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The 8085 Microprocessor Architecture Programming and
Interfacing 1e Kumar Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Kumar, K. Udaya; Umashankar, B. S
ISBN(s): 9788257452247, 8257452246
Edition: Online-Ausg
File Details: PDF, 7.68 MB
Year: 2008
Language: english
udayakumar_fm.qxp 4/21/2008 2:31 PM Page i

THE 8085
MICROPROCESSOR
Architecture, Programming
and Interfacing

K. UDAYA KUMAR,
Principal,
B.N.M. Institute of Technology,
Bangalore, India.

B. S. UMASHANKAR,
Professor,
Department of Computer Science,
B.N.M. Institute of Technology,
Bangalore, India.
udayakumar_fm.qxp 4/16/2008 4:21 PM Page ii

Copyright © 2008 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.

Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia

No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher’s prior
written consent.

This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher reserves the
right to remove any material present in this eBook at any time.

ISBN 9788177584554
eISBN 9788131799772

Head Office: A-8(A), Sector 62, Knowledge Boulevard, 7th Floor, NOIDA 201 309, India
Registered Office: 11 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India
udayakumar_fm.qxp 4/16/2008 4:21 PM Page iii

Dedicated to
the Goddess of Learning
udayakumar_fm.qxp 4/16/2008 4:21 PM Page iv

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udayakumar_fm.qxp 4/16/2008 4:21 PM Page v

Contents

Preface xi 5. First Assembly Language Program 38

5.1 Problem Statement 38
Part I 5.2 About the Microprocessor Kit 41
5.3 Using the Microprocessor Kit in
FUNDAMENTALS OF A Serial Mode 51
MICROPROCESSOR 1 Questions 51

1. Evolution of Microprocessors 3 6. Data Transfer Group of

1.1 Early Integrated Circuits 3 Instructions 52
1.2 4-Bit Microprocessors 4 6.1 Classification of 8085 Instructions 53
1.3 8-Bit Microprocessors 4 6.2 Instruction Type MVI r, d8 54
1.4 16-Bit Microprocessors 4 6.3 Instruction Type MOV r1, r2 54
1.5 32-Bit Microprocessors 5 6.4 Instruction Type MOV r, M 55
1.6 Recent Microprocessors 5 6.5 Instruction Type MOV M, r 56
1.7 Microcontrollers and Digital Signal 6.6 Instruction Type LXI rp, d16 56
Processors 5 6.7 Instruction Type MVI m, d8 57
6.8 Instruction Type LDA a16 57
2. Fundamentals of a Computer 7 6.9 Instruction Type STA a16 58
2.1 Calculator 7 6.10 Instruction Type XCHG 58
2.2 Computer 8 6.11 Addressing Modes of 8085 59
2.3 Microcomputer 12 6.12 Instruction Type LDAX rp 62
2.4 Computer Languages 13 6.13 Instruction Type STAX rp 62
Questions 16 6.14 Instruction Type LHLD a16 63
6.15 Instruction Type SHLD a16 63
3. Number Representation 17 Questions 63
3.1 Unsigned Binary Integers 17
3.2 Signed Binary Integers 18
7. Arithmetic Group of Instructions 65
3.3 Representation of Fractions 23 7.1 Instructions to Perform Addition 66
3.4 Signed Floating Point 7.2 Instructions to Perform Subtraction 70
Numbers 25 7.3 Instruction Type INX rp 73
Questions 25 7.4 Instruction Type DCX rp 74
7.5 Instruction Type DAD rp 74
4. Fundamentals of Microprocessor 27 7.6 Decimal Addition in 8085 75
4.1 History of Microprocessors 27 Questions 76
4.2 Description of 8085 Pins 29
4.3 Programmer’s View of 8085: Need for
8. Logical Group of Instructions 77
Registers 34 8.1 Instructions to Perform ‘AND’
4.4 Accumulator or Register A 35 Operation 78
4.5 Registers B, C, D, E, H, And L 36 8.2 Instructions to Perform ‘OR’
Questions 36 Operation 79
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vi
8.3 Instructions to Perform 12. Addressing of I/O Ports 125
‘EXCLUSIVE OR’ Operation 80
8.4 Instruction to Complement 12.1 Need for I/O Ports 125
Accumulator 82 12.2 IN and OUT Instructions 127
8.5 Instructions to Complement/Set ‘Cy’ 12.3 Memory-Mapped I/O 128
Flag 82 12.4 I/O-Mapped I/O 129
Contents

8.6 Instructions to Perform Compare 12.5 Comparison of Memory-Mapped

Operation 83 I/O and I/O-Mapped I/O 129
8.7 Instructions to Rotate Questions 132
Accumulator 85
Questions 88
13. Architecture of 8085 133
13.1 Details of 8085 Architecture 134
9. NOP and Stack Group of 13.2 Instruction Cycle 140
Instructions 90 13.3 Comparison of Different Machine
Cycles 152
9.1 Stack and The Stack Pointer 90 13.4 Memory Speed Requirement 153
9.2 Instruction Type POP rp 92 13.5 Wait State Generation 160
9.3 Instruction Type PUSH rp 93 Questions 161
9.4 Instruction Type LXI SP, d16 94
9.5 Instruction Type SPHL 95
9.6 Instruction Type XTHL 95 Part II
9.7 Instruction Type INX SP 95
9.8 Instruction Type DCX SP 96 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
9.9 Instruction Type DAD SP 96 PROGRAMS 163
9.10 Instruction Type NOP 96
Questions 98 14. Simple Assembly Language
Programs 165
10. Branch Group of Instructions 99
14.1 Exchange 10 Bytes 165
10.1 More Details about Program 14.2 Add two Multi-Byte Numbers 169
Execution 100 14.3 Add two Multi-Byte BCD
10.2 Unconditional Jump Instructions 102 Numbers 171
10.3 Conditional Jump Instructions 104 14.4 Block Movement without
10.4 Unconditional Call and Return Overlap 174
Instructions 107 14.5 Block Movement with Overlap 175
10.5 Conditional Call Instructions 109 14.6 Add N Numbers of Size 8 Bits 178
10.6 Conditional Return Instructions 111 14.7 Check the Fourth Bit of a Byte 181
10.7 RSTN – Restart Instructions 113 14.8 Subtract two Multi-Byte
Questions 115 Numbers 182
14.9 Multiply two numbers of Size
11. Chip Select Logic 117 8 Bits 184
11.1 Concept of Chip Selection 117 14.10 Divide a 16-Bit Number
11.2 RAM Chip–Pin Details And by an 8-Bit Number 187
Address Range 118 Questions 189
11.3 Multiple Memory Address
Range 119 15. Use of PC in Writing and
11.4 Working of 74138 Decoder IC 120
11.5 Use of 74138 to Generate Chip Executing 8085 Programs 190
Select Logic 121 15.1 Steps Needed to Run an Assembly
11.6 Use of 74138 in ALS-SDA-85M Language Program 191
Kit 122 15.2 Creation of .ASM File using a
Questions 123 Text Editor 195
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vii
15.3 Generation of .OBJ File using a 17.5 Bubble Sort in Ascending/Descending
Cross-Assembler 195 Order as per Choice 259
15.4 Generation of .HEX File using a 17.6 Selection Sort in Ascending/Descending
Linker 197 Order as per Choice 263
15.5 Downloading the Machine Code to 17.7 Add Contents of N Word
the Kit 199 Locations 266

