SOCIAL STUDIES

Student Textbook

Grade 8
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Sidaama National Regional State
Ministry of Education Education Bureau
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 SOCIAL STUDIES
Student Textbook
Grade 8
Writers and Editors Birhanu Futura (M.A.)
Debebe Biftu (M.A.)
Gelaye Tafesse (M.A.)
Sintayehu Demeke (M.A.)
Reviewers Debebe Biftu (M.A.)
Sintayehu Demeke (M.A.)

Team Leader Nadamo Lamiso (M.A.)

Advisory and Quality Debebe Biftu (MA)

Assurence Team Sintayehu Demeke (MA)

Illustrator Anteneh Million (B.A.)

Designer Geda Hoka (M.A.)

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Sidaama National Regional State

Ministry of Education Education Bureau
 Acknowledgement

This book is prepared by the Sidama National Regional State Education

Bureau based on the textbook preparation documents prepared by the
Ministry of Education in accordance with the recommendations of the
Education and Training Roadmap. The cost of preparation and publication
is covered by the Sidama National Regional State and the FDRE Ministry
of Education General Education Certification Program-E (GEQIP-E).

Therefore, the Education Bureau would like to thank all those who directly
or indirectly supported the preparation of the book in terms of funding,
manpower and materials, providing the necessary information, approving
their institution, sharing their experience and knowledge, and so on.

©The book is the official copyright of the Sidama Regional Education

Bureau.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted

in any form or by any means (including electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording

or otherwise) either prior written permission of the copyright owner or a license permitting

restricted copying in Ethiopia by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Federal

Negarit Gazeta ,Proclamation No. 410/2004 Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Protection

Proclamation, 10 th year, No. 55, Addis Ababa, 19 July 2004.

2014 E.C.
Hawassa, Sidaama
Ethiopia
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PHYSICAL
UNIT ONE CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE EARTH 1
1.1. FORCES SHAPING THE EARTH’S SURFACE 2
1.2. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH’S
ATMOSPHERE22
1.3. ELEMENTS AND CONTROLS OF WEATHER AND
CLIMATE27
UNIT SUMMARY  48
REVIEW EXERCISES 52

PEOPLE AND
UNIT TWO SOCIOECONOMIC
ACTIVITIES 55
2.1. CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND CHANGES 56
2.2. MAJOR ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES 65
2.3. TRADE, MARKET AND GOVERNMENT REVENUE AS
THE CURRENT NATIONAL AND LOCAL CONCERN 75
2.4. GOVERNMENT REVENUE AND TAX 84
UNIT SUMMARY 87
REVIEW EXERCISES 90
 NATURAL
UNIT RESOURCES AND
THREE SOCIO ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT 93
3.1. CONSERVATION AND UTILIZATION OF NATURAL
RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 94
3.2. CONSEQUENCES OF UNWISE UTILIZATION OF
NATURAL RESOURCES ON WATER, AIR AND SOIL.  105
3.3. RESOURCE ACCESSIBILITY & RESOURCE BASED
CONFLICTS:  108
UNIT SUMMARY 111
REVIEW EXERCISES 113

UNIT EARLY MODERN

FOUR AND MODERN
WORLD HISTORY 115
4.1. THE GREAT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES 116
4.2. RENAISSANCE, REFORMATION AND COUNTER
REFORMATION118
4.3. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 123
4.4. THE TWO WORLD WARS  127
4.5. THE COLD WAR 137
UNIT SUMMARY 141
REVIEW EXERCISES 144
UNIT FIVE AFRICA SINCE 1500s
147
5.1. SLAVERY AND THE SLAVE TRADE 148
5.2. COLONIALISM IN AFRICA 153
5.3. INDEPENDENT AFRICAN STATES AND THE
MOVEMENT FOR ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL
INTEGRATION  160
UNIT SUMMARY 167
REVIEW EXERCISES 169

MODERN HISTORY
UNIT SIX
OF ETHIOPIA
171
6.1. FORMATION OF MODERN EMPIRE STATE  172
6.2. LONG DISTANCE TRADE AND MEDIUM OF
EXCHANGE180
6.3. ETHIOPIA AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD  183
6.4. THE UNITY OF ETHIOPIANS IN DEFENCE OF THEIR
SOVEREIGNTY AND TERRITORIAL INTEGRITY 184
UNIT SUMMARY 192
REVIEW EXERCISES 194
 UNIT CONTEMPORARY
SEVEN GLOBAL ISSUES 197
7.1. CLIMATE CHANGE  198
UNIT SUMMARY 206
REVIEW EXERCISES 208
 1. PHYSICAL
UNIT CHARACTERISTICS
ONE OF THE EARTH

Introduction
In grade seven (unit one) you Physical Characteristics of the
have learned about the physical Earth. The major topics to be
characteristics of the earth, covered include, the Forces
origin of the earth and the solar shaping the earth’s surface
systems, external components of (internal forces, external forces
the earth (lithosphere, biosphere, and resultant land forms),
hydrosphere) and internal structure Composition and structures of the
and sources of information about Earth’s atmosphere, definition of
the internal parts of the earth ( weather and climate, Elements and
crust, mantle, core) of the earth. controls of weather and climate,
diurnal and seasonal variation of
In this unit, you will learn about weather.
 Grade 8 Social Studies

Unit Outcomes

After completing this unit, students will be able to:

📕 Differentiate between internal and external forces shaping the

surface of the earth;
📕 Identify the types of land forms formed by the earth`s internal
and external forces;
📕 Describe the different thermal and compositional layers of the
Earth`s atmosphere;
📕 Distinguish between weather and climate;
📕 Identify elements and controls of weather and climate.

1.1. Forces Shaping the Earth’s Surface

Competencies

After completing this lesson, students will be able to:

📕 describe internal and external forces shaping the surface of the
earth;
📕 identify land forms created by external and internal forces; and
📕 explain how the earth’s internal and external force affects
human life.

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 KEY TERMS

🔑 Folding 🔑 Faulting 🔑 Volcanism

🔑 Rift valley 🔑 Earthquake 🔑 Erosion

1.1.1. Internal or tectonic forces and resultant

land forms

What is internal force?

Internal forces are sometimes called endogenous forces. They drive energy
from the interior part of the earth. These forces create irregularities on the
surface of the earth. Internal forces form the ups and downs on the earth’s crust
by breaking and bending it. These ups and downs are the results of folding,
faulting, earthquake and volcanism.

A. Folding
What is folding? How it is formed?
Folding is one of the internal processes which occurs when two forces act
towards each other from opposite sides. Due to this force, rock layers are
bent into folds. The process of folding is the result of compressional force.
In principle folding include the entire bend that ranges from microscopic
wrinkling to domes and basin.

Figure 1.1 Folded Structure

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A fold arching upward is called an anticline and one arching downward is a

syncline. The sides of a fold are called the limbs.

Results of folding are the formation of different Fold Mountains in the world.
Fold mountains are usually formed from sedimentary rocks and are usually
found along the edges of continents. This is because the thickest deposits of
sedimentary rock generally accumulated along the edges of continents. The
resultant landforms can be formed as a result of folding are fold mountains.
There are two types of Fold Mountains: young fold mountains (10 to 25
million years of age, example, the Atlas, Rockies and the Himalayas) and old
fold mountains (over 200 million years of age, example, the Cape Range, the
Urals in Russia and the Appalachians. These processes of mountain building
are called Orogeny.

Figure 1.2 Sycline and Anticline

B. Faulting
What is faulting? What are the causes for faulting?
Movements in the crust of the earth sometimes make cracks. These cracks
are called faults. Faulting can be caused by either lateral or vertical forces,
which can be either tension or compression. Tension causes a normal fault, and
compression causes a reverse fault.
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Figure1.3 Reverse Fault | Figure1.4. Normal reverse fault

There are two major landforms that can be formed as a result of faulting they
are

📕 Rift valley
📕 Block mountains
I. Rift valleys
What is rift valley? How rift valleys are formed?
A rift valley is a linear shaped lowland area between highlands or mountain
ranges created by geologic rifts or faults. The largest rift valley in the world
is the East African Rift Valley. It extends from Syria to Mozambique, passing
through the Red Sea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, DR Congo, Rwanda
and Burundi. The total length of the East African Rift Valley is about 7,200 km,
of which 5,600 km is in Africa. The Ethiopian Rift Valley is a part of the East
African Rift Valley. It extends from northeast to south west. Features found in
the Rift Valley include active volcanoes, lakes, hot springs and fumaroles.

