DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONIC

& COMPUTER ENGINEERING

ELECTRONICS 1

Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S

PRACTICAL MANUAL
Table of Contents

1. Instructions to students:

2. Laboratory Rules

3. Practical #1: Diode Characteristic Curve

4. Practical #2: Light Emitting and Zener diodes

5. Practical #3: Diode Clippinq and Clampinq Circuits

6. Practical #4: Half-wave rectifier

7. Practical #5: Full wave Bridge rectifier

8. Practical #6: The BJT as a switch

9. Practical #7: BJT Amplifiers (Common-Emitter configuration)

10. Practical #8: Design of a BJT Amplifier

11. Practical #9: Common Emitter amplifier

12. Practical #10: Common Emitter amplifier with fixed gain

13. Practical #11: Common Collector amplifier

14. Practical #12: Common Base amplifier

15. Practical #13: Linear applications of operational amplifiers

16. Practical #14: Testing Logic Levels

17. Practical #15: Combinations of Logic Gates

18. Practical #16: Combinations of Basic Gates – The NAND and NOR as

Universal Gates

19. Practical #17: Simplification using Boolean Algebra

20. Practical #18: Combinational Logic Circuits

Practical Manual :Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 2

1. Instructions to students:

• Adhere to the laboratory rules at all times.

• Read through each practical carefully before commencing the
work.
• Provide the answers in the spaces provided for each practical.
• A laboratory technician is available should you have any queries.

2. Laboratory Rules
1. Closed shoes must be worn in any laboratory.
2. No food or drink is allowed in any laboratory.
3. Each student is assigned to a workstation and must remain at
their workstation for the duration of the practical class.
4. If you have a question, raise your hand and someone will come
to your workstation.
5. Students will not be allowed into the laboratory more than 5
minutes after the start of the practical class. You will be marked
absent and the mark for that practical will be zero.
6. Students may not leave the laboratory before the official end of
the practical class unless asked to do so by a laboratory
assistant, technician or the lecturer in charge.
7. There should be no load talking, music or other noise in the
laboratory.
8. Any student who does not abide by the laboratory rules will be
asked to leave the laboratory immediately. Any mark for that
laboratory class will be zero.

Practical Manual : Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 3

 Practical 1: Diode Characteristic Curve

AIM
• To test a junction diode.
• To determine, experimentally, the volt-ampere characteristics (characteristic curve) of the
junction diode.
• To determine, experimentally, the load line of a diode circuit

EQUIPMENT
1 x Variable DC power supply
1 x Breadboard
1 x Digital Multimeter
Electronic components as specified

PROCEDURE
PART ONE

Using a DMM to test a diode:

Most modern DMMs have a diode test facility. When the range selector switch is set to the
diode symbol, an internal constant current source that is built into the meter becomes active. A
constant current of approximately 2mA flows through the diode when forward-biased. The
forward voltage drop is the displayed on the readout in millivolts or volts. A good reading for a
forward-biased silicon diode is between 500 mV and 900 mV, with 700 mV being a typical value.

NB: When reverse-biasing the diode, the meter reading should show a very high resistance.

1. Select the diode test position on the multi meter.

2. Connect the positive lead of the multi meter to the anode of the diode and the negative lead
of the DMM to the cathode of the diode. The meter should read approximately O.7V.
3. Connect the positive lead of the multi meter to the cathode of the diode and the negative
lead of the DMM to the anode of the diode. The meter should show a very high resistance
reading.

PART TWO

1. Using the relevant components, build the circuit shown in Figure 1.

2. Complete the tabulation in Table 1.
3. Graph your results (Vbc, I) on the Graph paper,
4. Represent each plotted point with a circle.

PART THREE

1. Reorganise the circuit of Figure 1 so that it represents the circuit of Figure 2. i.e. Set
E = 4V and short circuit the diode with a piece of wire.
2. Now measure Vbc and Vab. Calculate the current through the circuit. (Use Ohm's Law)

Vbc = ……………………………………… Vab =…………………………………… I = …………………………………………..