Contents
15.6 Running the Downloaded Program 17.8 Multiply Two 8-Bit Numbers (Shift
on the Kit 201 and Add Method) 268
15.7 Running the Program using the PC 17.9 Multiply two 2-Digit BCD
as a Terminal 201 Numbers 270
Questions 204 17.10 Multiply two 16-Bit Binary
Numbers 272
Questions 276
16. Additional Assembly Language
Programs 205
16.1 Search for a Number using Linear Part III
Search 206
16.2 Find the Smallest Number 208 PROGRAMMABLE AND NON-
16.3 Compute the HCF of Two 8-Bit PROGRAMMABLE I/O PORTS 275
Numbers 210
16.4 Check for ‘2 out of 5’ Code 212 18. Interrupts In 8085 277
16.5 Convert ASCII to Binary 214 18.1 Data Transfer Schemes 278
16.6 Convert Binary to ASCII 216 18.2 General Discussion about 8085
16.7 Convert BCD to Binary 218 Interrupts 283
16.8 Convert Binary to BCD 221 18.3 EI and DI Instructions 285
16.9 Check for Palindrome 228 18.4 INTR and INTA* Pins 288
16.10 Compute the LCM of Two 8-Bit 18.5 RST5.5 and RST6.5 Pins 291
Numbers 230 18.6 RST7.5 Pin 292
16.11 Sort Numbers using Bubble 18.7 Trap Interrupt Pin 293
Sort 233 18.8 Execution of ‘DAD rp’
16.12 Sort Numbers using Selection Instruction 296
Sort 235 18.9 SIM and RIM Instructions 297
16.13 Simulate Decimal up Counter 237 18.10 HLT Instruction 302
16.14 Simulate Decimal down 18.11 Programs using Interrupts 302
Counter 240 Questions 310
16.15 Display Alternately 00 and FF in
the Data Field 241 19. 8212 Non-Programmable 8-Bit
16.16 Simulate a Real-Time Clock 243 I/O Port 311
Questions 246 19.1 Working of 8212 311
19.2 Applications of 8212 315
17. More Complex Assembly Questions 322
Language Programs 247
20. 8255 Programmable Peripheral
17.1 Subtract Multi-Byte BCD
Numbers 248
Interface Chip 323
17.2 Convert 16-Bit Binary to BCD 250 20.1 Description of 8255 PPI 323
17.3 Do an operation on Two Numbers 20.2 Operational Modes of 8255 327
Based on the Value of X 252 20.3 Control Port of 8255 328
17.4 Do an Operation on Two BCD 20.4 Mode 1–Strobed I/O 331
Numbers Based on the Value 20.5 Mode 2–Bi-Directional I/O 340
of X 255 Questions 342
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viii

21. Programs using Interface 24.3 Description of 8257 DMA

Modules 344 Controller Chip 444
24.4 Programming the 8257 446
21.1 Description of Logic Controller 24.5 Description of the Pins Of
Interface 344 8257 452
21.2 Successive Approximation 24.6 Working of the 8257 DMA
Contents

ADC Interface 353 Controller 456

21.3 Dual Slope ADC Interface 356 24.7 State Diagram of 8085 457
21.4 Digital to Analog Converter Questions 460
Interface 359
21.5 Stepper Motor Interface 363
Questions 366
25. Intel 8253—Programmable
Interval Timer 461
25.1 Need for Programmable Interval
Part IV Timer 461
SUPPORT CHIPS 367 25.2 Description of 8253 Timer 462
25.3 Programming the 8253 463
22. Interfacing of I/O Devices 369 25.4 Mode 0–Interrupt On Terminal
Count 467
22.1 Interfacing 7-Segment Display 370 25.5 Mode 1–Re-Triggerable Mono-
22.2 Display Interface using Serial Stable Multi 468
Transfer 374 25.6 Mode 2–Rate Generator 469
22.3 Interfacing a Simple Keyboard 377 25.7 Mode 3–Square Wave Generator 471
22.4 Interfacing a Matrix Keyboard 380 25.8 Mode 4–Software-Triggered
22.5 Description of Matrix Keyboard Strobe 472
Interface 381 28.9 Mode 5–Hardware-Triggered
22.6 Intel 8279 Keyboard And Display Strobe 473
Controller 384 28.10 Use of 8253 in ALS-SDA-85
22.7 Programs using 8279 402 Kit 475
Questions 414 Questions 475
23. Intel 8259A—Programmable 26. Intel 8251A—Universal
Interrupt Controller 416 Synchronous Asynchronous
23.1 Need for an Interrupt Controller 417 Receiver Transmitter
23.2 Overview of the Working
of 8259 419
(USART) 477
23.3 Pins of 8259 421 26.1 Need for USART 477
23.4 Registers used in 8259 422 26.2 Asynchronous Transmission 478
23.5 Programming the 8259 with 26.3 Asynchronous Reception 481
no Slaves 424 26.4 Synchronous Transmission 483
23.6 Programming the 8259 with 26.5 Synchronous Reception 484
Slaves 436 26.6 Pin Description of 8251 USART 484
23.7 Use of 8259 in an 8086-Based 26.7 Programming the 8251 488
System 439 26.8 Use of SOD Pin of 8085 for
23.8 Architecture of 8259 439 Serial Transfer 492
Questions 440 Questions 493

