RESEARCH DESIGN

• It is the blueprint (the plan,

structure, and strategy) that
will guide the research
process.
It is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner
that aims to combine
relevance to the research
purpose with economy in
procedure.
•
Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the
1
course research methods
 Design decisions
• The designing decisions happen to be in respect of:
– (i) What is the study about?
– (ii) Why is the study being made?
– (iii) Where will the study be carried out?
– (iv) What type of data is required?
– (v) Where can the required data be found?
– (vi) What periods of time will the study include?
– (vii) What will be the sample design?
– (viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
– (ix) How will the data be analyzed?
– (x) In what style will the report be prepared?
2/42
 A Comparison of Basic Research Designs

Exploratory Descriptive Causal

Objective: Discovery of ideas Describe Determine cause

and insights characteristics or and effect
functions relationships
Flexible, versatile Marked by the
Characteristic prior formulation Manipulation of
s: of specific one or more
hypotheses independent
Often the front end variables
of total research Preplanned and
design structured design Control of other
mediating
Expert surveys Secondary data
variables
(delphi) Surveys
Pilot surveys Panels
Secondary data Observation and Experiments
Methods: Qualitative other data
research
 Relationship Among Research Designs
To gain To describe and measure phenomena at a
background point in time
information,
Descriptive Research
to define
terms, to
clarify
problems Exploratory
and develop Research
hypotheses,
to establish
research
priorities, to Causal Research
develop
questions to To determine causality, test hypotheses, to
be make “if-then” Causal
4
statements, to
answered answer questions
Exploratory (knowledge generation)
method: steps
• The basic exploratory method includes three steps.
It is a bottom-up or theory-generation approach to
research.
• First, the researcher starts by making observations.
• Second, the researcher studies the observations
and searches for patterns (i.e., a statement of what
is occurring).
• Third, the researcher makes a tentative conclusion
or a generalization about the pattern or how some
aspect of the world operates.
Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the
5
course research methods
Confirmatory (theory testing): Steps

• The basic confirmatory method also includes three

steps. I is a top-down or theory-testing approach to
research.
• First, the researcher states a hypothesis, which is
frequently based on existing theory (i.e., currently
available scientific explanations).
• Second, the researcher collects data to be used to
test the hypothesis empirically.
• Third, the researcher decides tentatively to accept or
reject the hypothesis on the basis of the data.
Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the
6
course research methods
 A Classification Research Designs

Research Design

Exploratory Research
Design Conclusive Research
Design

Descriptive
Causal Research
Research

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal
Design Design
 Figure 3.6 Cross Sectional vs. Longitudinal Designs

Cross Sectional vs. Longitudinal Designs

Cross Sample
Sectional Surveyed
Design at T1

Sample Same
Longitudinal
Surveyed Sample
Design
at T1 also
Surveyed
at T2
Time T1 T2
 Types: crosssectional
• Data are collected from the research
participants at a single point in time or
during a single, relatively brief time
period (i.e., a period long enough to
collect data from all of the participants
selected to be in the study).
• Crosssectional could be single (Different
groups at the same time)
Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the
9
course research methods
 Types: longitudinal
• In longitudinal research, the data are
collected at more than one time point
or during more than one data-
collection period, and the researcher
is interested in making comparisons
across time.

Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the

10
course research methods
 Longitudinal: types
• A trend study is the form of longitudinal research in
which independent samples (samples composed of
different people) are taken from a general
population over time and the same questions are
asked of the samples of participants.
• Panel study: The defining characteristic of a panel
study is that the same individuals are studied at
successive points over time. The researcher’s goal is
to understand why the panel members change over
time. Because the researcher starts in the present
and moves forward in time, the term prospective
study is also applied.
Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the
11
course research methods
RELATIVE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS-
SECTIONAL DESIGNS