3. Plot the point represented by (Vbc, I) on Graph 1. Represent this point, with a triangle.

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Practical Manual : Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S
PART FOUR

1. Reorganize the circuit of Figure 2 so that it represents the circuit in Figure 3, i.e. remove the
diodes and the wire causing the short circuit.
2. Once again measure Vbc and Vab. Calculate the current through the circuit.

Vbc = ……………………………………… Vab =…………………………………… I = …………………………………………..

3. Plot the point represented by (Vbc, I) on Graph 1. Represent this point with a square.
4. Now join the points represented by the square and the triangle by means of a straight line.
Record, on Graph 1 the current Iq and the voltage Vq that represents the operating point of
the diode in the circuit.

PART FIVE
As an added exercise complete table 2, for a diode in reverse bias

Table 1
Forward bias
MEASURE MEASURE MEASURE CALCULATE
E required(V) E actual (V) Vab (V) Vbc (V) I = Vab/R

Table 2
Reverse bias
MEASURE MEASURE MEASURE CALCULATE
E required(V) E actual (V) Vab (V) Vbc (V) I = Vab/R

5
Practical Manual : Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S
Figures for the diode characteristic curve practical

Practical Manual : ELC150S, ECL152S 6

Practical Manual : ELC150S, ECL152S 7
 Practical 2: Light Emitting and Zener diodes
AIM
To determine the V-I characteristics of LED's and zener diodes.

EQUIPMENT
1 x DC power Supply
1 x DMM
1 x 1k resistor
1 x red LED
1 x 3,3V zener diode

PROCEDURE

Before you start building any circuits, recall that you have been instructed on how to determine
cathode and anode terminals of a diode.

PART 1: OPERATION OF LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

1.1 Build the circuit shown in Figure 1
1.2 Complete the tabulation, Table 1. And plot the points (Vac, I) on Graph 1.
1.3 State the forward barrier potential of the LED that you used……………………………………………
Table one
MEASURE MEASURE MEASURE CALCULATE
E required(V) E actual (V) Vab (V) Vbc (V) I = Vab/R

-2

-1

1.4 Replace the 1k resistor with larger resistors in turn, a 5,6 k and a 10k. In each case,
calculate the current flow in the circuit, using the same method as before. (Vin = 4V)

5,6k: Vab = ................... Current I = ..................

10k: Vab = ………………….. Current I = ..................

1.5 What did you notice about the LED when the circuit resistors were changed? To
what do you attribute this?
........................................................................……………………………………………………………………….........................

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Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S
PART 2: OPERATION OF A ZENER DIODE.
2.1 Build the circuit shown in Figure 2.
2.2 Complete the tabulation, Table 2.
Table 2
MEASURE MEASURE MEASURE CALCULATE
E required(V) E actual (V) Vab (V) Vbc (V) I = Vab/R

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

2.3 State the forward barrier potential of the zener diode that you are using………………………
2.4 What is the voltage rating of the diode? ………………………………….
Plot the points (VBC, I) on Graph 2.

Figures for LED and zener practical

A R1 B

1k

-6V to 2V E D1 Figure 2

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Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S
Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 10
Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 11
Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 12
 Practical 3: Diode Clippinq and Clampinq Circuits

AIM
To demonstrate the output of a clipping circuit and the output of a clamping circuit.

EQUIPMENT
1 x Function Generator
1 x DC Power Supply
1 x 2.2k resistor
1 x 10uF capacitor
1 x silicon rectifier diode (1N4007)
Breadboard and appropriate leads

PART ONE: CLIPPING

1. Set the function generator to give a sine wave output of 8Vpp at 1kHz and the Dc power
supply to deliver 2V.
2. Build the circuit shown in Figure 1.
3. Set the GND lines of CH1 and CH2 on your oscilloscope to the centre of your screen.
Now measure the input and output waveforms and draw them relative to each other in magnitude
and phase on the sets of axes provided.

Graph for Clipping circuit

Volts/div = _________________

Time/div = _________________

Frequency = ___________________

Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 13

PART TWO: CLAMPING
1. Keeping the existing setting of the signal generator, set up the circuit shown in Figure 2.
Make sure you connect the capacitor and diode correctly in the circuit.
2. Now measure the input and the output waveforms on channels 1 and 2 of your oscilloscope.
3. Draw the waveforms, relative to each other in magnitude and phase. Include all magnitude and
time values.