24. Intel 8257—Programmable 27. Zilog Z-80 Microprocessor 495

DMA Controller 442 27.1 Comparison of Intel 8080 with
24.1 Concept of Direct Memory Intel 8085 496
Access (DMA) 442 27.2 Programmer’s View of Z-80 497
24.2 Need for DMA Data Transfer 443 27.3 Special Features of Z-80 498
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ix
27.4 Addressing Modes of Z-80 499 29.4 Data Memory Structure 551
27.5 Special Instruction Types 506 29.5 Programmer’s View of 8051 556
27.6 Pins of Z-80 517 29.6 Addressing Modes of 8051 557
27.7 Interrupt Structure in Z-80 519 29.7 Instruction Set of 8051 560
27.8 Programming Examples 524 29.8 Programming Examples 568
27.9 Instruction Set Summary 527 Questions 573

Contents
Questions 528
30. Advanced Topics
28. Motorola M6800
in 8051 574
Microprocessor 529
30.1 Interrupt Structure of 8051 575
28.1 Pin Description of 6800 530 30.2 Timers of 8051 579
28.2 Programmer’s View of 6800 531 30.3 Serial Interface 584
28.3 Addressing Modes of 6800 533 30.4 Structure and Operation of
28.4 Instruction Set of 6800 536 Ports 591
28.5 Interrupts of 6800 540 30.5 Power Saving Modes of 8051 595
28.6 Programming Examples 542 30.6 Programming of EPROM in
Questions 545 8751BH 597
Questions 600
29. 8051 Microcontroller 546
29.1 Main Features of Intel 8051 547 Bibliography 601
29.2 Functional Blocks of Intel 8051 548
29.3 Program Memory Structure 550 Index 603
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udayakumar_fm.qxp 4/16/2008 4:21 PM Page xi

Preface

Microprocessors, microcontrollers, and digital signal processor chips are used in business machines,
automotive electronics, home appliances, electronic toys, and a variety of industrial applications. In
this book, we confine ourselves to the study of 8-bit microprocessors Intel 8085, Zilog Z-80 and
Motorola 6800, as well as the popular 8-bit microcontroller—the Intel 8051.
This book has been written after teaching the subject of microprocessors for more than two
decades, keeping in mind the difficulties faced by students in grasping the subject. We have pre-
sented the material in a lucid language, using short, simple sentences to facilitate easy reading and
understanding. Each concept has been articulated with a number of examples with emphasis on clar-
ity, in a logical sequence. To this end, the book is divided into four parts. The first part consists of
Chapters 1 to 13, and deals with the fundamentals of a microprocessor. Chapters 14 to17 make up
the second part, and focuses on assembly language programs. The programmable and non-program-
mable ports are examined in part three from Chapters 18 to 21, while the concluding portion of the
book, consisting of Chapters 22 to 30 deals with support chips.
Chapter 1 introduces the developments in electronics starting with the transistor and the early inte-
grated circuits and provides an insight into the evolution of microprocessors, microcontrollers and
digital signal processors.
Chapter 2 familiarizes students with the various parts of a computer, their main functions and the
evolution of computer languages.
Chapter 3 explains clearly the unsigned and the various signed number representations for integers
and provides an overview of signed floating-point numbers.
Chapter 4 touches upon the history of the microprocessor and deals with the fundamentals of the
8085 microprocessor, which is the main focus of this book. The various registers and the program-
mer’s view of 8085 are also introduced here.
Chapter 5 describes a typical 8085-microprocessor kit and its usage by indicating the steps needed
to write and execute a simple assembly language program.
Chapter 6 gives the classification of 8085 instructions and elaborates on the data transfer group of
instructions with meaningful examples. The various addressing modes of 8085 are also explained.
Chapter 7 deals with the arithmetic group of instructions and explains the various flags used in the
8085 microprocessor.
Chapters 8 to 10 focus on the logical, stack, and branch group of instructions respectively, explain-
ing them with suitable examples.
Chapter 11 dwells on the concept of chip selection and the use of 74138 to generate chip select
logic.
Chapter 12 discusses the need for I/O ports, their addressing and compares I/O mapped I/O with
memory mapped I/O.
Chapter 13 furnishes a detailed architecture of 8085, and explains the various machine cycles
needed for executing a variety of instructions.
Chapter 14 explains simple assembly language programs that are executed on a microprocessor kit
and also illustrates some of the commonly used monitor routines.
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xii
Chapter 15 brings out the use of a personal computer in writing an assembly language program,
translating it to machine language using an assembler, and then downloading it to the microprocessor
kit for execution.
Chapter 16 deals with complex assembly language programs. For these programs students have to
use the PC to enter the program, do the translation using the assembler, download the machine code
Preface