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Figure 1.5 Rift valleys of Africa

II. Block (Horst) Mountains

How Block Mountains are formed?
Block Mountains are formed when land between two parallel faults is pushed
upward due to pressure from inside the earth. If there are two parallel faults,
the crustal block between them may either rise to produce a Horst (block)
mountain, or fall, to produce a rift valley. Examples: The Afar block mountain
in Ethiopia and the Ruwenzori in West Africa.

Figure1.6 Formation of block mountain (Horst)

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C. Volcanism
What is Volcanism? Discuss the major volcanic areas in Ethiopia
Volcanism is the process by which magma, gases, water vapor, ashes and other
solid materials are forced out to the surface. It is another internal force which
changes the surface of the earth, which is caused by internal movements within
the earth. Inside the earth the temperature is very hot. This high temperature
changes rocks into molten magma. When this magma reaches the surface,
volcanic activity takes place. The out pouring of this liquid (molten) rock onto
the surface is called lava. Magma is the molten rock when it is underground.
When the magma emerges on to the surface, it cools and hardens.

Figure 1.7 a) Volcanism

Magma reaches the earth’s surface through two kinds of holes. They are vents
and fissures. Magma may force its way violently through a small hole called
a vent. If lava emerges via a vent, it builds up into a volcano (cone-shaped
mound), and if it emerges via a fissure, it builds up to form a lava plateau or
lava flow. Magma may pour quietly through long cracks (fissures) onto the
earth’s surface.

If the magma flows to the surface through a vent, a crater is formed Sometimes
a volcano erupts very forcefully. When this happens, the top part of the volcano
is blown away. This forms a large crater called a caldera. Water collects in the
crater or in the caldera and forms a lake. We call this a Crater Lake or caldera
lake. In Ethiopia there are many crater lakes such as Zuquala, Wonchi and
Dendi.

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If an eruption begins again in a caldera, a new small cone-shaped volcano is

formed inside the caldera. These are known as caldera cones.In volcanic areas,
where water sinks deep enough to be heated by the magma the superheated
water carrying the dissolved minerals may flow quietly out of the earth’s crust
to form a hot spring. When a hot water and steams are ejected through a vent,
it is called a geyser Part of the magma may not reach the earth’s surface, and
when this magma cools, solidifies and forms rocks inside the crust, features
such as batholiths, laccoliths, sills and dikes, are formed.

L Batholiths: - are a very large mass of magma which

accumulates in the crust. It is the largest structure.

L Laccoliths: - are mushroom shaped bodies of intrusive igneous

rock .Smaller than batholiths.

L A dike: - is formed when magma solidifies in a vertical or

near-vertical crack.

L A sill: - is formed when magma solidifies horizontally or

nearly horizontally along a bedding plane.

Major landforms formed by volcanism

If the magma comes out through vent, a crater is formed whereas when it erupts
through fissures caldera can be formed. Caldera is larger than crater. When both
are filled with water crater or caldera lakes are formed. When volcano erupted
violently or explosively through a small hole volcanic mountain is formed.

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Figure 1.8 Volcanic landforms

Table 1.1: Type of Volcanoes

Types Features Example
Active vol- Erta’li, FentaleDubbi
Erupts from time to time
cano and Damiali
Dormant Has not erupted for a long time
Tatali and Dabbahu
volcano but may erupt again in thefuture
Extinct Has not erupted within historic- Mt. Zuquala, Ras-
volcano time Dashen and Batu

Importance of volcanic eruptions:

✅ Provide fertile soil
✅ Creation of new land
✅ Provide hot springs (with medical value)
✅ Generate geothermal energy and
✅ Help in the formation and concentration of minerals
✅ It can also provides information about internal forces of the earth.

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D. Earthquake
What is an earthquake? How earthquakes do occurs?
An Earthquake is shaking of the ground caused by the sudden (unpredictable)
movements in the earth’s crust. They are caused by internal movements deep
down inside the earth. Earthquakes are frequently associated with faults.
They take place along fault lines where the earth’s crust is weak. When an
earthquake occurs, vibrations from the Centre spread out in the form of waves
in all directions.

The point at which an earthquake originates is called the focus. The point on
the earth’s surface immediately above the focus is called the epicenter.

Figure 1.9 An earthquake`s waves, focus and epicenter

The intensity of an earthquake is measured by an instrument called a

seismometer, commonly known as a seismograph. It records the vibrations
produced by an earthquake. The scale which gives the magnitude is called the
Richter scale. Scientists assign a magnitude rating to earthquakes based on the
strength and duration of their seismic waves. A quake measuring to 5 would
be considered minor or light; 5 to 7 is moderate to strong; 7 to 8 is major and
8 or more is great.

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Effects of Earthquakes
Earthquake leads to loss of life and destruction of property, landslides and deep
cracks in surface rocks, the rise or lowering of the sea floor, displacement of
parts of the earth’s crust vertically or laterally and the devastation of cities, fires
and diseases.

Figure 1.10 Destruction caused by earthquakes

Earthquakes take place in many parts of the world. However, frequent

occurrences are observed along certain belts. 80% of all seismic energy
generated around a belt that is found at the east- west border of the Pacific
Ocean. This place is called the pacific ring of fire.

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Figure 1.11: Major Zones of Earthquake

Activity 1.1
Being in group discuss on the following questions

1. Discus the following issues and questions in pairs.

I) Folding IV) Volcanism
II) Faulting V) Earthquakes
III) Rift valley

2. Explain the characteristics of

I) Active Volcano III) Dormant Volcano.
II) Extinct volcano

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1.1.2. External or gradational forces and

resultant land forms.

What are external forces?

External forces are the forces that act upon the earth’s surface from outside.
They are also known as exogenous processes.

These include weathering, mass movement, erosion, transportation and

deposition. These forces are responsible in the formation of different land
features on the surface of the earth. These forces level the ups and downs of
the earth’s surface and this process is called denudation. They also raise the
level of the land by deposition. Denudation consists of weathering and erosion.

A. Weathering
Weathering is the disintegration or decomposition of rocky materials of the
earth’s crust. It results in the formation of a covering of rock wastes which
sometimes are called regolith. Generally, the term weathering refers to the
processes that change the physical and chemical character of rock at or near
the surface. Weathering is a relatively long, slow process.

Types of weathering

I. Physical (Mechanical) Weathering

Discuss physical weathering and main agents of physical weathering?

Mechanical weathering is the mechanical fragmentation of rocks which is
accomplish by physical forces which broke the rocks into smaller pieces without
changing the mineral composition. Its main agents (causes) are temperature
changes, frost action and the action of plants and animals.

The effects of temperature changes: The temperature variation between day

and night causes rock to expand and to contract. This process causes cracks to
develop. In time, the cracked layer peels off and falls to the ground this process
is called exfoliation.

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Figure 1:12 Exfoliation domes

The effects of frost action: Due to frost action, rock breaks up into pieces and
these fragments accumulate around the lower slopes of the rock. Frost action
is very common in the winter season in the temperate zone and in some high
mountains all year round.

Water -filled crack Freezes to ice Breaks Rocks

Figure 1.13 the breaking of rocks by the action of frost

The effects of plant and animal action: Plants and animals also cause
weathering. For example, seeds may fall in cracks of rocks. If water collects
there, it forms suitable conditions for the seeds to germinate and grow. As

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plants develop their roots may push the rock apart. Some animals burrow, and
this also helps to break up rocks.

Figure 1.14 breaking of rock by a plant

II. Chemical Weathering

Discuss chemical weathering and main agents of Chemical Weathering?

Chemical weathering is the process by which rocks and minerals undergo
changes in their composition. Agents of chemical weathering include water,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acid precipitation. The interaction of these agents
with rock can cause some substances to dissolve, and some new minerals to
form.

B. Erosion and deposition

Erosion
Define the term erosion? What are the major agents of erosion?
Erosion is the movement of broken rock and soil particles from one place to
another by the different agents like running water, stream, wind, and glacier
sea waves.

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Causes of Soil Erosion

What are the causes of soil erosion?
L Physical causes: - involve a combination of the following physical
factors: steepness of slope, the intensity, duration and seasonality of
rainfall, soil type (example, texture) and vegetation cover.

L Human causes: - have to do with human interference with natural

processes, including deforestation, overgrazing and bad farming
practices which deplete plant cover, leaving the land exposed and
vulnerable to erosion.