Graph for Clamping circuit

Volts/div = _________________

Time/div = _________________

Frequency = ___________________

Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 14

Circuits diagrams for clipping and clamping practical.

Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 15

 Practical 4: Half-wave rectifier

AIM
The aim of this exercise is to demonstrate and observe the operation of a half-wave rectifier
both with and without a capacitor filter and to observe the effect of capacitance and resistor
values on the output ripple waveform.

EQUIPMENT
Signal generator
Dual-trace oscilloscope
3 x BNC-to-croc cables
1 x 1N400X series silicon rectifier diode 2 x 1kΩ resistors
1 x 100uF and 1 x 1uF electrolytic capacitors

PROCEDURE
PART ONE

1.1 Set up the circuit shown in Figure 1, using the diode and .one resistor, an your breadboard.
1.2 Set the Function Generator to deliver 500Hz, 6Vpp sine wave. NB: Once the signal generator
is set up to the correct frequency and amplitude, do not adjust the settings.
1.3 Set the GND lines of CH1 & CH2 on the scope to the centre of the screen. Set the scope to
measure DC.
1.4 Measure the input and output waveforms; relative to each other (Use Ch1 and Ch2).
1.5 Now draw the waveforms, relative to each other in magnitude and phase. Include all
magnitude and time values.

Volts/div = _________________

Time/div = _________________

Frequency = ___________________

Waveforms for part one

Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 16

Part Two: Effect of Filter Capacitor

2.1 Now extend the initial circuit to include a capacitor in parallel with the resistor as shown in
Figure 2. Use a 100uF capacitor.
2.2 Measure the input and output voltage on your scope and record them below in the same
manner as before.
2.3 Estimate the peak-to-peak ripple value of the output waveform.

V(ripple)pp = ……………………………………

2.4 Replace the capacitor in the circuit with another of a much smaller value. (1uF)
2.5 Estimate the peak-to-peak ripple value of the output waveform.

V(ripple)pp = ……………………………………

Waveforms for part 2

Volts/div = _________________

Time/div = _________________

Frequency = ___________________

Part Three: Effect of Load resistor (RL)

3.1 Place another 1k in parallel with the original 1k resistor as shown in Figure 3.
3.2 Estimate the peak-to peak value of the output waveform.

V(ripple)pp = ……………………………………

3.3 From your observations, what do you conclude about the effect of capacitance and resistor
values on the ripple waveform?

Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 17

Circuit diagrams for half-wave rectification.

Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 18

 Practical 5: Full wave Bridge rectifier

AIM
To demonstrate the operation of the full-wave bridge rectifier, both with and without a
capacitor filter, and to observe the effect of capacitance and resistor values on the filtered
waveform.

EQUIPMENT
Signal generator
Dual trace oscilloscope
2 x BNC-to-croc cables
2 x 1k resistors
1 x 100uF electrolytic capacitor
1 x 10uF electrolytic capacitor
4 x IN400X series silicon rectifier diodes

PROCEDURE
1. Set up the circuit shown in Figure 1 on your breadboard.
2. Set the signal generator to deliver 3Vp sine wave at 500Hz. NB: Once the signal generator is
set up to the correct frequency and amplitude, do not adjust the settings.
3. Set the GND line of CH1 on the scope to the centre of the screen. Now set the toggle switch
to DC.
4. Measure the input and output waveforms. Record them below, making sure that they are
drawn relative to each other in magnitude and phase. Include all magnitude and time values, i.e.
indicate the voltage on the y-axis and the time on the x-axis. (You will not be able to measure
the input and output waveforms simultaneously, as you will be short circuiting one of the diodes
in the bridge.
5. Now connect a 100uF capacitor in parallel with the resistor.
6. Measure the input and output waveforms. Record these, relative to each other in magnitude
and phase, in the space below the previous two waveforms.
7. Estimate the peak-to-peak amplitude of the output waveform.

V ripple(p-p) = …………………………………..

8. Change the 100uF capacitor to a 10uF capacitor and estimate the peak-to-peak amplitude of
the ripple voltage.

V ripple(p-p) = …………………………………..