to the microprocessor kit, and run the program using the commands issued by the PC in serial mode.
Chapter 17 is about more complex assembly language problems. For each of these problems, the
flowchart and the program are provided along with trace for test data. This simplifies the understand-
ing of the given solution.
Chapter 18 expounds on data transfer schemes and discusses in detail about the use of interrupts in
the 8085 microprocessor. The interrupt related instructions are explained here, and we look at a num-
ber of assembly language programs that make use of interrupts.
Chapter 19 presents a detailed explanation of the working and application of the Intel 8212—a non-
programmable I/O port.
Chapter 20 is about the popular Intel 8255—a programmable peripheral interface chip. The
description, operational modes and the control words are delineated.
Chapter 21 describes some of the commonly used interface modules like logic controller, analog-
to-digital converter, digital-to-analog converter and stepper motor. A number of interesting programs
using these interface modules are illustrated.
Chapter 22 first deals with interfacing 7-segment display and matrix keyboard using latches and
tri-state gates. Then the Intel 8279—the programmable keyboard and display controller chip is
described at length. A number of useful routines using the 8279 chip are also explained.
Chapter 23 is about the Intel 8259—the programmable interrupt controller. It gives an overview of
the working of 8259, and explains the function of its pins and the programming of 8259 with and with-
out slave 8259s.
Chapter 24 covers the programmable DMA Controller—the Intel 8257. In this chapter the concept
of Direct Memory Access (DMA), the DMA controller chip and its programming are examined in
depth.
Chapter 25 describes the Intel 8253—a programmable interval timer. It explains the need for a pro-
grammable timer and succinctly spells out the various modes of operation of 8253.
Chapter 26 examines the Intel 8251—the Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Trans-
mitter (USART). It explains the asynchronous and synchronous modes of transmission and reception,
and describes the programming of the 8251.
Chapter 27 reviews the Zilog Z-80 microprocessor. With an in-depth knowledge of the 8085
microprocessor acquired from the first 26 chapters, students would be in a position to understand the
programmer’s view, new addressing modes, and the new instruction types available in Z-80. The
chapter ends with a few programming examples that provide a critical comparison of the Z-80 and
the Intel 8085.
Chapter 28 talks about the M6800 microprocessor from Motorola, which has a very simple archi-
tecture compared to 8085 or the Z-80. It describes the pins, the programmer’s view, addressing modes,
and the instruction set of M6800 and ends with a few programming examples that demonstrate its
power in spite of its simplicity.
Chapter 29 is devoted to the popular Intel 8051 microcontroller. It discusses the basics of the 8051
providing details about its functional blocks, the programmer’s view, addressing modes, and the
instruction set. A number of assembly language programming examples are provided to make students
comfortable with the instruction set of 8051.
Chapter 30, the concluding chapter, reviews the advanced topics in 8051. It deals with the interrupt
structure, timers, serial interface, structure and operation of ports, and power saving modes of 8051.
udayakumar_fm.qxp 4/16/2008 4:21 PM Page xiii

xiii
The chapter ends with the programming of EPROM in 8751, which is the EPROM version of the 8051
microcontroller.
Comments and feedback on the various topics discussed in this book are welcome.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Preface
The authors are grateful for the timely help, encouragement and support extended by Narayan Rao R.
Maanay, Secretary, B.N.M. Institute of Technology, as well as Prof. T.J. Rama Murthy, Director, and
Dr. K. Ranga, Dean of the institution. They are thankful to the reviewers for their constructive sug-
gestions, which helped in enhancing the contents of this book. Finally, the authors are indebted to their
family members for their encouragement and forbearance.
K. Udaya Kumar
B. S. Umashankar
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band of gentlemen pensioners, with a handsome salary. Thus did he
honorably retire from the practice of his loved art, secure in the
thought that although it had cost him much tribulation, yet it was
firmly established in doing its beneficent mission to the world.
This was three years after the city of Mentz was sacked and
plundered by Count Adolphus; and while others were broken up in
their avocations and forced to flee, he was spared from such a fate,
and was promoted to his own appropriate honorable place in his
native city.
Thus peacefully and in useful duties did he go down the vale of
life, until February 24, 1468, when he quitted this earthly scene, let
us trust for the happier employments of the better world. His death
seems like the calm, unclouded setting of the sun, after a
tempestuous day.
Some one has said that genius, in its general sense, is universal;
a possession belonging to all men, in some degree. Its greatest
achievement is not in a great poem or painting, or any other work of
art, but in a great life; and the strong heart and stout hands are its
most miraculous organs. He who, by the majestic dignity of his daily
walk, gives the beauty of truth to common life, is a great genius,—
because he illustrates and sets forth, in its noblest form, virtue and
true worth.
So Gutenberg, after he had done the will of God, and had been
led on to perfect the most glorious invention under the sun, had
need of patience. The Heavenly Father would not permit so chosen a
son to become perverted by unmingled prosperity.
Hence he suffered him to be disappointed, and the patient hero
was evidently blessed by his trials. He became, if never before, that
which so few attain, “commander of himself;” and this, according to
a wise author, is no small triumph. “He that ruleth his spirit is better
than he that taketh a city.”
Several trying lawsuits diversified the eventful life of Gutenberg.
They were grievous and harrowing to his sensitive feelings, but
subserve a good purpose to posterity, giving many well-
authenticated facts respecting him, which otherwise would have
been lost. Little did he think, while passing through these fiery
ordeals, that he was by them really inscribing the deeds of his life on
the scroll of fame. We moderns, seizing upon each item in the law
records as a choice morsel of literary history, are prone to forget that
they were made at the sacrifice of the peace and comfort of the
inventor.
Especially was the writ of the notary public, summoning
Gutenberg to the parlor of the Barefoot Friars, a crushing event. It
came when he was just on the point of realizing his fondest hopes,—
when the Bible was printed, and almost ready to be issued from the
press. By this process of law, he was under the necessity of
mortgaging his printing materials to Faust; this shows that his large
private fortune had been previously expended in experiments, and
that thus he had fallen into the clutches of his more wealthy partner.
Because the great invention failed to bring in money as soon as
the firm had hoped, Faust must needs take the law on Gutenberg,
seizing his printing materials, wrought out with so much thought and
toil. The presses, the plan of which had been for years ripening in
his brain, and to secure the making of which cost him so much
money, were no longer his; neither was the type which he invented
at such an expense of time, effort, and money, nor yet the
illuminated letters designed under his eye. Yes, the very initial letters
used by Gutenberg and his firm, in works executed between 1450
and 1455, were also used by Faust and Schoeffer in the Psalter of
1457 and 1459. After so much effort almost in vain, what wonder if
Gutenberg had become disheartened, and yielded to despair! Far
from that. His indefatigable spirit knew no rest; many floods could
not quench the fire of his perseverance; he started again, laid the
foundations, and successfully wrought in new printing rooms, his
Bible and his Psalter meanwhile being printed by other hands.
But there were certain considerations which alleviated the
poignancy of Gutenberg’s disappointment. He had the consolation of
knowing that he had designed the enterprise of publishing the Bible,
and that he had carried it successfully to its termination. And now,
with the magnanimity of a great soul, he was willing that others
should circulate it. Besides, he had at times a hope that he should
yet have justice done him. It was as true then as now that a man
may be disappointed in his greatest hopes in life, without, on that
account, becoming unhappy; for, as one has said, “There is no other
actual misfortune except this only, not to have God for our friend.”
And this art of printing, which had been such a trial and triumph,
such a grief and a joy, was destined to embalm his name and the
memory of his life infinitely more than if all the conquests of world-
renowned warriors were his.
 XIX.
Faust and Schoeffer’s Success.—More Books issued.—An Eventful
Year.—Greek Type.—Struck by the Plague.—The Parisians, and
Faust’s Descendants.—Schoeffer’s Death.—Testimony to
Gutenberg.—Extension of the Art.—Piety and Chess.—
Education in the Olden Time.—Unveiling the Statue.