A. Erosion by Running Water

Rivers are the most important of all natural agents which help in shaping the
earth’s surface. The work of running water includes eroding, transporting and
depositing eroded material. Running water results three types of erosion. These
are;

L Sheet erosion develops when running water erodes the surface

uniformly.

Fig 1.15 Erosion by sheet flow

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L Rill erosion develops when running water cuts small channels.

Figure 1. 16 Rill Erosion

L Gully erosion is formed when a rill are more widened and deepen.

Fig 1.17 Gully erosion

There are three main types of processes that occur in a river. These are erosion,
transportation and deposition. These processes depend on the amount of energy
of the river and acts on the different courses of the river. Accordingly, different
landforms can be formed. The followings are the major landforms that can be
formed at three courses of river.

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Figure 1.18 three stages of a river

Upper Course: - In this stage the river water is usually small in volume. As
the river flows very fast down, steep-slopes, a V-shape valley, waterfalls and
deep gorges are formed. The fast flow of the river causes vertical erosion and
destruction. The V-shape valley has steep sides and a narrow floor. The fast
flowing river cuts down deeply into the land. Example:-Tis Abay water fall.

Figure 1.19 Features of the Upper courses of a river

The Middle Course: - during a river’s middle course, the river valley becomes
wider and larger. The river may receive waters of many tributaries, which
increase the volume of water. Wide-floored valleys with gentle slopping sides

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are the main features of the middle course of the river. Instead of taking the most
direct course possible, the river begins to meander. Meanders are pronounced
curves in the course of a river.

Figure 1.20 Features of the Middle courses of a river

The Lower Course:-The river flows fast, meandering over wide plains, and
makes widespread deposition. The load is so large that deposition occurs.
Flat flood plains, big meanders, levees, ox-bow lakes and deltas are the main
features of this course.

Figure 1.21 Features of the lower courses of a river

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Figure 1.22 Rivers profile

Wind Erosion: - is the most common form of erosion in dry and treeless areas
where the soil is exposed. The dry and unprotected topsoil from fields is
blown away. Wind forces are capable of removing all of an area’s topsoil and
transporting it several thousand kilometers away. Wind erosion is common in
desert and semi-desert area where there is no vegetation cover.

Figure 1.23 Wind Erosion

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Deposition
What is deposition?
Deposition is the final result of erosion. Rocks, sands and silt picked by water,
wind and ice are deposited in a number of ways. Stream and rivers carry sand
and silt downstream from uplands to lowlands. They drop these materials
wherever the volume or the speed of the flow of water and wind lessens, and
the eroded material can no longer be carried. The newly deposited soils form
alluvial plains along stream beds, in the foothills, at the base of mountain, and
on coastal plains.

Moreover, wind is also erosional and depositional agent. It forms different

landforms, such as sand dunes, barchans and loess deposits.

✅ Sand dune is a small hill of sand formed by the action of the wind.
✅ Barchans is a sand hill that has a crescent-moon shape.
✅ Loess deposit is a deposition of fertile soil in the desert by wind.

Activity 1.2
Answer the Following Questions

1. Describe the cause of erosion?

2. Discuss the types of erosion by running water?
3. Discus types of weathering?
4. What are the major agents of erosion

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1.2. Composition and Structure of the

Earth’s Atmosphere

Competencies

After completing this lesson, students will be able to:

📕 explain the composition of Earth’s atmosphere; and
📕 describe the different layers of Earth’s Atmosphere and their
characteristics.

 KEY TERMS

🔑 Mesosphere 🔑 Thermosphere 🔑 Stratopause

🔑 Stratosphere 🔑 Troposphere

1.2.1. Composition of the earth’s atmosphere

What is Atmosphere? What are Components of Atmosphere?

The earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of gases, suspended dust particles and
condensed moisture droplets which are collectively known as aerosols.

What are Components of Atmosphere?

The atmosphere consists of a mixture of gases, water vapor and dust particles.
These gases may be grouped in to two permanent and Variable gases.

A. Permanent Gases
What are permanent gases?
Permanent gases are gases which are always found in the same proportion in
the atmosphere.

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Table 1.2 Permanent gases

Gas Symbol Volume of Dry Molecular

Air (%) Weight
Nitrogen N2 78.084 28.02
Oxygen O2 20.095 32.00
Argon Ar 0.93 9.88
Neon Ne 0.0018 20.18
Helium He 0.0005 4.00
Methane CH4 0.0001 _
Hydrogen H2 0.0005 2.02
Xenon Xe 0.000009 _
Carbon dioxide Co2 0.0314 _
B. Variable Gases
Variable gases are gases present in different quantities at different time and
places in the lower atmosphere. Among these gases the most important ones
are water vapor, ozone and carbon dioxide.

Table 1.3 Variable gases

Gas Symbol Volume (%)

Water Vapor H2O 0 to 4
Carbon dioxide Co2 0.034
Ozone O3 0.000004
Carbon monoxide CO 0.000002
Sulfur dioxide SO2 0.000001
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 0.000001
Dust particles - 0.000001

1.2.2. Structure of earth’s atmosphere

What are the thermal and compositional structures of atmosphere?

The atmosphere is an envelope of transparent, odorless gases held to the earth
by gravitational attraction. Most of the atmosphere is concentrated within 16km
of the earth’s surface at the equator and 8km at the poles. The information

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received from satellite weather station indicated that the pattern of temperature
distribution throughout the atmosphere changes with change in altitude. On
the basis of this temperature variation the following layers of atmosphere are
identified.

A. Troposphere
This is the thinnest and the lowest layer of the atmosphere which extends up to
16km above the surface. It contains 75% of the total atmospheric mass and thus
it is responsible for all weather conditions that occur. As a result sometimes it
is called ‘the weather sphere’. This layer contains most of the atmospheric
gases, like, water vapor, cloud, dust and pollution. There is a general decrease
in temperature with an increase in height in the troposphere. The top of the
troposphere is known as tropopause and extends between 16-20kms.

Focus
Within Troposphere, temperature decreases by 6.40C for every
1000m rise in altitude. This is known as environmental lapse rate
or normal lapse rate.

B. Stratosphere
Why temperature increases with increase in height in the stratosphere?
This layer extends up to 50km from the tropopause. It is characterized by a
steady increase in temperature with increase in altitude and reaches maximum
at the upper level (around 50km) where its temperature approaches the surface
temperature. The cause for an increase in temperature with increase in height is
caused by a concentration of Ozone gas, which absorbs incoming ultra-violate
(UV) radiation of the sun. Ultraviolet ray causes skin cancer, blindness and
other health problems.

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Focus
Stratosphere is another layer of atmosphere where temperature
increases with increasing altitude.

C. Mesosphere
Why do you think the mesosphere is the coldest layer of atmosphere?
Mesosphere is the third layer of the atmosphere which extends from stratopause
(about 50km) to between 80 and 85km. It is the coldest layer of atmosphere
where temperature reaches up to -900C. This rapid temperature fall is attributed
to absence of water vapor, clouds, dust or Ozone to absorb incoming radiation.
Mesosphere is also darkest part of atmosphere due to scarcity of the air molecules
to reflect and scatter the radiation. Its upper portion called mesopause.

D. Thermosphere
What do you think about the temperature condition of this layer?
Thermosphere extends from mesopause (about 80km) up space in thermosphere
temperature rises rapidly with height perhaps up to 12000C. This is due to
an increasing proportion of atomic oxygen in the atmosphere, like ozone,
which absorbs incoming ultraviolet radiation. Thermosphere is the first layer
where meteorites are swallowed or burned because of the high temperature.
Sometimes, some meteorites pass through it and may be absorbed by others. If
they pass all of the layers they will reach on the surface of the earth Example
Arizona in USA.

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Figure1. 23 the vertical (Thermal) structure of atmosphere

Activity 1.3
Answer the following questions

1. Why stratosphere is sometimes called the protective layer? Explain.

2. In troposphere temperature decreases with increase in altitude. Why?
3. Which layers of the atmosphere contain high temperature?
4. What is the coldest layer of the atmosphere?

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1.3. Elements and controls of weather

and climate

Competencies

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

📕 distinguish between weather and Climate;
📕 identify elements of weather and climate;
📕 outline climatic controls and climatic elements;
📕 compare and contrast variations of rainfall and temperature
between different locations such as highlands and lowlands
agro-climatic zones of their locality;
📕 collect summarize and present diurnal and seasonal variation
of weather data in their locality;and
📕 draw climatic graphs.