10. What do you conclude from your observations?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Practical Manual New Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 19

Volts/div = _________________

Time/div = _________________

Frequency = ___________________

Waveforms for circuit without a filter capacitor (figure 1)

Waveforms for circuit with a filter capacitor (figure 2)

Volts/div = _________________

Time/div = _________________

Frequency = ___________________

Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 20

Circuit diagrams for full-wave rectification practical.

Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 21

 Practical 6: The BJT as a switch

1. In your textbook follow the steps for testing a transistor. This is found on pages 193-197.
2. Set the GND lines of both oscilloscope channels to the center of your screen. Then set both
channels to measure DC.
3. Set up the input waveform, shown in the circuit diagram on your function generator. Make
sure that you use the DC offset control on the signal generator to obtain the required waveform.
4. Build the circuit shown below on your breadboard, using a BC 107B (Q1) transistor.
5. Measure and draw both the input and output waveforms, relative to each other in magnitude
and phase on the set of axes provided below.
6. From your observations in '5' above can you tell whether Vce goes down to exactly zero volts
when the transistor is in saturation? NB: Data sheet situated at page 28.

Draw your fully labeled waveforms here:

Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 22

 Practical 7: BJT Amplifiers (Common-Emitter configuration)

Part One: DC biasinq

1.1 Build the circuit below shown in Figure 1 on your breadboard.
1.2 Using your DMM, measure the following voltages:

VR1 = ____________ V R 2 = ____________ V RC = ____________

V RE = ____________ VCE = ____________ V BE = ____________

1.3 Write down the Kirchoff’s Voltage Law equations for each of the loops in the circuit. Then
verify that the equations hold true by substituting the measured voltage values.

e.g. VCC = VR1 + VR 2 Verify by inserting your measured values.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

1.4 Calculate values for I E = ___________ and I C = ___________ by using Ohm's Law.

NB: Data sheet situated at page 31.

Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 23

Part Two:

2.1 Modify Figure 1 to represent the circuit shown in Figure 2 below.

2.2 With Vin as specified, measure the output Vout on the oscilloscope.
2.3 Draw the waveforms Vin and Vout on the axes provided below. Label all the axes.
VOUT
2.4 Calculate the ac voltage gain for this configuration: AV =
VIN

Practical Manual Diploma: ELC150S, ECL152S 24

 Practical 8: Design of a BJT Amplifier

AIM
To investigate and examine a BJT amplifier using a voltage-divider bias circuit.

EQUIPMENT
1xDC power supply, 1x DMM, 1x signal generator, 1x oscilloscope, 1x BC109 transistor, 2x 10uF
capacitors and resistors. NB: Data sheet situated at page 28.

PROCEDURE
You are given the following information:

1. Design a common emitter (CE) BJT amplifier, with a voltage divider network. Using the
following four resistors (180k, 2.2k, 33k and 15k), design an amplifier with a voltage
gain of 7. The transistor to be used is the BC109C. (  AVER = 400, Vcc = 10V)

In the data sheet for this transistor,  min = 200 and  max = 800. Calculate  average ?
……………………………………..

1.1 Show how you calculated the ac voltage gain in the space below ( AV ):

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PART TWO:

2.1 To calculate R2 , use the following: R2  0.1xRi (base)

Ri (base) = (  + 1) xRE = …………………………………..

2. Therefore: R2  ………………………………….

The standard resistor value: R2 = …………………………………….

2.2 Show how the values for the resistors, R1 and R2 were calculated, in the space below.

2.3 Draw the circuit diagram in the space provided below (Vcc = 10V).

2.4 Build the circuit and measure the following DC bias voltages, using the DMM provided.

VR1 = VR 2 =

V RC = V RE =

26
 V BE = VCE =

2.5 Determine the value for the collector current:

IC =

2.6 Determine the value for emitter current:

IE =

2.7 Determine the value for base current:

IB =

.
1.8 Connect the coupling capacitors (10uF) to this circuit. With the input voltage (Vin) a sine
wave of 400mVpp @1kHz, accurately measure the output voltage (Vout).