T
o return to Faust and Schoeffer. After the lawsuit, as we have
seen, they mostly ignored the existence and services of
Gutenberg. Soon after the memorable separation, Faust
went to Paris as before related, the sales of Bibles in Germany alone
being so limited as to bring in but small returns for the money
invested. It was evidently necessary to take extraordinary measures
to meet the emergency. In Faust’s cool, business-like view,
everything would be lost, unless some speedy and marked success
was attained. His experiments resulted better even than he had
anticipated; and returning flush with money, the printing rooms soon
presented a scene of unwonted activity. The “Litterariæ
Indulgentiæ,” with which Schoeffer and his journeymen had busied
themselves during Faust’s absence, was urged through the press and
into the market.

“What a difference a little money makes!” said Faust, as he saw

how well the book was selling. “We must hasten to finish the
Psalter.”
This was ready for purchasers by August 1457. It was in the
highest style of the printing art of the age, and could not be
excelled. As Faust and Schoeffer gazed on its beautiful pages, how
could they forget the inventor who designed the publishing of the
work, and labored with them in executing it full thirty long
painstaking months! Yet they uttered few words of acknowledgment.
For two years they were occupied in striking off, binding,
embellishing, and selling the Psalter, with the additional labor of
casting a new fount of type. While Schoeffer and his assistants were
engaged in this absorbing toil, Faust again visited Paris to dispose of
the Psalter. By this means he replenished, once more, the treasury of
the firm, and returning about the time the new fount was finished,
they printed the “Durandi.”
The next year, 1460, the “Constitutiones” appeared, and in 1462
a new edition of the Latin Bible. This last was the eventful year in
which the city of Mentz was taken, sacked, and plundered by the
Elector Adolphus of Nassau. Such was the confusion and distraction
occasioned by this unlooked-for event, that almost all business was
suspended. The journeyman printers, being suddenly thrown out of
employment, fled panic-stricken to other countries; and considering
themselves freed from their oath, the great secret of thirty years
was spread abroad.
Faust and Schoeffer, left almost alone in their printing rooms,
effected little for some time. At length Schoeffer’s busy brain hit
upon something new in printing; and with his usual patience and
assiduity he fell to casting a fount of Greek type, and in 1465, some
little time after Gutenberg had retired from his art, issued “Cicero de
Officiis,” using the new Greek type. On occasion of printing anything
of special importance, Faust continued to visit Paris, then the chief
seat of learning; and so great a work as this of Cicero in Greek
would of course be welcomed with avidity by the professors and
students in the University. As soon as possible, therefore, he
hastened to that city, furnished with a good supply of the much-
coveted volume. This was early in 1466. He was received with
enthusiasm; for such had been the reputation of the previous works
circulated by him in the French metropolis, that he had a large circle
of admiring patrons and friends. But alas for the uncertainty of
earthly things! while yet in the midst of success and gratulation, he
was seized with the plague, and died after an illness of a few hours!
The Parisians were loud in their expressions of grief, and a large
concourse gathered at his funeral. The learned men and nobility of
the city assembled; distinguished honors were paid him; and the
sequel was, that in commemoration of the signal services he had
rendered them, they continued a generous pecuniary reward to his
descendants.
The dreadful shock occasioned by the death of his father-in-law,
deeply affected Schoeffer. May we not suppose that in his loneliness
and affliction, he sought a reconciliation with his old master,
Gutenberg? There is, indeed, evidence that this was the case; and
we are permitted to infer that the breach was healed, suitable
acknowledgments being made by Schoeffer, as he plainly saw that
the mortgage act which made Faust master of Gutenberg’s property,
did not include his genius. In later years he frankly confessed as
much to Trithemius, Abbot of Spanheim Monastery, a celebrated
scholar and author. Says this writer, after mentioning that he had his
information from the mouth of Peter Schoeffer, the inventor of cast
metal types:—
“About this time that wonderful and almost incredible art of
printing and characterizing books, was thought of and invented by
John Gutenberg, a citizen of Mentz.”
Then follows some of the main particulars of the invention on
which we have already dwelt. He also mentions that “Gutenberg
spent all his substance in quest of the art, and met with such
insuperable difficulties, that, in despair, he had nearly given up all
hopes of success, till he was assisted by the liberality of Faust, and
by his brother’s skill in the city of Mentz.”
Schoeffer, having associated with him Conrad Henliff, nobly
presided over the interests of the great art after Gutenberg’s death,
diligently issuing elegant editions of various books. His last work was
a new impression of his master’s superb Bible in 1502, in which year
he died, after laboring thirty-five or thirty-six years as a printer. His
monogram is connected with Faust’s; and, as we have mentioned,
some suppose this also to have been the device of Gutenberg.
 The name of Schoeffer means shepherd; and well did the
thoughtful care, caution, and ingenuity of this man aid in watching
over the young art, that needed such vigilant cherishing to bring it to
maturity. He was once Gutenberg’s right-hand man, next to him in
genius in devising, and, despite his doubtful course afterwards in
leaving him, was an honor and a blessing to his country. His son
John succeeded him in his office, and later still his grandson John
chose the same employment.
Of Costar, little can be said. Some even suppose that no such
person ever existed; while others incline to confer on him honors
which he never earned. It is certain that he did not reach the idea of
movable types. He died in 1440, when Gutenberg had been familiar
with their use for years.
The capture of Mentz, in 1462, was the means of carrying the
knowledge of the art of printing to Hamburg, Cologne, Strasbourg,
Augsburg, and other cities; and in a short time books were issued
from many places. Twenty-four different works appeared between
1460 and 1470; in the latter year two of Faust’s workmen
commenced printing in Paris. Also, in 1470, the art was practiced in
Venice. Cennini, a goldsmith, established printing at Florence; and so
industrious were the Italians that they printed between 1470 and
1480 twelve hundred and ninety-seven books, two hundred and
thirty-four of which were editions of ancient authors. Presses were
also established in the Low Countries, at Utrecht, Louraine, Basle,
and at Buda in Hungary; and, indeed, in the course of a few years,
every town of any importance possessed its printing-office, so that
books were greatly multiplied.
Several women of France early distinguished themselves in
prosecuting the art of printing. Prominent among them was
Charlotte Guillard, 1490–1540, the widow of Berthold Rambolt, who
for fifty years kept several presses at work, and printed a great
number of large and very correct editions, both in Latin and Greek.
Her best impressions were issued after she became a widow the
second time,—the Bible, the Fathers, and the works of St. Gregory in
two volumes, which were so accurate as to contain only three faults.
In brief, her fame as a printer was so extensively known that the
learned Lewis Lippeman, Bishop of Verona, selected her to print his
“Catena in Genesim.” With the accomplishment of this, he was so
well satisfied, that, after assisting at the Council of Trent, he went on
purpose to Paris to return thanks to her, and also gave her his
second volume to print, the “Catena in Exodum,” which she
performed with like precision and elegance.
Elfield was more especially noted for its productions in printing,
since Henry and Nicholas Becktermange, successors of Gutenberg,
there wrought at his presses and other printing apparatus, which
were the latest efforts in the art. Says Dibdin, “The works of these
men are greatly sought after by the curious, as they afford much
proof by collation of the genuineness of the works attributed to their
great predecessor.”
The first English printer was William Caxton, mercer, or
merchant, who became acquainted with the art while engaged in
mercantile pursuits in Germany. Returning to England, he
established the printing-press at Westminster Abbey, in 1480.
Although somewhat advanced in years when he commenced, yet
such was his industry and perseverance that he translated and
printed, in ten years, no less than twenty-five octavo volumes. These
were mostly useful literary and religious works, but did not indicate
high culture in England. The last work he issued, and on which he
was engaged when overtaken by death, was “The Art and Craft to
know well how to Die.”
After the death of Caxton, Wynken de Worde, his partner,
continued to print in his office, living in his house at Westminster,
and styling himself “Printer to Margaret, etc., the King’s Grandame.”
He printed the Acts of Parliament with the Royal Arms, also many
Latin and English books; in forty years over four hundred volumes.
It is not known that he printed any Greek works, yet he made
many improvements in the art of printing. His first care was to cut a
new set of punches; he sunk these into matrices, and cast several
sorts of printing letters, afterwards used in his books. He was the
first English printer who introduced the Roman letter into England,
using it to mark striking thoughts. His type was remarkable for its
precision, and for a long time was not excelled.