 KEY TERMS

🔑 Temperature 🔑 Rainfall
🔑 Weather 🔑 Climate

1.3.1. Definition of weather and climate

What are weather and Climate? Discuss the difference between weather and
climate.
Weather: - is the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time.
Weather includes daily changes in precipitation, air pressure, temperature,
wind, etc. Weather is always changing.

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Climate: - is the average of all weather conditions of an area over a long period
of time. These conditions include average temperature, air pressure, humidity,
and days of sunshine for a period of 30 years. Hence a description of the climate
of a particular region is possible only after weather records have been kept for
many years. Weather differs from day to day while climate varies from region
to region.

Meteorology: - is a science of atmospheric process. It uses the methods of

physical science to analyze, explain and predict atmospheric processes and
their particular behavior. It is also called the science of weather. One of the
major significance of meteorology is its application to the forecasting of the
future trend of weather.

1.3.2. Elements of weather and climate

What are the major elements of weather and climate?

1. Temperature
What is temperature? What is the instrument used to measure temperature?
Temperature is one of the basic elements of weather and climate. It refers to
the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance. It is a measure of the average
speed or kinetic energy of atoms and molecules in a substance. The temperature
of a given place is measured by an instrument called thermometer.

Since temperature changes several times during 24 hours of a day, the highest
temperature of a day is measured by maximum thermometer. This is usually
done in the afternoon between 2 and 3 P.M. The lowest temperature is measured
by minimum thermometer. This is done before the sun rise in the morning
between 5 and 6 A.M.The daily maximum and minimum are basis for many of
the temperature data compiled by meteorologist and climatologists. By adding
the maximum and minimum temperatures and dividing by two, the daily mean
temperature is calculated. That means:-

Daily Max Temp + Daily Min Temp

Mean Daily Temp = 2

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Example
For instance, the daily maximum temperature of a hypothetical station X on
September 11, 2018 was 220C its minimum temperature was100C. Therefore,
the mean daily temperature of station X for the day was:-

22 o C + 10 oC
Mean Daily Temp = 2 = 16 oC

On the other hand the daily range of temperature computed by finding the
difference between the maximum and minimum temperature for a given day.

Daily Range of Temp = Daily Max Temp - Daily Min Temp

Example
The daily range of temperature of a hypothetical station X on September 11,
2018 is equal to:

Daily Range of Temp = 22 OC - 10 OC = 12 OC

The monthly mean or average temperature is calculated by adding together the

daily means for each day of the month and dividing by the number of days in
a month.

The mean annual temperature of a given place can be calculated by adding the
mean monthly temperature, from January to December, and dividing the result
by 12 that means:

The sum of mean monthly temp

Mean Annual Temp = 12
Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
MMT(0C) 14 16.5 19.5 18.5 19 18 17.5 17.5 17.5 18 16.5 17.4

(MMT represents Mean Monthly Temperature)

Example
The mean annual temperature for the above station can be obtained by adding
the mean monthly temperatures and dividing the result by 12.

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14 + 16.5 + 19.5 + 18.5 + 19 + 18 + 17.5 + 17.5 + 17.5 + 18 + 16.5 + 17.4

Mean Annual Temp = 12
= 17.49 CO

Temperature also changes from month to month in a year. Therefore, the

difference in temperature between the hottest or coldest months gives us the
annual range of temperature. That means, the annual temperature range is
computed by finding the difference between the highest and the lowest monthly
temperature.

Annual Range of temp = Max Temp of the year - Min Temp of the year

Example
The annual range of temperature for can be obtained by subtracting minimum
temperature of the year from the yearly maximum.

Annual Range of Temp = Max. Temp-Min. Temp

= 19.50C-140C
= 5.50C
2. Air Pressure (Atmospheric Pressure)
What is air pressure? Explain how to record and measure pressure?
Air pressure is a force or weight of an air pressing continuously on a given
area.In other words it is the amount of force exerted by an overlying air on an
area of surface. This shows that the atmosphere has a definite weight and so
exerts pressure up on the earth. The distribution of pressure over the earth’s
surface depends on:-

✅ The altitude of places above sea level (Pressure decreases with an

increasing in altitude).
✅ Most importantly, on temperature. (Pressure increase with decreasing
altitude.) Pressure distribution can be shown on a map. Lines connecting
all places that have the same pressure are called isobars.
Atmospheric pressure is measured with an instrument called barometer. It
measures the weight of gases that exerts pressure on the earth’s surface and
it can be expressed in millibar (mb). A normal atmospheric pressure at sea

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level is equivalent to 1.03kg/cm2. Or 1013 millibars. The difference in distance

between Isobars is called the pressure gradient. If the isobars are closely spaced,
we can expect the pressure gradient force to be great, and wind speed to be
high. In areas where the isobars are spaced widely apart the pressure gradient is
low and light winds normally exist. High speed winds develop in areas where
isobars are closer.

Figure 1.24 Association between wind speed and distance between

isobars

3. Winds
What is wind? What is the cause of wind or what generate winds?
Wind is the movement of air caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by the
sun. It does not have much substance you cannot see it or hold it but you can feel
its force. It is strong enough to carry sailing ships across the sea and rip huge
trees from the ground. It is the great equalizer of the atmosphere, transporting
heat, moisture, pollutants, and dust great distances around the globe. Winds
generally blow from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas. Winds have
direction and speed. The speed of the wind is measured by anemometer and its
direction is measured by wind vane.

Deflection of Winds Due to the Earth’s Rotation

Because of the earth’s rotation, the direction of wind blow may not be at right
angles to wind isobars, rather at slanting angles to them. This deflection is

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caused by friction. The speed of wind also affects the amount of deflection. The
force which affects the direction of movements of winds is called the “Coriolis
force”. The deflection is to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left
in the Southern Hemisphere.

Near the ground, where the winds are slowed by friction, the air blows at an
acute angle toward areas of low pressure, forming great gyres creating cyclones
and anticyclones. In the Northern Hemisphere, the Coriolis force causes air in
low-pressure areas to spiral counter clockwise and inward, forming a cyclone,
whereas air in high-pressure areas spirals clockwise and outward, forming
an anticyclone. In the Southern Hemisphere, cyclones turn clockwise and
anticyclones, counter clockwise.

Figure 1.25 Cyclone & anticyclone

Cyclones are atmospheric disturbances which involve a closed circulation

about a low-pressure center. They move inward, anticlockwise, in the
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Cyclones
are commonly known as lows or low pressure areas.

Anti-cyclones are vast areas of high pressure which have a diverging system of
surface winds. The winds in anti-cyclones blow outward in the anti-clockwise
direction in the Southern Hemisphere and in the clockwise direction in the

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Northern Hemisphere. Anticyclones are commonly called highs or high

pressure areas.

Types of Winds

There are three types of surface winds. They are:

A. Planetary B. Monsoon C. Local winds.

A. Planetary winds and their relationship with pressure belts:

Planetary winds blow over large areas of the earth’s surface. They are closely
associated with the world pressure belts. Winds blow from areas of high
pressure to areas of low pressure. The most common planetary winds are trade
winds, westerlies and polar easterlies. They have wide influence over the
earth’s surface.

I. Polar Easterlies: Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds that blow
from the east. They emanate from the polar highs, areas of high
pressure around the North and South Poles. Polar easterlies flow to
low-pressure areas in sub-polar regions.

II. Westerlies: Westerlies are prevailing winds that blow from the west at
mid latitudes. They are fed by polar easterlies and winds from the
high-pressure horse latitudes, which sandwich them on either side.

Figure 1.26 Planetary winds

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III. Trade Winds: Trade winds are the powerful prevailing winds that
blow from the east across the tropics. Trade winds are generally
very predictable. They have been instrumental in the history of
exploration, communication, and trade.

B. Monsoon winds: They are seasonal winds whose movements are

controlled by pressure that differs during different seasons. Monsoon winds are
very common in South and South East Asia. Seasonal changes in the direction
of these winds are caused by the unequal heating of land and water surfaces.
The direction of monsoon winds changes between summer and winter.

C. Local winds: They affect only limited areas and blow for a short period of
time. They affect climate conditions on a small scale. Local winds are caused
by the nature of the physical features of the area. The main local winds are:
L Land and sea breezes
L Mountain and valley breezes

A. Land and sea breezes: These winds are common along coastal areas.
These winds change their directions daily and affect very small areas. During
the daytime, temperature on the land is higher than on the water/sea so low
pressure is formed on the land, while it is relatively high on the sea. Wind
blows from the sea towards the land. This is known as a sea breeze. At night
the land is colder than the sea so low pressure develops over the sea. The wind
blows from land towards the sea. This is known as a land breeze.