Evaluation Cross-Sectional Longitudinal

Criteria Design Design
Detecting
change - +

Large amount
of data
collection - +

Accuracy - +

Representative
sampling + -

Response
bias + -
Note: A + indicates a relative advantage over the other design whereas a - indicates
a relative disadvantage.
 Research Design Categories
• Quantitative: numbers, closed-ended, data hypotheses,
experiments, deductive
– A means for testing objective theories by measurement of variables
– Use when research problem calls for understanding of causality/influence,
results of intervention, prediction of outcomes.
• Qualitative: words, open-ended, interviews, ethnography,
inductive
– A means for exploring meaning ascribed to social or human problems
– Use when problem is not well-understood and requires exploration
• Mixed – can be combination of Quantitative and
Qualitative in parallel, series, or transformational
combination
– Use when problem can not be accurately assessed using only one design.
 Research Methods
 Ask yourself are you seeking to
• How to collect, analyze, prove or disprove a theory? Or
are you trying to generalize your
and interpret data? findings to a population?
 If so this will be a deductive
• Quantitative: Closed- approach, a quantitative approach
ended , pre-determined  Or are you hoping to elicit some
understandings on what people
questions, observational think or feel about an issue? Is
the topic an area that there is
or instrumented little information and so you must
numeric data, statistical undertake an initial, exploratory
study?
analysis/interpretation  If so, this will be induction, a
• Qualitative: Open- qualitative approach

ended, pre-determined
or evolving questions,
non-numeric data
• Mixed: Some of each
 Ideal for: quantitative VS
• Research process is
qualitative
• Research process is inductive.
deductive. • Document social reality, meaning
• Measure objective facts. is constructed.
• Focus on variables. • Focus on in-depth meaning.
• Firewall between research • Values are present & explicit
process and researchers’ (empathy).
values. • Contextual dependence.
• Cross-contextual. • Few cases.
• Many cases. • Thematic analysis
• Statistical analysis • Loosely structured research
• Highly structured research process.
process. • Holistic perspective
• Particularistic, specific • Intimacy with data
• Separation from data • Generalization to properties and
• Generalize to population contexts

Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the

15
course research methods
 Main Steps in
Quantitative/qualitative Research
1. General research question
1. Theory 2. Select relevant site(s) and
2. Hypothesis subjects
3. Research design 3. Collection of relevant data
4. Devise measures of 4. Interpretation of data
concepts 5. Conceptual and
5. Select research site(s) theoretical work
6. Select research 6. Tighter specification of
subjects/respondents the research question
7. Administer research 7. Collection of further data
instruments/ collect data 8. Conceptual and
8. Process data theoretical work
9. Analyse data 9. Write up findings
10. Write up findings and
conclusions

Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the

16
course research methods
 Narrative Phenomenology Grounded Ethnography Case Study
Dimension Theory

Focus •Exploring the • Understanding • Developing a • Describing and • Developing an

life of an the essence of theory grounded interpreting a in-depth
individual experiences from data in the cultural or analysis of a
about a field social group single case or
phenomenon multiple cases

Data • Primarily • Long interviews • Interviews with • Primarily • Multiple

Collection interviews and with up to 10 20-30 observations sources
documents people individuals to and interviews including
“saturate” with additional documents,
categories and artifacts during archival records,
detail a theory extended time in interviews,
the field (e.g. observations,
6 months to a • Physical
year) artifacts

Data • Stories • Statements • Open coding • Description • Description

Analysis • Epiphanies (specific life- • Meanings • Axial Coding • Analysis • Themes
changing events) • Meaning themes • Selective • Interpretation • Assertions
• Historical content • General Coding
description of the • Conditional
experience Matrix

Narrative • Detailed picture • Description of the • Theory or • Description of • In-depth study