Wynken·de·Worde

The art of printing was not long in extending to other places in

England besides London. It was started in Oxford in 1480, also at St.
Albans in the same year, and many other places, among which were
York, Canterbury, Worcester, Ipswich, and Norwich. The “Common
Prayer” was printed in Dublin by Humphrey Powell, in quarto, black
letter, in 1551. Before and after that period the authors of Ireland
had their works printed abroad.
“Euclid’s Geometry,” the first work in Latin printed with diagrams,
was issued from the press of Randolt, at Venice, 1482. Aldus also
printed the works of Virgil there, in Italic types, in 1501, the first
attempt at producing cheap books.
Blaeu, who assisted Tycho Brahe in making his mathematical
instruments, effected great improvements in the printing-press. He
made nine presses, and named them after the nine Muses. His fame
soon reached England, where his excellent printing machines were
soon after introduced.
Aldus Manutius, of Venice, during a career of twenty-six years in
the employment of printing, produced editions of nearly all the
Greek and Roman authors then known to exist. He was also the
author of several works of learning,—grammars and dictionaries of
the Greek and Latin languages, the last forming a folio volume, the
first that had ever been prepared.
For nearly one hundred and fifty years the Estiennes of France
were famous as printers. Robert Stephens, a member of this family,
was the first inventor of the verses into which the New Testament is
now divided, and introduced them in his edition of it published in
1551. Harry, the eldest son of Robert Stephens, was one of the most
learned men of his time. “Thesaurus,” a dictionary of the Greek
language, was the fruit of twelve years’ hard application of the elder
Stephens, who also suffered persecution for being a Protestant, and
fled from France to reside at Geneva. The early printers were well
educated; but time and space fail us to note the many learned men
who practiced the art in different countries, who, availing themselves
of the new sources of information, added to the general stock of
knowledge as they eagerly grasped the shining treasures laid open
by the discovery of printing.
It is well known that the first printers were learned; and, being
engaged in printing from ancient and classical manuscripts, were
naturally the associates of the first literary characters of the age.
Indeed, in the infancy of printing, and long afterwards, the
occupation was very honorable, and was only engaged in by well-
educated persons. It was the glory of the learned to be known as
correctors of the press to literary printers; physicians, lawyers,
bishops, and even popes themselves occupied this department; and
a distinguished name, as corrector of the press, being given in a
work, it was far more highly valued.
 XX.
Peculiarities of the First Printed Books.—Early Printers.—Piety and
Chess.—Education in the Olden Time.—A Great Enterprise.—Unveiling
Gutenberg’s Statue.

O
n inquiring more closely respecting the peculiarities of the first
printed books and the modes of producing them, we find
that they were generally large or small folios or quartos;
lesser sizes than these not being in use. In some cases they had no
title, number of pages, or paragraph divisions. The character
employed was designed to imitate the hand-writing of the time, a
rude old Gothic or German, from which the old English was formed,
now known as German text. The words were printed so closely
together as to make reading difficult even by those accustomed to it,
while one unpracticed got on slowly and with many blunders.