Figure1. 27 Daytime developments of sea breeze and land breezes

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Figure 1.28 Night time development of sea breeze and land breezes

B. Mountain and valley breezes: Mountain and valley breezes arise from
contrasts in temperature between a valley floor and mountain slopes. During the
day the air at the bottom of the valley becomes warmer. As a result it expands
and rises along the mountain slopes. This is known as a valley breeze.

Figure 1.29 Daytime developments of valley breezes and mountain breeze.

At night the wind over the slope of the

mountain becomes cool. Then this cooler
and heavier mountain air slides down
slopes towards the valley. This is called a
mountain breeze.
Figure 1.30 Night time development of valley breezes and mountain breeze.

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4. Rainfall
What is rainfall? How rainfall is formed?
Rainfall is liquid precipitation. Any moisture that falls from the clouds towards
the earth’s surface is called precipitation. Precipitation may occur in the form
of rain, snow, hail, sleet and drizzle. Precipitation is part of the water cycle or
hydrological cycle. The water cycle begins as water is changed from liquid
to vapor by evaporation and transpiration of water vapor. Once water vapor
is formed, it expands and cools. Then, condensation occurs, forming clouds,
and the water falls as snow, sleet or rainfall. The whole process is powered
by solar energy and is repeated continuously. This whole process is called the
hydrological cycle.

Water is a unique substance, because it can exist in three states as (liquid, solid
and gas) in the atmosphere. Water either absorbs or releases heat when changes
from one state to another.

Figure 1.31 Hydrolological cycle

✅ Evaporation: - is the process by which liquid water is converted into gases.
✅ Transpiration: - is the transfer and change of water from plants to water
vapor in the air.
✅ Evapotranspiration: - is the combined loss of water through the process
of evaporation and transpiration.
✅ Condensation: - is the process by which vapor becomes liquid.
✅ Sublimation: - is the process in which ice changes into water vapor
without first becoming a liquid, and vice versa.

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Types of rainfall
What are the three types of rainfall? Explain their formation.
Rain is given three different names according to the different ways in which
moisture is forced to rise. They are: Convectional rainfall, Orographic or relief
rainfall and Cyclonic rainfall.

1. Convectional rainfall: When the ground surface is heated by the sun, the air
above it is warmed up. At high altitudes, the water vapor cools, condenses to
form clouds and falls as rain. This type of rainfall is common in humid areas
where temperature is high throughout the year.

Figure1.32 Convectional rainfall

2. Orographic (relief) rainfall: occurs when moist air is forced to rise

over mountains. As it rises, it cools, then condenses and falls as rain.
Almost all orographic rainfall falls on the windward side of mountains.

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Figure 1.33 Orographic (relief) type of rainfall

3. Cyclonic or Frontal rainfall: when two air masses (warm and cold) meet,
they do not mix freely with each other. They remain separated with a boundary
surface between them. The warmer and less dense air is forced to rise over the
colder and heavier air. As the warmer air rises, it cools and condenses. Then
clouds form and rain falls. The place where warm air and cold air meet is called
a front. Frontal rainfall is very common in the middle and high latitudes (60o
north and south from the equator).

Figure 1.34 Cyclonic/frontal rainfalls

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Measuring and Recording Rainfall

Rainfall is measured using an instrument
called rain gauge. A rain gauge consists of a
wide-mouthed funnel placed over a
cylindrical container. Rain water passes
through the funnel into the container below.
The water in the container is poured into a
measuring cylinder, and then the amount of
rainfall is measured in millimeters and is
recorded.

Figure 1.35 rain gauge

5. Cloud
A cloud is a visible aggregate of tiny water droplets or ice crystals suspended
in the air. Some are found only at high elevations, whereas others nearly touch
the ground. Clouds can be thick or thin, big or little they exist in a seemingly
endless variety of forms. Clouds can be formed when the rising air passed the
condensation level. There are high cloud, middle cloud and low cloud.

A. High cloud: High clouds in middle and low latitudes generally form
above 6000 m (20,000 ft). Because the air at these elevations is quite cold
and “dry,” high clouds are composed almost exclusively of ice crystals and
are also rather thin. The most common high clouds are the cirrus.
B. Middle Clouds: The middle clouds have bases between 2000 and 7000
m (6500 to 23,000 ft) in the middle latitudes. These clouds are composed
of water droplets and when the temperature becomes low enough some ice
crystals.

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C. Low Clouds: Low clouds,

with their bases lying below
2000 m (6500 ft), are Almost
always composed of water
droplets; however, in cold
weather, they may contain ice
particles and snow.

Figure 1.36: Clouds

Activity 1.4
Answer the following questions

1. What is temperature? How do you sense it?

2. Explain the three types of rainfall with their process of formation.
3. Which types of rain fall is most common in your locality?

1.3.3. Controls of Weather and Climate

What are the major controls of Weather and Climate? Discuss on each in group.
The energy that the earth receives from the sun is not distributed equally. Many
factors affect the distribution. Controls of weather and climates are the factors
that affect the normal functioning of the elements of weather and climate. These
include latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, cloud cover, ocean current,
planetary winds and pressure.

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A. Latitude
Latitude is the distance of any place from the equator. On a global scale,
latitude is the most important factor determining the strength of heat reaching
the earth’s surface. When the sun’s rays are vertical (at a right angle) to the
surface, the amount of heat received is the greatest. But when the sun’s rays are
slanting (oblique) the heat’s strength decreases. At the equator, the overhead
sun is high and of high intensity insolation is received.

Figure 1.37 Angle of the sun

B. Altitude
Do you know the relationship between temperature and altitude? Explain?
Air temperature decreases with increasing altitude. The normal decrease of
temperature with height is 6.40c per 1000 m. This is known as the normal
lapse rate. The normal lapse rate is the average rate or proportion at which
temperature changes per unit of altitudinal change. The highland areas of
Ethiopia are good examples of places that demonstrate the effect of altitude on
temperature. In Sidama, Hula highlands can be taken as example.

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Figure 1.38 Influence of altitude on climate

C. Distance from the Sea

Land heats more quickly than water. But it loses its heat quicker than water.
This is because of the transparency of water reflections from water surfaces,
evaporation, mixing and currents in water. All these conditions result in greater
and more rapid temperature changes on land than in the seas. Therefore, coastal
regions are cooler than inland regions.

D. Cloud Cover
Could cover is one of the most important controls of weather and climate.
The difference in the amount of temperature for the place in the same latitude
is the results of cloud cover and altitude. Cloud reduces the amount of solar
radiation reaching on the earth’s surface and the amount of radiation reflected
from the earth’s surface. When there are no clouds both types of radiation will
be at a maximum level.

E. Ocean Current
Ocean current is the horizontal movement of ocean water caused by winds
and differences in temperature. The effect of ocean currents on temperatures
depends upon whether the current is cold or warm. The water at the equator
is warmer and less dense than that of in polar areas. Ocean currents are the
source of temperature regulation on the earth. Ocean currents change the
temperature of a particular region. A warm ocean current makes the weather of
the nearby regions to go up in temperature, whereas cold ocean currents reduce

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the surrounding temperature.

Figure 1.39 Ocean currents

F. Winds
What is the effect of wind on temperature?
Winds indirectly change the temperature of places near the sea according to
the areas from which they blow. There are two ways by which distribution of
temperature is influenced by winds.

a. Winds carry the temperature from one place to another.

b. Winds blow the surface layers of a body of water in the direction of their
flow.
In this way, the winds have the effect of raising the temperature of the shore
towards which the wind is blowing and lowering the temperature of the opposite
shore.

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1.3.4. Diurnal and seasonal variation of weather

in Ethiopia

How do you describe the weather of your locality? Which season is the warmest,
coldest, wettest and driest in your area?
Temperature in Ethiopia is determined primarily by altitude and latitude.
Ethiopia lies within the tropics, a zone of maximum insolation, where every
place has overhead sun twice a year. However, considerable portions of Ethiopia
are highland areas, and their altitudes give them non-tropical temperatures.
Ethiopia’s tropical climate occurs in lowlands at the country’s peripheries.
Away from the peripheral lowlands, the land begins to rise gradually and
considerably, culminating in peaks in various parts of the country. The highlands
form the heartland of the country. Thus temperature in most of the center of
the country is affected by altitude, and temperature essentially decreases from
Ethiopia’s peripheries towards the interior. Ethiopia experiences both hot and
cold extremes of temperature.