27
1.9 With the help of only the ac waveforms plotted above, show how to calculate the ac
voltage gain in the space below.

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30
31
 BJT Amplifiers: Lab 9 – Lab 12
Instructions:
The student must design, simulate and build the following amplifiers (Lab 9 – Lab 12):
1. Common Emitter amplifier
2. Common Emitter amplifier with fixed gain
3. Common Collector amplifier
4. Common Base amplifier

Objective of ELT200S/X Practical:

▪ Revise the different types of small signal amplifiers.
▪ Introduce some circuit performance with relation to “ac”.
▪ To acquire fault finding skills.
▪ Compare some calculated, simulated and practical results.

Required Values:
The following is a draft memo or guide to demonstrate the important design steps to follow

when designing the amplifiers shown above:

Required values and assumptions: Design a BJT amplifier

• Vcc = (first two numbers of your student number) – (the last

one) Example: Student number: 213542447
Vcc =21-7=14V
• RLoad = (1st, 2nd and 3rd numbers of your student number) x (the last
one) Example: Student number: 213542447
𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑=213 ∗7 = 1.491𝑘Ω
• Av = (8th number of your student number) + (the last
one) Example: Student number: 213542447
𝐴𝑣 = 4 + 7 = 11

General it is safe to assume the following:

• Since it is fixed load𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅𝐿; βac = ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 100; frequency =100

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33
 Lab 9: Common Emitter amplifier
The aim of this practical is to compare the calculated values obtained utilizing small signal analysis for the
design of the common-emitter amplifier analysis with the simulated and practical measurements.
1. You need to complete your design/calculation before entering the lab.

Draw a complete circuit of the common emitter

Attach all your design calculation or work done in preparation of this lab
2. Fill the following tables:
Table 1: DC biasing
Values VR1 VR2 VBE VRE VRC VCE VCQ Assumed beta
Calculated
Simulated
Measured

Values VR1 VR2 VBE VRE VRC VCE VCQ Measured beta
Calculated
Simulated
Measured

Table 2: ac biasing
Values AV Ai AP Vin
Calculated
Simulated
Measured

3. Draw practical results obtained for your output vs input waveform

34
 Lab 10: Common Emitter amplifier with fixed gain (Add frequency response)
The aim: Is based on the comparison of the calculated values, simulated and practical measurements obtained
utilising DC and ac analysis for the design of the fixed gain common-emitter amplifier
1. You need to complete your design/calculation before entering the lab.

Draw a complete circuit of the common emitter

Attach all your design calculation or work done in preparation of this lab
2. Fill the following tables:
Table 1: DC biasing
Values VR1 VR2 VBE VRE VRC VCE VCQ Assumed beta
Calculated
Simulated
Measured

Values VR1 VR2 VBE VRE VRC VCE VCQ Measured beta
Calculated
Simulated
Measured

Table 2: ac biasing
Values AV Ai AP Vin Vout
Calculated
Simulated
Measured

3. Draw practical results obtained for your output vs input waveform

4. Frequency response
• Perform and measure the lower cut-off frequency of the amplifier at the -3dB point
• Perform and measure the lower cut-off frequency of the amplifier at the -3dB point
Table 3: Frequency analyses
Parameters fcu fcl BW
Calculated
Simulated
Measured

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 Lab 11: Common Collector amplifier
The aim: Is to compare the calculated values obtained utilising DC and ac small signal analysis for the design of
the common-Collector amplifier analysis with the simulated and practical measurements.

1. You need to complete your design/calculation before entering the lab.

Draw a complete circuit of the common emitter

Attach all your design calculation or work done in preparation of this lab
2. Fill the following tables:
Table 1: DC biasing
Values VR1 VR2 VBE VRE VRC VCE VCQ Assumed beta
Calculated
Simulated
Measured

Values VR1 VR2 VBE VRE VRC VCE VCQ Measured beta
Calculated
Simulated
Measured

Table 2: ac biasing
Values AV Ai AP Vin Vout
Calculated
Simulated
Measured

3. Draw practical results obtained for your output vs input waveform

36
 Lab 12: Common Base amplifier
The aim: Is to compare the calculated values obtained utilising DC and ac small signal analysis for the design of the
common-Collector amplifier analysis with the simulated and practical measurements.
1. You need to complete your design/calculation before entering the lab.