The orthography used in the first books was of almost every

variety, defying method. Abbreviations were fashionable, and at
length became so numerous and so difficult to be understood that a
book or key was published, explaining them. Instead of a comma an
oblique stroke was employed. Capital letters were not used to begin
a sentence, or for proper names. Blanks were left for the places of
titles, initial letters, and other ornaments, in order to have them
supplied by illuminators, whose curious art, however, soon gave
place to the improvements of the printers. The ornaments made by
the old artists to fill the blanks were formed with singular taste;
birds, beasts, flowers, and foliage often curiously interwoven with
the most desirable colors, and even with gold and silver. Saints were
sometimes made to figure in the border of illuminated letters,
whether the subject treated required it or not. The artist had no
regard to the theme of the author in his adornments. These
embellishments were sometimes costly and elaborate; but a cheaper
kind could be had. Bibles and Breviaries were most elegantly
ornamented.
The name of the printer and his place of residence were either
omitted, or placed at the end of the book with some pious
ejaculation or doxology. There was no date, or it appeared in some
odd place, printed in words perhaps, or by numerical letters, and
sometimes partly one and partly the other, thus: “One thousand
CCCC. and LXXIII.,” but in all cases at the end of a book. The Roman
and Italic letters not being invented, the pages were uniformly
Gothic through the book. Only a few copies were issued at once;
two hundred was a large impression.
The early printer was of necessity also a bookbinder, placing his
leaves literally between boards, and making some works so heavy as
to provoke the criticism, “No man can carry them about, much less
get them into his head.” About 1469–70, alphabetical tables of the
first words of each chapter were introduced as a guide to the binder.
After the great secret of printing was spread abroad, the early
printers, in their own quaint style, took pains to inform the public
that the book they issued was printed.
Caxton said of his first book, “It is not written with pen and ink
as other books be, to the end that every man may have them at
once; for all the books of this story, thus imprinted as ye here see,
were begun in one day, and also finished in one day;” that is, the
edition.
The Mentz printers, at the end of each of their first works, made
it known that instead of being drawn or written with a pen, they
were made by a new art and invention of printing or stamping them
by characters or types of metal set in forms.
King Henry VI. was moved by the Archbishop of Canterbury to
use all possible means for procuring a printing mould, as it was then
called, to be brought into England. It is supposed that Caxton, after
the custom in other monasteries, set up his press near one of the
aisles of Westminster Abbey. The first book printed there was “The
Game of Chess,” a work then much used by all classes of people,
and “doubtless desired by the Abbot, and the rest of his friends and
masters.” Caxton translated it from the Latin of a Dominican friar,
who wrote it in the year 1200. It was in the main a good book, else
Caxton, with his decided religious principle, would not have
published it; he recommends it as “full of wholesome wisdom, and
requisite unto every state and degree.” But to us it seems a curious
mingling of amusement and advice. There were instructions for
playing the game, side by side with counsels which, according to
Caxton, would enable the people to understand wisdom and virtue.
The course of study then comprised in what was thought a good
education, was very limited. Teacher and pupil in most cases
attempted little, and accomplished little. The trivium and the
quadrivium were the two branches of what was then understood as
the liberal arts. The former included grammar, rhetoric, and
dialectics; the latter, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. It
was thought that he who became master of these studies needed no
longer a preceptor or assistance in solving any questions within the
compass of human reason.
But thorough students in these branches were seldom found,
until the dissemination of books by the art of printing gave a new
impetus to the intellect of that age.
Interesting it has been to trace step by step the passing on of
this art to perfection. Long were genius and industry engaged in its
study, and never was there so rich and glorious a harvest from
human efforts. The nurse and preserver of the arts and sciences, of
religion and civilization, was not the work of one brain solely, neither
did the gift bring peace at once, but rather strife and opposition.
Ignorance fled before it as darkness from light; the priests and
copyists were disturbed; and the way was made ready for the
bringing in of the Reformation, commencing in 1517 under Martin
Luther. For doubtless the invention of this art did more to unmask
the superstitions of the Papal church than all other causes combined.
Gutenberg’s conception and execution of printing the Bible was a
magnificent enterprise; through unparalleled difficulties, he produced
an eloquent and superb book, which is even now the admiration of
the learned. We scarcely know which most to admire, the great art,
or the noble purpose to which its incalculable power was lent. His
praise is in every land, but most of all do his countrymen love and
revere his memory. Statues of Gutenberg have been erected in
several cities of Germany, and festival occasions celebrating his
achievements are frequent. A picture of one of these days of grateful
rejoicing is the following account of a

CELEBRATION AT MENTZ.
“The modes in which a large population displays its enthusiasm
are pretty much the same throughout the world. If the sentiment
which collects men together be very heart-stirring, it will be seen in
the outward manifestations. Thus processions, orations, public
dinners, and pageantries, which in themselves are vain and empty,
are important when the persons whom they collect together are
moved by one common feeling, which sways them for the time.
“We never saw such a popular fervor as prevailed at Mentz, at
the festival of August 1857. The statue was to be uncovered on
Monday the 14th; but on Sunday evening the name of Gutenberg
was rife through the streets. In the morning, all Mentz was in motion
by six o’clock; and at eight, a procession was formed to the
Cathedral, which, if it was not much more imposing than some of
the processions of trades in London and other cities, was conducted
with a quiet precision which evinced that the people felt that they
were engaged in a solemn act. The fine old Cathedral was crowded;
the Bishop of Mentz performed High Mass; the first Bible printed by
Gutenberg was displayed. What a field for reflection was here
opened! The first Bible in connection with the imposing pageantries
of Roman Catholicism,—the Bible in great part a sealed book to the
body of the people; the service of God in a tongue unknown to the
larger number of worshippers; but that first Bible the germ of
millions of Bibles that have spread the light of Christ throughout the
veritable globe!
“The mass ended, the procession again advanced to an adjacent
square, where the statue was to be opened. Here was erected a vast
amphitheatre, where, seated under their respective banners, were
deputations from all the great cities of Europe. Amidst salvos of
artillery the veil was removed from the statue, and a hymn sung by
a thousand voices. Then came orations, then dinners, balls, orations,
boat-races, processions by torch light. For three days the population
of Mentz was kept in a state of high excitement, the echo of which
went through Germany, and “Gutenberg! Gutenberg!” was toasted in
many a bumper of Rhenish wine amidst this cordial and enthusiastic
people.
“And, indeed, even in one who could not boast of belonging to
the land in which printing was invented, the universal and mighty
effects of this art, when rightly considered, would produce almost a
corresponding enthusiasm. It is difficult to look upon the great
changes that have been effected during the last four centuries, and
which are still in progress everywhere around us, and not connect
them with printing and its inventor. The castles on the Rhine, under
whose ruins we travelled back from Mentz, perished before the
powerful combinations of the people of the towns. The petty feudal
despots fell when the burghers had acquired wealth and knowledge.
But the progress of despotism on a larger scale could not have been
arrested, had the art of Gutenberg not been discovered. The
strongholds of military power still frown over the same majestic river.
The Rhine has seen its petty fortresses crumble into decay.
Ehrenbreitstein is stronger than ever. But even Ehrenbreitstein will
fall before the powers of the mind. Seeing, then, what, under God,
intellect has done and is doing, we may well venerate the memory of
Gutenberg of Mentz.”
 XXI.
Modes of making Type.—Varieties of Type.—Cylindrical Ink-distributor.—A Modern
Printing Establishment.—Composition Room.—Cases.—Proof-reading.