Daily Temperatures
Ethiopia’s daily temperatures are more extreme than its annual averages. In
terms of spatial distribution, Ethiopia’s daily maximum temperature varies
from a high of more than 370C over the lowlands of the northeast and of the
southeast to a low of about 100C-150C over the highlands of Ethiopia. In terms
of temporal distribution, the months of March, April and May are generally the
hottest throughout the country.

Monthly Temperatures
Ethiopia’s monthly temperatures also exhibit extremes. The lowest monthly
minimum temperatures mostly occur over the highlands of the country. Most of
the highlands experience mean minimum temperatures as low as 0ºC between
November and January (Bega season). The highest mean monthly minimum
temperature (20ºC - 30ºC) is observed in the Dallol Depression.

The lowest mean monthly minimum temperature (0ºC or less) occurs in January
in the highlands in the northwest (Gonder and Gojam), central (Shewa) and

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southeast (Arsi-Bale), and the highest (30ºC) occurs in the lowlands of the
western, southeastern and northeastern areas.

Daily (diurnal) temperature range

In the northern hemisphere, during the winter months of December, January
and February, the sun apparently shifts to the southern hemisphere and Ethiopia
experiences its bega season. During this period, the sky is clear, without
blanketing cloud cover to retain heat or cold on earth. Therefore, during the
day the heat from the sun is intense. But at night, because of the clear sky and
relatively longer nights, temperature drops very low. Reflecting such clear-sky
conditions, Ethiopia’s daily temperature range is greatest during bega in most
parts of the country.

Annual temperature range

Ethiopia’s annual temperature range is the highest in the lowlands, and it
decreases with increasing altitude or highest in the high lands.

Distribution of Rainfall in Ethiopia

Which part of Ethiopia is the driest and wettest?
Overall, mean annual rainfall ranges from over 2200 mm in pockets of areas
in the southwestern high lands to less than 400 mm over the northeast and
southeastern lowlands of the country. However, the low end of the range is
much less in the southeast lowlands, the Ogaden area, standing at 200 mm. In
the northeast lowlands, the Afar region, it is even less than 100 mm. creases
with increasing altitude.

Rainfall in Ethiopia is seasonal, varying in amount over space and time. There
is the long and heavy summer rain, which is normally referred to as “the big
rain” or keremt. There are also short and moderate rains in autumn (Tsedey),
winter (Bega) and spring (Belg). They are collectively called “the little rains”.

In contrast to the rest of Ethiopia, southwestern high lands of Ethiopia gets

rain for a long period that stretches usually for more than eight to ten months.

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Other regions, for instance the southeastern lowlands, receive rain twice a year.
These rainy seasons do not correspond with keremt or bega.

In most of highland Ethiopia like, Addis Ababa the main rainy season is in
summer (June to September), when the ITCZ is to the north of Ethiopia. During
this season, the whole country with the exception of a few places is under the
influence of the southwest equatorial westerly winds from the South Atlantic
Ocean or of the south easterly winds from the Indian Ocean.

Table 1.4 Agro climatic Zones of Ethiopia

Altitude Climatic Crops grown

zone
Below 500m Bereha Crops with only irrigation
500-1500m Kolla Sorghum, Nug, Tef, Sugarcane, maize, coffee
1500-2300m Woyna dega Maize, sorghum, tef, Wheat, maize, Degussa,
barley.
2300-3200m Dega Marley, Wheat, and pulses
Above 2300m Wurch Barley

Mean Annual Temperature of Hawassa

Town (2019)
25
21.6
20.9

20.7
19.6

20
19.3

18.7

18.7

18.6
Temperature

18.4
18.2

17.8

18

15
10
5
0
July
June
January

February

August

October

November
March

May

December
April

September

Months

(Source: NMA; SNNPR Branch Office; Hawassa, 2019)

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Rainfall of Hawassa Town (2019)

200 185 180
180 162 163
160
140
RF in mm

120 92
100 79 82 77
80
60 43
19 28
40 14
20
0

July
June
January

October
February

August

November
March

May

December
April

September
Months

Activity 1.5
(Source: NMA; SNNPR Branch Office; Hawassa, 2019)
Answer the Following Questions

1. Discuss the effects of latitude on the temperature of Ethiopia?

2. Temperature in Ethiopia is primarily determined by altitude and
latitude. Discuss.
3. What are the two most important controls of weather and climate in
Ethiopia? Is the distribution of rainfall and temperature uniform in
Ethiopia?

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UNIT SUMMARY
ʯ The present day landforms were the results of two forces as internal and
external. Internal forces result ups and down where external forces result
leveling the ups and downs formed by the internal forces.
ʯ Internal forces include folding, faulting, volcanism and earthquakes whereas
external forces include weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition.
ʯ Earthquakes originate at the focus. The epicenter is the point on the surface
directly above the focus.
ʯ Volcanism is the process that formed when magma (molten rock) from
deep within Earth reaches the top of the crust and escapes up to the ground.
ʯ Folding is one of the internal processes which occur when two forces
act towards each other from opposing sides and rock surfaces are bent.
The massive fold mountains such as Himalayas were resulted because of
folding.
ʯ Faulting is the earth movement along the fractures (faults). Faults may be
normal or reverse. It results in the formation of rift valley such as the Great
East African rift valley and Block Mountains like Mount Rwenzori (5119m
amsl).
ʯ Physical weathering breaks up rocks into smaller pieces. Its main agents
are frost, temperature changes, plants and animals.
ʯ Chemical weathering (decomposition) causes rock to dissolve or decompose.
Its main agents are rainwater and actions of plants and animals.
ʯ Erosion involves the breaking down of rock and the carrying away of rock
particles. Erosion is caused by moving water, wind, etc
ʯ Deposition is the final result of erosion. Landforms like spit, beaches,
waterfall, valley, rapids, barchans, meanders, oxbow lakes were the results
of erosion and deposition.
ʯ The layers of the atmosphere include the troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere and thermosphere.
ʯ The major elements of weather and climate are temperature, rainfall, winds,
air pressure and cloud.
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ʯ Winds are formed as a result of difference in air pressure.

ʯ Weather is the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time.

ʯ Climate is the average of all weather conditions of an area over a long

period of time probably for more than 30 years.
ʯ Fissures: elongated fractures or cracks on the slopes of a volcano. Fissure
eruptions typically produce liquid flows, but pyroclastic may also be ejected.
•

GLOSSARY
Altitude: - distance above sea level; generally applied to a location above the earth’s
surface.

Anticline:- a fold in which the beds dip outward and the older rocks are in the center
of the fold.

Atmosphere: -the envelope of air that surrounds the earth, held in place by gravity.

Barchans: - is a sand hill that has a crescent-moon shape.

Beach:- is a strip of land along the sea coast covered with various types of sediment.

Caldera:- a basin-shaped volcanic depression; such large depressions are typically

formed by the subsidence of volcanoes.

Climate: - is the average of all weather conditions of an area over a long period of time.

Condensation: - the conversion of water vapor to the water droplets. Condensation

occurs when a water vapor passes over condensation level.

Crater: - a steep-sided, usually circular depression formed by either explosion or

collapse at a volcanic vent.

Earthquakes: - are sudden movements in the earth’s crust.

Epicenter: - the point on the earth’s surface directly above the focus of an earthquake.

Erosion: - is the transporting of weathered material by various natural forces such as

moving water, wind and moving ice.
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Evaporation: -is the process that occurs when liquid water is changed into water vapor.

Faulting: - can be caused by either lateral or vertical forces, which can be either tensional
or compressional.

Folding: - is one of the internal processes which occurs when two forces act towards
each other from opposing sides.

Freezing: - is a change of state from liquid water to ice. It is an opposite of melting.

Loess deposit:- is a deposition of fertile soil in the desert by wind.

Magma: - Molten rock beneath the surface of the earth.

Melting: - occurs when an ice is changed to liquid water

Mesosphere: - It is the coldest part of the atmosphere

Oxbow lake-: an elongate and curved lake formed by an abandoned Meandering

stream channel on a flood plain.

Rainfall: - is liquid precipitation.

Rift valley: - a deep, linear, steep-sided trough produced by subsidence of a strip of

land between two faults

Sand dune: - is a small hill of sand formed by the action of the wind.