Form of an individual’s “essence” of the theoretical the cultural of a “case” or
life experience model behavior of a “cases”
group or an
individual
 PHENOMENOLOGY
• Phenomenology refers to the description of one or more
individuals’ consciousness and experience of a phenomenon,
such as the death of a loved one, viewing oneself as a teacher,
the act of teaching, the experience of being a minority group
member, or the experience of winning a soccer game.
• The purpose of phenomenological research is to obtain a view
into your research participants’ life-worlds and to understand
their personal meanings (i.e., what something means to them)
constructed from their “lived experiences

Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the

18
course research methods
 Grounded theory
• “Grounded theory is a general methodology for
developing theory that is grounded in data
systematically gathered and analy”
• The product of the grounded theory methodology is
frequently called a grounded theory. Therefore, when
you do grounded theory research, your goal is to
construct a grounded theory.
• It is important to understand that a grounded theory is
not generated a priori (i.e., based only on reasoning).
Rather, a grounded theory is based on concepts that
are generated directly from the data that are collected
in one or more research studies.

Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the

19
course research methods
 Open coding
• Open coding is the first stage in grounded theory data analysis. It begins
after some initial data have been collected, and it involves examining the
data (usually reading transcripts line by line) and naming and categorizing
discrete elements in the data.
• In other words, it involves labeling important words and phrases in the
transcribed data.
• For example, let’s say that you have collected interview data from 20
participants. You are reading an interview transcript, and it says, “I believe
that two important properties of a good teacher are caring about your
students and motivating them to learn.”
• From this phrase, you might generate the concepts teaching techniques,
caring about students, and motivating students. Open coding means
finding the concepts like this in your data. As you continue open coding,
you would continue to see whether teaching techniques are reflected again
in future comments by the same person or by another person in another
• interview.

Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the

20
course research methods
 Axial coding
• Axial coding follows open coding.
• During axial coding, the researcher develops the
concepts into categories (i.e., slightly more abstract
concepts) and organizes the categories.
• Axial coding: it is the process of drawing a relationship
between a category and its sub categories. It identifies
the central phenomenon, causal conditions, strategies
(activities or action resulted from), context ,
intervening conditions (narrow and brad conditions
that influence the phenomenon), and consequence
(outcome of strategies).

Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the

21
course research methods
 Axial coding

• The researcher then looks to see what kinds of things the

participants mentioned many times (i.e., what themes
appeared across the interviews).
• The researcher also looks for possible relationships among
the categories in the data. A goal is to show how the
phenomenon operates (i.e., showing its process).
• The researcher also asks questions like, How is the
phenomenon manifested? What are its key features? What
conditions bring about the phenomenon? What strategies
do participants use to deal with the phenomenon? What
are the consequences of those strategies?

Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the

22
course research methods
 Selective coding
• Selective coding is the stage of data analysis in which
the researcher puts the finishing touches on the
grounded theory for the current research study.
• In particular, this is where the grounded theorist looks
for the story line of the theory (i.e., the main idea) by
reflecting on the data and the results that were
produced during open coding and axial coding.
• The researcher will usually need to continue to collect
and analyse the data but with more focus on the
central idea of the developing theory.

Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the

23
course research methods
 Selective coding
• Ultimately, it is during selective coding that the researcher
writes the story, explaining the grounded theory.
• Here the researcher fleshes out the details of the theory.
• Selective coding also involves rechecking the theory with the
data to make sure that no mistakes were made.
• The researcher also goes to the published literature during
selective coding for additional ideas to consider in developing
the grounded theory and in understanding its broader
significance.