Draw a complete circuit of the common emitter

Attach all your design calculation or work done in preparation of this lab
2. Fill the following tables:

Table 1: DC biasing
Values VR1 VR2 VBE VRE VRC VCE VCQ Assumed beta
Calculated
Simulated
Measured

Values VR1 VR2 VBE VRE VRC VCE VCQ Measured beta
Calculated
Simulated
Measured
Table 2: ac biasing
Values AV Ai AP Vin Vout Assumed beta
Calculated
Simulated
Measured

Values AV Ai AP Vin Vout Measured beta

Calculated
Simulated
Measured

3. Draw practical results obtained for your output vs input waveform

NOTE: Attach all your calculation and your waveform results

Sign for Validation

Weeks Design Simulation Demonstration Date
1.
2.
4.
3.
5.
6.
7.
8.

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 Practical 13: Experiment – Linear applications of operational amplifiers

OBJECTIVES

To demonstrate the use of operational amplifiers (op-amps) for performing Inverting amplifiers, non-
inverting amplifiers and some mathematical functions.

SOME USEFUL TOPICS

You should study the following topics before the experiment (Chapter 12 and 13):
• What are the operational amplifiers?
• Find the operational ranges of the op-amps.

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN

• Basic principles of the op-amps.

• Mathematical functions that can be obtained by operating an op-amp in linear mode.

PRELIMINARY

A. Determine the characteristics of the circuits below.

B. Plot the Input/output waveforms for the following circuits by using Pspice-Software. Compare the
simulation results with the theoretical and practical results.
C. Practical expected: For each circuit, use the apply signals respectively.
1) Non-Inverting Amp: apply a 0.5 Vp-p, 1 kHz sinusoidal signal.
• Change the R2 (use a variable resistor) value from 10 kΩ, 25 kΩ, 50 kΩ, 75 kΩ, 100 kΩ;
2 kΩ 4 kΩ 6 kΩ 8 kΩ 10 kΩ. , create a table and write down the value of the output
voltage and voltage gain while increasing or decreasing R2. At the end of your
experiment plot the gain-R2 graph and compare it with the ideal one.
2) Inverting Amp: apply a 0.5 Vp-p, 1 kHz sinusoidal signal.
• Change the R1 (use a variable resistor) value from 1 kΩ, 2.5 kΩ, 5 kΩ, 7.5 kΩ, 10 kΩ;
200 Ω, 400 Ω, 600 Ω, 800Ω, 1 kΩ. , create a table and write down the value of the
output voltage and voltage gain while increasing or decreasing R1. At the end of your
experiment plot the gain-R1 graph.

3) Summing Amp: apply a 1 Vp-p, 1 kHz sinusoidal signal to V(t)app and 0.3 Vp-p, 1 kHz sinusoidal signal to
V(t)app1.
• Change 1 Vp-p to 3 VDC voltage and 0.3 Vp-p, 1 kHz sinusoidal signal to V(t)app1. Plot the output
voltage expected.

4) Subtracting Amp: apply a 1 Vp-p, 1 kHz sinusoidal signal to V(t)app and 5.3 Vp-p, 1 kHz sinusoidal signal
to V(t)app1.
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 • Change 1 Vp-p to 3 VDC voltage and 0.3 Vp-p, 1 kHz sinusoidal signal to V(t)app1. Plot the output
voltage expected.
5) Integrator: apply an 8 Vp-p, 1 kHz Square wave signal as an input.
6) Differentiator: apply an 8 Vp-p, 1 kHz triangular wave signal as an input.

Explain the meaning of following terms:

1. Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR).