Spit:- is a narrow ridge of sand or shingle. It projects into the sea but is attached to
the land at one end.

Stratopause: - It is the upper limit of stratosphere

Stratosphere: - Has constant temperature and High concentration of ozone gases.

Sublimation: - is a process when solid is converted into gases without becoming a

liquid.

Syncline: - a fold structure in which the associated beds dip inward and the youngest
rocks occupy the core of the fold structure

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Temperature:- is the amount of hotness or coldness of an object.

Thermosphere; - is the highest and hottest layer of the atmosphere

Transpiration: - is the loss of water from the plant bodies

Troposphere: - Is the lowest layer of the atmosphere that contains 75% of the
atmospheric mass.

Vent: - the opening at the earth’s surface through which volcanic materials issue forth.

Volcanism: - is the process by which magma, gases, water vapour, ashes and other solid
materials are forced out to the surface.

Weather: - is the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time.

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REVIEW EXERCISES
I. Determine whether each of the following sentences is true or
false.

1. Water is the most active erosion agent in a desert region.

2. The focus of an earthquake is the point on the surface directly above the
epicenter.
3. All of the sun’s energy that reaches the atmosphere is absorbed by the
earth’s surface.
4. The only difference between weather and climate is their elements and
controls.
5. In line with rising altitude temperature decreases in the troposphere.
6. Troposphere layer contains relatively large concentration of water vapor.

II. Match items in column ‘B’ with items in column ‘A’.

A B
1. Stratosphere D. The Hottest sphere
2. Mesosphere E. Envelope of transparent gases
3. Troposphere F. Coldest layer
4. Thermosphere G. Protective layer
5. Atmosphere H. Weather sphere

III Choose the correct word or phrase from the given alternatives.

1. Which is not a type of mechanical weathering?

A. Frost wedging C. frost heaving
B. pressure release D. oxidation
2. Which type of faulting occurs when tension forces within Earth are pulling
rock apart?
A. Reverse fault C. Over thrust fault
B. normal fault D. strike-slip fault

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3. Which of the following is major landform of lower courses of river?
A. Rapids C. Meanders
B. Waterfalls D. V-shaped valleys
4. Which one of the following is not Fold Mountain?
A. Andes C. RasDashen
B. Himalaya D. Alps
5. Which one of these does not belong to volcanic activity?
A. Caldera C. Waterfall
B. Hot springs D. Crater
6. Which one is a common feature in the upper course of a river?
A. flood plain C. ox-bow lake
B. meander D. ‘V’-shape valley
7. Which of the following is not an internal force?
A. Earthquake C. volcanic eruption
B. erosion D. folding
8. The instrument used to measure temperature is called
_____________________
A. Barometer C. Thermometer
B. Wind vane D. Hydrometer
9. A type of rainfall that occurs when a warm air is forced to raise over the
mountains is:
A. Convectional. C. Cyclonic
B. Frontal D. Relief
10. A type of atmospheric layer which absorbs the incoming ultra-violate
(UV) radiation of the sun is ______________
A. Thermosphere C. Stratosphere
B. Mesosphere D. Troposphere

IV Complete each of the following sentences with the correct word

or phrase.

1. The average weather condition recorded for a long period of time

is_________________.
2. _________ forces push rocks together, _________ forces pull rocks apart.

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3. The most common types of rain fall in equatorial rainforest region is

_______________.
4. The process of mountain building is known as _________ .
5. The break up and decomposition of rocks in a place is _________

Table:-1.1 Temperature and rainfall data for Hawassa

Jan Feb March April May June July August Sept Oct Nov Des
Ave. Te in C
0
19.6 20.9 21.6 20.7 19.3 18.2 17.8 18 18.4 18.7 18.7 18.6
Min. Te in0C 12.9 13.9 15.3 15.6 14.8 14.2 14.2 14.2 14 14 13.1 12.4
Max. Te in0C 26.2 27.8 27.8 26.3 24.3 22.8 22 22.2 23.1 23.5 24.4 25
R.F.mm 19 28 79 162 185 82 77 92 180 163 43 14
Using the above temperature and rainfall data for Hawssa City performs the
following tasks:

✅ Calculate the average temperature of the year?

✅ Identify the warmest and coldest months of that year of the above
station
✅ Calculate the range of temperature?
✅ What is the total annual rainfall of the city?
✅ What are the highest rains falls recorded season?

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 2. PEOPLE AND
UNIT SOCIOECONOMIC
TWO ACTIVITIES

Introduction
In unit one you have learned about activities. The major topic to
forces shaping the earth’s surface, be include are cultural diversity
Composition and structure of the and changes, major economic
earth’s atmosphere and Elements activities, trade, market and
and controls of weather and government revenue as the current
climate. In this unit, you will learn national and local concern and
about people and socioeconomic Government revenue and tax.

Unit Outcomes

At the end of this unit, students will be able to

📕 explain how peoples culture develop and change through time;

📕 discuss the impacts of population movement on human settlement
and economic activities;
📕 explain the concept of trade and increasing global
interdependence;
📕 analyze the condition of consumers right and supply problem using
their local examples; and
📕 describe the benefits of government revenue and tax.
 Grade 8 Social Studies

2.1. Cultural Diversity and Changes

Competencies

After studying this lesson, students will be able to:

📕 explain how peoples culture develop and change through time;
📕 discusses language, religion and human race as a cultural
elements;
📕 elaborate the cultural diversity of people in terms of language,
religion, and human races;
📕 debate in the class room on the effect of globalization as an agent
of cultural change; and
📕 respect humanity and indigenous knowledge

 KEY TERMS

🔑 Language families 🔑 Human race

🔑 Culture 🔑 Religion

2.1.1. The development of human culture

What is Culture? How culture is develop and change?

Culture is “the way of life” which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law,
custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by human beings.

Cultural development It follows from the definition of culture as “information

capable of affecting individuals” behavior that they acquire from others
member of their species through teaching, imitation and other forms of social
transmission.

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Focus
The development of agriculture, Increasing settlement
aggregation and the rise of cities, Alliance formation and
increasing social integration, the development of social
hierarchies, Craft specialization and increased division and
so on, are some of the major evolutionary stages of cultural
development that a human beings achieved in his history.

Cultural Change
Cultural change is a very vast area to explore. It refers to changes made in
cultural elements both, material and non-material. All important changes have
cultural aspects within them. Cultural change includes change in technology
like introducing advanced appliances, automobiles, machinery and many
more. Moreover, it also refers to the change in ideology, beliefs, administrative
system of a society and many more. It tells us about the changes that ought to be
made in our life style, habit patterns and in advancing our mode of life. These
changes may also include the invention of new trends, art, dance, television,
music and much more.

2.1.2. Major Cultural Elements (language,

religion and the human race)

Language
What is language? What are the major language families of the world?
The word language is derived from Latin term ‘’Lingua’’ meaning tongue. Still
language is often called tongue. Language is human speech, either spoken or
written. It enables people to talk to each other as well as to write their thoughts
and ideas.

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Distribution of major Language Families.

📕 Indo-European: Predominate language family in Europe, South
Asia, North America and Latin America.
📕 Sino-Tibetan: Encompasses languages spoken in the People’s
Republic of China and several smaller countries in Southeast Asia.
Mandarin is the most-used language in the world and the official
language of China and other Asian language families.
📕 Afro-Asiatic and Arabic: are major languages of Southwest Asia
and North Africa and Central Asia. It is an Official language in 24
countries of south west Asia and North Africa. It is also one of the
six official languages in the UN.
📕 Altaic: Altaic language with most speakers is Turkish. Altaic
language becomes official language of several countries that
gained independency when Soviet Union broke up. Example: -
Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan.
📕 African language families
L North Africa: - Afro-Asiatic, (Hamito, Semetic) branches
into Semitic which includes Arabic, Hebrew, Ethiopia, and
Aramaic and Berber in the Atlas mountains, along with
Cushitic, Egyptians and Chadic (Hawsa) .

L Sub Saharan Africa: - Niger-Congo and Swahili more than

1000 district languages have been documented.

L South Africa:- Khoisan (Bushmen) Hottentots and other

indigenous of South Africa peninsula noted for the presence
of clicks.

L Nilo Saharan:-It is divided into seven subgroups. Chari-Nile,

Songhai, Saharan, Meban, Koman and Fur. Chari-Nile and
Koman are spoken in parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. It has
about 30 million speakers.