Lecture note by Tekalign Nega for the

24
course research methods
 Process to plan an
• interview
Iidentify the objectives • prepare an interview
schedule (if appropriate)
• Ddecide whether to • pilot and refine the
undertake individual or research instrument (if
group interviews appropriate)
• keep a full record of the
• Determine the most interview
appropriate structure - • note the relevance to
fully structured, semi- interviewees - sell the
idea
structured or
• the ethical implications
unstructured (informal). of your study
Think about the
implications of your
choice
 Interview skills

• think about the motivations of interviewees and their

implications
• listen more than you speak
• build trust - know about the respondent , use appropriate
language (student/researcher, interview/discussion), show
interest and enthusiasm
• ask straightforward questions
• consider the location of the interview
• begin with the general (things people know - build
confidence)
• keep to time
 Probes to focus the discussion
• basic probe - repeat the question if the interviewee is going
off the point.
• explanatory probes e.g. ‘What did you mean by that?’
‘What makes you say that?’
• focused probes for specific information e.g. ‘What sort
of...?’
• silent probe - pause and let them break the silence
• drawing out e.g. ‘Tell me more about that...’ or ‘What
happened then...?’
• mirroring or reflecting - express what the interviewee has
said for clarification or to prompt them to review
• NOTE: be careful with prompts - use the same ones with
everyone (perhaps have a list prepared).
 Group interviews/ focus groups

• Similar to in-depth interviews but conducted with a

group
• Interaction between subjects takes place was well
as interaction between interviewer and subject
• Researcher is facilitator or just observer
• Use when particular group is important in a study
but small group, or cannot be easily identified as
group
• Possible strong characters dominating group
• 5/12 participants, justify choices. Tape/video
record it, then transcribe and group answers.
 Strengths and Weakness: Quantitative vs
• Deals with large numbers of
Qualitative
•
•
Research in natural settings
Emphasis on informant interpretations and meanings
• Seek deep understanding of informants world
cases • Humanising research process by raising the role of the
researched
• Capable of examining complex • High levels of flexibility in research process
patterns of interactions between • Problems of reliability (replicating)
variables • “Subjectivity” (collection and analysis)
• Observations may be selectively reported making it impossible
• Makes possible the verification •
to gauge the extent to which they are typical
Risk of collecting meaningless and useless information from
of the presence of cause and participants.
effect relationships between • Problems of ethics: Entering the personal world of the
participant
variables • Very time consuming
• Lacks in-depth information
• Ignores individual perspectives
and experiences
• Limited with topics we know
little about
• Can be built on pre-existing
biases of the researcher
• The case of questionnaires (Language
used; Ordering of questions; Forced response formats; what if ‘it
depends…’?, Missing data; Sampling issues; Response rates; Lies,
lies and statistics; torturing your data until it confesses)
 Qualitative methods

When to use Skills needed

• Requires knowledge and skills about
•When variables cannot be methodology, setting and nature of the
quantified issue.
•When variables are best • Familiarity with own biases, assumptions,
understood in their natural settings expectations, and values.
•When variables are studied over • Empathy, intelligence, energy, and
real time rather than apparent time interest in listening
•When studying intimate details of • Openness to embracing multiple realities.
roles, processes, and groups
• Preparation to produce detailed,
•When the paramount objective is comprehensive, and sometimes lengthy
“understanding”
reports.
 The Credibility of Qualitative Analysis
depends on three distinct but related inquiry
elements:
1 Rigorous techniques and methods for gathering high-
quality data that is carefully analysed, with attention to
issues of validity, reliability, and triangulation;
2 The credibility of the researcher, which is dependent
on training, experience, track record, status, and
presentation of self;
3 Philosophical belief in the phenomenological
paradigm, that is, a fundamental appreciation of
naturalistic inquiry, qualitative methods, inductive
analysis and holistic thinking.
 Common stages of analysis:
Qualitative
• Familiarisation with the • Re-coding.
data through review, • Development of provisional
reading, listening etc. categories.
• Transcription of tape • Exploration of relationships
recorded material. between categories.
• Organisation and indexing • Refinement of themes and
of data for easy retrieval
and identification. categories.
• Anonymising of sensitive • Development of theory and
data. incorporation of pre-existing
• Coding (or indexing). knowledge.
• Identification of themes. • Testing of theory against the
data.
• Report writing, including excerpts
from original data if appropriate
(e.g., quotes from interviews).