2. Unity gain bandwidth.
3. Slew rate (SW).
4. Rail to Rail.

Note: Use LM741 in opamp.olb for pspice

Simulation. Take +V = 10 V and –V = -10 V

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 Practical 14: Testing Logic Levels

Components required:
• 1 x PN2222 NPN transistor
• 1 x 330 Ω ¼W resistor
• 1 x 10 kΩ ¼W resistor
• 1x red LED
• 1 x 74HC00 quad 2-input NAND gate
• 1 x 74HC02 quad 2-input NOR gate
• 1 x 74HC08 quad 2-input AND gate
• 1 x 74HC32 quad 2-input OR gate
• 1 x 74HC86 quad 2-input XOR gate
• Connecting wire

Instructions:

1. Build the circuit shown below. Use the datasheet for the transistor to establish the correct pins for
connecting up the circuit. The longer lead of the LED is the anode.

2. Test the circuit by connecting the test point (with a piece of wire) to +5V.This is the row of breadboard
connections where the positive terminal of the 5V supply is inserted. The LED should light up (ON).

3. If you disconnect the test point from +5V or connect the test point to ground (the row of breadboard
connections where the negative terminal of the 5V supply is inserted), the LED will not light up (OFF).

You may build two of the circuits below (since you have two transistors in your component pack), if you wish to.
Only one circuit is required though.

This is a test circuit and it’s optional.

41
4. Connect a 74HC08 (quad 2-input AND gate) to +5V (the Vcc pin) and ground (the GND pin). The IC pins are
numbered and labelled as shown in figure 1 of the 74HC08 datasheet. The U shaped notch on the surface
of the IC must be orientated correctly as shown in figure 1 of the datasheet.
5. Connect the output of gate 1 (pin labelled 1Y in the data sheets) to the test point of the LED test circuit
above. Connect the inputs of gate 1 (pins labelled 1A and 1B) to either +5V or ground. Test all possible
input logic states and observe the LED for each one. Fill in the results (ON/OFF) in the table below.

Repeat steps 4 and 5 for a NAND gate (74HC00), OR gate (74HC32), NOR gate (74HC02) and XOR gate
(74HC86). Complete the table below.

INPUT OUTPUT (LED ON or OFF)

S
A B AND NAND OR NOR XOR
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

6. Check that the results in the table above are consistent with the truth tables for each of the logic gates.

7. The circuit you have built is useful for testing the logic level at any point in a digital circuit.

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 Practical 15: Combinations of Logic Gates
Components required:
• 1 x 74HC00
• 1 x 74HC02
• 1 x 74HC04
• 1 x 74HC08
• 1 x 74HC32
• Connecting wire

Instructions:
It is assumed that you are familiar with the different logic gate functions and are able to use the
Digitrainer in the Digital Systems laboratory. The objective of this practical is to design, build and verify
the function of combinations of logic gate circuits.

1. AND, NAND, NOT and NOR-gate implementation and circuit verification

• First complete the truth table for the following circuit before constructing it.
• Refer to the internal layouts of the above-mentioned ICs and construct the circuit below.
• The inputs are taken from switches to A, B, C and D, (Note: the MSB and LSB) and the output is taken to
an LED.
The ICs in the circuit are all powered with 5 Volts.

C B A X
D

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2. Build and verify the operation of the circuit.
a) First complete the truth table for the following circuit before constructing it.
b) Remove all the wires from the previous task and construct the following circuit.
c) Ensure that all ICs are powered using 5 Volts.
D C B A X

3. Build and verify the operation of the circuit

a) First complete the truth table for the circuit.
b) Remove all the wires from the previous task and construct the following circuit.
c) Ensure that all ICs are powered using 5 Volts.

C B A X

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 Practical 16:
Combinations of Basic Gates – The NAND and NOR as Universal Gates
Components required :

• 2 x 7HCS00 – Quad 2 input NAND gate

• 2 x 7HCS02 – Quad 2 input NOR gate
• 1 x 74HC04 – Hex 6 input NOT gate
• 1 x 74HC08 – Quad 2 input AND gate
• 1x 74HC32 – Quad 2 input OR gate
• Connecting wire

Instructions:

1. AND, NOT, OR and NAND-gate implementation

a) First complete the truth table for the following circuit.
b) Determine the expression for the output from the truth table first.
c) Refer to the internal layouts of the above-mentioned ICs and construct the circuit below.
d) The inputs are taken from switches to A, B, C and D, and the output is taken to an LED.

