• Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses energy and falls back
into a hole in the valence band.
• Conduction in semiconductors is considered to be either the movement of free electrons
(electron Current), in the conduction band, or the movement of holes in the valence band
(hole current) in the opposite direction.

4. Doping:
• Semiconductor materials do not conduct current well and are of limited value in their
intrinsic state.
• Intrinsic silicon or germanium must be modified by increasing the number of free
electrons or holes to increase its conductivity and make it useful in electronic devices.
• In semiconductor, the process which make by adding impurities to the intrinsic
material, called a doping
• a doping, increases the number of current carriers (electrons or holes).
• By adding certain impurities to pure (intrinsic) silicon, more holes or more electrons can
be produced within the crystal.
• To increase the number of conduction band electrons, pentavalent impurities are added
such as arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), and antimony (Sb), forming an n-type
semiconductor.
• To increase the number of holes, trivalent impurities are added such as boron (B),
indium (In), and gallium (Ga), forming a p-type semiconductor.

5. Electric transport
N-Type Semiconductor:
• Since most of the current carriers are electrons, silicon (or germanium) doped with
pentavalent atoms is an n-type semiconductor (the n stands for the negative charge on
an electron), Because the pentavalent atom gives up an electron, it is called a donor atom.
•The majority carriers in an n-type semiconductor are free electrons acquired by the
doping process, and the minority carriers are holes produced by thermally generated
electron-hole pairs.

P-Type Semiconductor:
• Since most of the current carriers are holes, silicon (or germanium) doped with trivalent
atoms is called a p-type semiconductor, Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it
is it is called an acceptor atom.
 •The majority carriers in a p-type semiconductor are holes acquired by the doping
process, and the minority carriers are free electrons produced by thermally generated
electron-hole pairs.

6. p-n junctions
When you take a block of silicon and dope part of it with a trivalent impurity and the other
part with a pentavalent impurity, a boundary called the P-N junction is formed between the
resulting p-type and n-type portions.
• The P-N junction is the basis for diodes, transistors, solar cells, and other devices.
• At the instant of the P-N junction formation, the free electrons near the junction in the n
region begin to diffuse across the junction into the p region where they combine with holes
near the junction, this creates a layer of positive charges near the junction.
• As the electrons move across the junction, the p region loses holes as the electrons and holes
combine, this creates a layer of negative charges near the junction.
• These two layers of positive and negative charges form the depletion region, So the
depletion region is formed by ionization.
•These opposite charges that build up on each side of the junction create a voltage, referred to
as the barrier voltage (Vo), An electric field is established in the depletion region.
•The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion region is the amount of
voltage required to move electrons through the electric field. This potential difference is called
the barrier potential and is expressed in volts.
• The barrier potential is typically 0.7 V for a silicon diode and 0.3 V for germanium.

Forward Bias: is the condition that allows current through the P-N junction.
• Notice that the negative side of VBIAS is connected to the n region of the diode and the
positive side is connected to the p region.
• VBIAS, must be greater than the barrier potential.
• Under the electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of positive ions is reduced.
• As more holes effectively flow into the depletion region, the number of negative ions is
reduced.
• This reduction in positive and negative ions during forward bias causes the depletion
region to narrow.
Reverse Bias: is the condition that essentially prevents current through the diode.
• Notice that the positive side of VBIAS is connected to the n region of the diode and the
negative side is connected to the p region.
• Note that the depletion region is shown much wider than in forward bias or equilibrium.

•In the n region, as the electrons flow toward the positive side of the voltage source, additional
positive ions are created. This results in a widening of the depletion region and a depletion of
majority carriers.
•In the p region, electrons from the negative side of the voltage source move from hole to hole
toward the depletion region where they create additional negative ions. This results in a
widening of the depletion region and a depletion of majority carriers.
•As more of the n and p regions become depleted of majority carriers, the electric field
between the positive and negative ions increases in strength until the potential across the
depletion region equals the bias voltage, VBIAS. At this point, the transition current
essentially stops.

• The V-I characteristic curve shows the diode current as a function of voltage across the
diode.
• A forward-biased diode is normally operated above the knee of the curve.
• At the reverse breakdown voltage, reverse current increases rapidly.
• A diode is operated in forward bias and reverse bias, but diode should never be operated
in reverse breakdown.