L
et us now glance at the Art of Printing in modern times.

In the making of types, formerly each letter was cast, and then
finished one at a time, by hand. Now there is a process of manufacturing the
copper face by machinery, the operation being effected by the pressure of a
sharp die upon copper. And it is said that a small steam-engine can produce
one type a second, or thirty-six thousand in ten hours.
By the more ordinary process, types are made by casting type-metal in a
mould, though some of the larger sizes are manufactured from maple,
mahogany, or box-wood. The process of casting type, which is the business of
the type-founders, requires great skill. In the first place, a punch is cut, of the
letter to be formed, except that it is in reverse. The punch being of hardened
steel, and having this letter on its point, is then struck into a small piece of
copper, which is called the matrix, or form of the letter to be cast. The matrix is
now fixed in a curiously contrived instrument, termed the mould, attached to a
compact hand machine, having in the centre a small furnace of burning coal to
keep the vessel of type-metal over it liquid. The workman turns a wheel, thus
forcing melted metal into the mould, which quickly shapes and drops one after
another the types, perfect, save polishing. In some foundries there are twenty
of these machines. In this way not only every letter, but every figure, hyphen,
comma, or other mark, must have its punch and matrix, as well as its separate
casting. One machine will cast one hundred types a minute.
In the cut, a is the body; b, the face, or part from which the impression is
taken; c, the shoulder, or top of the body; d, the nick, designed to assist the
compositor in distinguishing the bottom of the face from the top; and e, the
groove made in the process of finishing.
As soon as a heap of types is cast, a boy takes them away, and breaks off
the superfluous piece at the end of each, when another rubs its sides on a
stone, to render it smooth. The face, or printing part of the type, is not
 touched after it leaves the matrix, that giving it all the
distinctness and sharpness of which it is capable.
Type-metal is a compound of lead and antimony, in the
proportion of three to one, with a small portion of tin, and
sometimes a little copper.
In Gutenberg’s day types were necessarily an imitation of
the handwriting of the monk-copyists, with little variety and
beauty. Now the types which compose an ordinary book-
fount consist of Roman CAPITALS, small capitals, and lower-
Metal Type. case letters, and Italic capitals and lower-case letters, with
accompanying figures, points and reference-marks,—in all
about two hundred characters. Including the various modern styles of fancy
types, some three or four hundred varieties of face are made. Besides the
ordinary Roman and Italic, the most important of the varieties are

Old English or Black Letter.

German Text.
Full-face, Antique, Script.
Old Style, GOTHIC.

The smallest body in common use is diamond; then follow, in order of size
as below—
 Diamond. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

Pearl. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

Agate. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

Nonpariel. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

Minion. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Brevier. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Bourgeois. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Long Primer. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Small Pica. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Pica. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
English. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Great Primer. abcdefghijklmnopqrstu

Until a comparatively recent period, no better method of inking the type

had been devised than Gutenberg’s sheep-skin dabbers, or stamping balls. Earl
Stanhope, who greatly improved the printing-press, sought by many
experiments to supply the ink by means of a revolving cylinder or roller, instead
of by the old process. The first impediment was the seam which it was
necessary to make down the whole length of the roller; and it could be kept
neither soft nor pliable. Providentially these difficulties were overcome by
observing a process in the Staffordshire potteries, in which the workmen use
what are there called dabbers. These dabbers, composed of glue and treacle,
possessed every requisite to hold and distribute the ink, spreading it evenly
over the form, besides being easily kept clean and pliable. This method was at
once seized upon by ingenious printers, who used it in time in the cylinder
form, as is common now in all printing-offices.
 Formerly, the word the was indicated by the letters y and e, thus—ye; &
was used for and; with other ungainly abbreviations. Connected letters were
also employed; c and t were joined by a curve from the top of one to the
other; and when two s’s occurred a long ſ was used.

COMPOSITION ROOM.

Instead of ponderous folios and quartos, untitled, unpaged, and

unparagraphed; without capitals, and with words so huddled together as to put
the reader to his wit’s end to make out the meaning, now we have the
beautiful pocket and library editions, convenient in size, clear and intelligible
within,—“books that you may carry to the fire and hold readily in your hand,”
as Dr. Johnson says.
We have, in imagination, visited Gutenberg’s Printing Rooms, and can
vividly recall his rude beginnings and slow and toilsome methods; his printing-
press; the wonder of that age,—only turning off a few hundred impressions per
diem. With this in mind, let us step into a representative printing establishment
of our times,—the “Riverside,” at Cambridge, Mass.; for we wish to get a just
idea of the Art of arts. We will first visit the Composition Room.
Ranged down the sides of the room we see scores of laborers industriously
at work, each one before a stand or frame, in shape similar to the music-stand
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