A B C D X

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 EXPRESSION FROM TRUTH TABLE:

EXPRESSION FROM CIRCUIT:

2. Build and verify the operation of the circuit.

a) Now design a circuit that performs the same logic as in 1 above, using only NAND gates.
b) Draw the circuit that results from replacing the AND and OR gates with equivalent NAND gates and
then reduce the circuit. Label all inputs and outputs.
c) Construct the newly designed reduced NAND-gate circuit.
d) Verify that the circuit in 1 above and your NAND-gate design are functionally the same, and
complete the truth table below for your constructed circuit.
e) NAND-gate circuit

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A B C D LED Output

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AND, NOT, OR and NOR-gate implementation
d) First complete the truth table below for the following circuit.
e) Determine the expression for the output from the truth table and from the given circuit.
f) Construct the following circuit using internal layouts for the specified ICs.

A B C D X

EXPRESSION FROM TRUTH TABLE:

EXPRESSION FROM CIRCUIT:

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Build and verify the operation of the circuit.
a) Now design a circuit that performs the same logic as in 3 above, using only NOR gates.
b) Draw the circuit that results from replacing the AND and OR gates with equivalent NOR gates and then
reduce the circuit. Label all inputs and outputs.
c) Remove all the wires from the previous task and construct the newly designed circuit.
d) Verify that the circuit in 3 above and your NOR-gate design are functionally the same, and
complete the truth table from your constructed circuit.

A B C D LED
Output

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 Practical 17: Simplification using Boolean Algebra

Components required:

• 1 x 74HC00 – Quad 2 input NAND gate

• 1 x 74HC02 – Quad 2 input NOR gate
• 1 x 74HC04 – Hex 2 input NOT gate
• 1 x 74HC08 – Quad 2 input AND gate
• 1x 74HC32 – Quad 2 input OR gate
• Connecting wire

Instructions:
1. Circuit implementation

a) Given the expression

b) Draw the circuit for the expression in a).
c) Build the circuit and then complete the truth table from the constructed circuit.
d) Reduce the expression in a) using appropriate Boolean algebra rules and laws (do not use truth tables).
e) Now draw and construct the simplified (reduced) circuit using only NOR gates and verify that the two
circuits exhibit the same logical function by completing the truth table from the reduced circuit.
f) Write the product -of- sums (POS) expression from the truth table.

Circuit for X:

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 A B C X Reduced
output

Reducing expression for X:

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REDUCED circuit using only NOR gates

POS Expression from Truth Table

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 2. Circuit implementation
a) Construct the circuit below.
b) Complete the truth table from the constructed circuit.
c) Determine the expression for X in the circuit.
d) Reduce the expression in c) using appropriate Boolean algebra rules and laws.
e) Now build the SIMPLIFIED circuit (determined in d) and verify that the two circuits exhibit the SAME
logical function by completing the truth table for the reduced circuit.
f) Make relevant comments / conclusions.
g) Write the sum-of-products (SOP) expression from the TRUTH TABLE.

Reduced circuit
truth table

A B C D X

53
Expression for X:

Reducing expression for X:

54
Reduced circuit

Comments

SOP Expression from Truth Table

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 Practical 18: Combinational Logic Circuits

1. Construction of a combinational circuit

2. Determine the truth table for the circuit below with outputs X and Y, and label the circuit fully.
3. Construct the circuit below ensuring that you connect the inputs and outputs correctly and refer to the
internal layouts of the specified ICs.
4. Determine the expression for the outputs X and Y then write the STANDARD form for both sum- of-
products expressions.
5. Then complete the truth table for the circuit in the table below.

Truth Table:

A B C X Y

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 Boolean Expression for X:

Boolean Expression for Y:

STANDARD SOP for X:

STANDARD SOP for Y:

6. Combinational circuit construction from an expression

a. Determine the standard form of the expression and then construct the truth table by writing the
binary equivalent of the expression.

b. Construct the TWO circuits from the EXPRESSIONS above.

c. Confirm that the constructed circuits match the calculated truth table.

STANDARD form of the expression for X:

57
STANDARD form of the expression for Y:

Truth Table (from STANDARD EXPRESSION):

A B C D X Y X– Y–
(from (from
circuit) circuit)

END OF PRACTICALS

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