7. Applications

Rectifier:
• Rectifier are circuit that convert AC to DC.
• Rectifiers use the main property of diodes, which is to allow electric current to pass
through them in one direction and not to pass in the other.
• Rectifier circuits are divided into two types: half-wave rectifier circuits, and full-wave
rectifier circuits.
• The output frequency of a half-wave rectifier equals the input frequency.
• The output frequency of full-wave rectification twice the input frequency.
Special purpose diodes
The Zener Diode:
• The Zener diode operates in reverse breakdown.
• Zener diodes are used as voltage regulators.
• The key to Zener diode operation is that, when a diode reaches reverse
breakdown, its voltage remains almost constant even though the current
changes drastically.

The Varactor Diode:

• A varactor diode acts as a variable capacitor under reverse bias.
• The capacitance of a varactor varies inversely with reverse bias voltage.
• The depletion region acts as a capacitor dielectric because of its
nonconductive characteristic. The p and n regions are conductive and act
as the capacitor plates.
• Capacitance is determined by the parameters of plate area (A), dielectric
constant (𝜀), and plate separation (d), as expressed in the following
formula:
𝐴. 𝜀
𝐶=
𝑑
• he resonant frequency (𝑓𝑟 ) of the LC circuit is given by:
1
fr =
2π√LC

Figure: varactor diode in a tuned

circuit.

The Light-Emitting Diode (LED):

 • An LED emits light when forward biased.
• When the device is forward biased, electrons cross the P-N junction from
the n type material and recombine with holes in the p-type material.
• When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release energy
in the form of heat and light.
• Light-emitting diodes are made from; gallium, phosphorus and arsenic.

The Photodiode:
▪ The photodiode is a device that operates in reverse bias.
▪ The photodiode exhibits an increase in reverse current with light
intensity.
▪ Dark current is the reverse photodiode current when there is no light.

The Solar Cell:

• A solar cell is a semiconductor chip that converts photons of light falling on it from
direct sunlight into an electrical voltage that causes an electrical current to pass
through.
• Solar cell structure: The solar cell consists of a semiconductor material with two
sides, the upper layer is of the N-type and the lower layer is of the P-type. The upper
negative layer is covered with a layer of glass coated with a non-reflective material
(allows light to enter and does not allow it to exit so that it can provide the largest
amount of light falling on it and no part of it is reflected outward), and there is a
network of electrically conductive wires on top "cathode" and a conductive layer on
the bottom "anode".
• The solar cell is connected in reverse bias.

• To control the improvement of solar cell performance, there are variables

(parameters), the most important of which are:
1- Short Circuit Current 𝐼𝑆𝐶 :
• It is the current that flows in the circuit when rays fall on the cell when the voltage
applied to the cell is zero.
2- Open Circuit Voltage 𝑉𝑂𝐶 :
• It is the voltage difference when rays fall on the cell when the current passing through
the circuit is zero.
• Both the short circuit current 𝐼𝑆𝐶 and the open circuit voltage 𝑉𝑂𝐶 are related by the
following relationship:
1 𝐼
𝑉𝑂𝐶 = ( 𝑆𝐶 − 1)
𝐴 𝐼0

• Where: A=e.n.k.T, Io: reverse saturation current, n: modularity coefficient, k:

Boltzmann constant, T: absolute temperature.
3- Fill Factor FF:
• It is the ratio between the maximum power Pmax and the product of the closed circuit
current ISC and the open circuit voltage VOC, according to the following relationship:
(Note: The ideal value for the fill factor is 1)
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 . 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹𝐹 =
𝑉𝑂𝐶 . 𝐼𝑆𝐶
4- Efficiency:
• It is the ratio between the maximum power Pmax exiting the cell to the input power
Pin, according to the following relationship:
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜂=
𝑃𝑖𝑛
• Efficiency is related to the fill factor according to the relationship:

𝐹𝐹. (𝑉𝑂𝐶 . 𝐼𝑆𝐶 )

𝜂=
𝑃𝑖𝑛

Transistor family
 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT):

• The BJT (bipolar junction transistor) is constructed with three regions: emitter, base,
and collector.
• BJTs that use both electron and hole current.
• The base region is very thin and lightly doped compared to the collector and emitter
regions.
• The two types of bipolar junction transistors are the npn and the pnp.
• The emitter current (IE) is the sum of the collector current (IC) and the base current (IB),
expressed as follows: I E = IB + IC
• IB is very small compared to IC and IE.
• The dc current gain of a transistor is the ratio of IC to IB and is designated 𝛽DC. Values
typically range from less than 20 to several hundred.
• The ratio of IC to IE is called 𝛼DC. Values typically range from 0.95 to 0.99.
• The transistor can be connected in a circuit in the following three ways:
(i) common base connection: it has a voltage gain without a current gain.
(ii) common emitter connection: it has a gain in current and voltage.
(iii) common collector connection: it has a gain in the current without a gain
in the voltage.
• The BJT as an amplifier:
To operate as an amplifier, the base-emitter junction must be forward-biased and the
base-collector junction must be reverse-biased. This is called forward-reverse bias.
• The BJT as a Switch
1. A transistor switch operates in cutoff and saturation.
 2. In saturation: The collector current is maximum, VCE is minimum.
3. In cutoff: The collector current is zero IC=0, VCE =VCC
Field effect transistors:
There are two basic types of field effect transistors:
1. Junction field effect transistor (JFET)
2. Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET).

• Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET):

• A junction field effect transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device in which

current conduction is by one type of carrier: electrons or holes.
• a JFET has essentially three terminals: gate (G), source (S) and drain (D).
• The voltage between the gate and source VGS is reverse biased.
• In all JFETs, source current is equal to the drain current. IS = ID.
• VGS controls ID.
• Value of VDS at which ID becomes constant is the pinch-off voltage.
• Value of VGS at which ID becomes zero is the cutoff voltage, VGS (off).
• IDSS is drain current when VGS=0.

• Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET):

There are two basic types of MOSFETs:
D-MOSFET: The D-MOSFET can be operated in both the depletion-mode and the
enhancement-mode.
VGS can be either polarity when biased at VGS = 0 V.
■ Depletion mode:
n channel: VGS negative
■ Enhancement mode:
n channel: VGS positive

E-MOSFET: The E-MOSFET can be operated only in enhancement-mode.

 VGS must exceed VGS(th).
■ Enhancement mode:
n channel: VGS positive
p channel: VGS negative
■ VGS controls ID.
■ Value of VGS at which ID begins is the threshold voltage, VGS(th).

Learning outcomes:
3. Relate the fundamental properties of metals, insulators and semiconductors
to the electronic structure.
Example:
1-……………….. allows current to flow easily through it, and Electric charge
exists on the surface of it.
a- Conductor. b- Semiconductor. c- Insulator. d- Plasma.

2-In ………………, There is low gap in energy bands:

a- Metal. b- Semiconductor. c- Insulator. d- Plasma.

Discuss the concepts of mobility and conductivity of electrons and holes.

Example:
1-Electron-hole pairs are produced by:
a-recombination. b- thermal energy. c- ionization. d- doping.

2-When a conduction-band electron loses energy and falls back into a hole in the
valence band, occurs …………………………:
a- freeing. b- redaction. c- recombination. d-ionization.

3-While electron current happens in ………………………… band, the other type

of current, hole current, happens in the valence band.
a-the conduction. b- the valence. c- the covalent. d-the ionic.

4. Compare and contrast n-type and p-type doping.

Example:
1-In semiconductor, the process which make by adding impurities to the intrinsic
material, called:
a- doping. b- recombination. c- atomic modification. d- ionization.

2- The majority carriers in an n-type semiconductor are

a- holes. b- valence electrons. c- conduction electrons. d- protons.

3-Holes in an n-type semiconductor are:

a- minority carriers that are thermally produced.
 b- minority carriers that are produced by doping.
c- majority carriers that are thermally produced.
d- majority carriers that are produced by doping.

5. Formulate mathematical equations governing the depletion layer and

internal electric field of a p-n junction.
Example:
1-In Forward bias; VBIAS, must be ……………. than the barrier potential.
a- greater. b- less. c- Smaller. d-not change.

2-The depletion region in reverse-bias is shown much ………………….. than in

forward bias or equilibrium.
a- narrow. b- Smaller. c- wider. d-stabilize.

6. Identify different applications of diodes in solar cells, electric current

rectification, and LED's.
Example:

1- Rectifier circuits are used to convert …… current into …… current:

a- AC to DC b- DC to AC c- BC to AC d- DC to BC
2- The average value of a half-wave rectified voltage with a peak value of 200 V
is:
a- 0 V b- 127.2 V c- 141 V d- 63.7 V*

𝑉𝑃 200
* 𝑉𝐴𝑉𝐺 = = 3.14 = 63.7 𝑉
𝜋

3-An LED:
a- emits light when reverse-biased. b- senses light when reverse-biased.
c- emits light when forward-biased. d- acts as a variable resistance.

4- In Solar Cell It is the ratio between the maximum power (Pmax) exiting the cell
to the input power (Pin), called:
a- Fill Factor. b- Efficiency. c-Short Circuit Current. d-Open Circuit Voltage.