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Figure 2.1 Language supper families of Africa

According to linguists, there are about 6000 languages spoken in the world.
Many of the languages are spoken only by small groups of people. However,
there are more than 200 languages spoken by a million or more people. About
23 languages have about 50 million or more speakers. Some of the major
languages used in the world include Mandarin, English, French, Spanish,
Russian and Arabic.

A. English: It is the most widely spoken language in the world. In many

countries, English is used as either a mother tongue or second
language. Today, about 400 million people speak English as
their first language. Most English speakers live in Australia,
Canada, Great Britain, Ireland, New Zeeland, South Africa
and the United States of America. Nowadays, English is used
as an international language in science and technology. It is
also used in business and diplomacy all over the world.

B. French: French is the official language in France. It serves as an

official language in Belgium, Canada, Haiti, Luxemburg and

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Switzerland. It is one of the six languages used in the United

Nations. Over 90 million people use French as a mother
tongue. Other millions use it as a second language.

C. Spanish : Spanish is the official language of Spain. It is also used

as an official language in most Latin-American countries.
Throughout the world about 297 million people speak Spanish.

D. Russian: Russian is an official language of Russia. Native speakers of

the language account for about 153 million. Russian is the
third widely spoken language in Europe. It is also among the
six official languages used by the United Nations. The six
languages used in the UN include: Arabic, Chinese (Mandarin),
English, French, Russian and Spanish.

E. Mandarin: Is an official language of China. This language is spoken by

about 600 million people.

F. Arabic: Arabic is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world.
It is an official language of many Arab countries in the Middle
East and North Africa such as Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon,
Saudi Arabia and Syria.

Major Religions in the World

What are the major religions of the world? Discus on each
Religion is an organized collection of beliefs, cultural system, and world views
that relate humanity to an order of existence. Many religions have narratives,
symbols, and sacred histories that are intended to explain in the meaning of life
and/or to explain the origin of life or the Universe. The following are major
religions of the world: Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Shintoism, Islam and
Christianity.

A. Hinduism: The religion of Hinduism developed and evolved over a long

time in India, giving rise to a variety of beliefs and practices
and to other religions, including Buddhism. It is one of the

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oldest religions of humanity, founded in 1500 BC or earlier. It

is the 3rd largest religion in the world.

Figure 2.2 the Hindu god Figure 2.3 the Hindu god of
dancing

B. Buddhism: Buddhism, which teaches people that they can escape

the suffering of the world through the Buddhist teachings,
developed in Northeast India in 520 BC and spread to other
parts of Asia. It is the 4th largest religion in the world.

Figure: 2.4 Symbol of Buddhism

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C. Judaism: The Hebrew leader Abraham founded Judaism in Mesopotamia

around 1300 BC. Judaism is the oldest of the monotheistic
faiths (religions with one God).

D. Christianity: It is founded by Jesus Christ, who was crucified around 33

AD in Palestine in the city of Jerusalem. It was after his death
when his followers came to believe in him as the Christ, the
Messiah. Christianity is the world’s largest religion, with about
2.2 billion followers worldwide. It is based on the teachings of
Jesus Christ who lived in the Holy Land 2,000 years ago.

E. Islam: It is the second most popular religion in the world with about
1.3 billion followers. Islam began in Arabia and was revealed
to humanity by the Prophet Muhammad (peace is upon
him). Those who follow Islam are called Muslims. Muslims
believe that there is only one God, called Allah, who speaks
Arabic.

F. Shintoism: Shintoism is the oldest living religion of Japan the word

Shinto in Japanese means ‘’the way of the gods’’. This religion
promotes worship of many gods. It does not believe in life
after death. According to Shintoism, the sun goddess was the
ancestor of Japan’s royal family.

Human Races
What are the major human races of the word? How is their classification?
Concept of Race: - Anthropologists define race as a principal division of
mankind, marked by physical characteristics that breed. A human race is
defined as a group of people with certain common inherited features that
distinguish them from other groups of people. All men of whatever race are
currently classified by the anthropologist or biologist as belonging to the one
species, Homo sapiens.

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Focus
Fundamentally, the entire human species has one originated all men
are Homosapience. National, religious, geographical, cultural and
linguistic groups are entirely unconnected with the unrelated to race.
These groups do not give indication of any race. Distinctions can made
between different races on the basis of differences in physical features
but not on the basis of cultural characteristics.

Major Races of the World

✅ Caucasoid -White (Europeans, Euro-African-Asian)
✅ Negroid (Africa, Asia, Pacific island)
✅ Mongoloid (Asia, Pacific islands North and South)
✅ Caucasians races:- (Aryans, Hamites and Semites)
✅ Negroid:-Negroid races (African, Hottentots, Melanesians/Papua,
“Negrito”, Australian Aborigine, Dravidians, and Sinhalese)
✅ Mongolian races (northern Mongolian, Chinese and Indo-Chinese,
Japanese and Korean, Tibetan, Malayan, Polynesian, Maori, Micronesian,
Eskimo, American Indian)
2.1.3. Globalization and dynamics of social and
cultural values

What is globalization? What are the effects of globalization?

Globalization refers to the integration and democratization of the world’s
culture, economy, and infrastructure. It is the process by which people their
ideas and their activities (economic, cultural, political) in previously relatively
separated parts of the world become inter-connected, and drawn to the same
social historical time. It must be noted that there are continuing controversies
and disputes on the value of globalization to the common good in society.

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As a result of this there are two views in globalization:

Positive Views on globalization.

✅ Globalization is not only an economic phenomenon as it affects all
aspects of life. Therefore it is unavoidable.
✅ Because of the dramatic expansion of science and technology, the
international relations among peoples of the world are interwoven.
(Which is one of the most important parts of globalization as an agent
of cultural change)
✅ Globalization is a compound process taking place without being
determined by any one nation or corporation. Therefore whether poor or
rich, nations cannot do away with globalization.
Negative views of globalization
✅ Globalization works to the advantage of the leading industrialized
countries of Europe and North America.
✅ The European Union countries mostly trade among themselves, while
those of Asia or North America do the same thing. Therefore, there is no
international trade that benefits the world community as a whole.
✅ Globalization is an ideology intended to impose Westernization or
Americanization over the rest of the world. As a result, less developed
countries have nothing to gain from this new trend, but it urges the
developing countries to adopt the western countries culture.
✅ Globalization adds more to the misery and despair of the already poor
and underdeveloped nations while increasing the wealth of the rich
countries.

Focus

Some of the advantages of globalization include creation of new

opportunities and benefits (such as removal of tariff restriction),
increment of direct foreign investment, remittance to home countries,
etc. Its disadvantage is mainly related to the widening of the economic
gaps between the rich and the poor nations.

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Activity 2.1
Answer the following questions

1. Define culture
2. Discuss on cultural development and cultural diversity.
3. What is Race? Discuss on it.
4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of globalization.

2.2. Major Economic Activities

Competencies

After completing this lesson, students will be able to:

📕 explain the different types of economic activities;
📕 relate different economic activities with countries levels of
development;
📕 compare and contrast agriculture of the developed and
developing countries;and
📕 respect humanity and indigenous knowledge.

 KEY TERMS

🔑 Industry 🔑 Harvest 🔑 Fishing

🔑 forestry 🔑 Tourism

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2.2.1. Major Types of Economic Activities and

Their Characteristics

What is economic activity? What is the major economic activities in your locality?
Economic activity is the production, distribution and exchange of goods and
services. Some examples of these activities are hunting, fishing, farming,
grazing, mining, manufacturing, transportation, trade and others. The economic
activities practiced in the world can be grouped into five, but in this grade
level you will learn only three of them, namely primary, secondary and tertiary.
Each type of economic activity is important to a society. The distribution of
jobs in a particular economic activity in a country may indicate the level of
development of the country.
Primary economic Activities
(Harvest or extraction)
Categories of Economic Activities

• Agriculture • Forestry
• Mining • Fishing

Secondary economic Activities

(Value added industries)
• Manufacturing • Construction
• Power production

Tertiary economic Activities

(Service-sector industries)
• Trade • Transportation
• Communication • Tourism

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2.2.2. Primary Economic Activities

What are primary economic activities?

Primary economic activities focus directly on the extraction of resources from
the environment. They involve the production of food stuffs and raw materials.
A few examples of primary economic activities include agriculture, fishing,
forestry, and mining. All of these jobs are dependent upon the natural resources
of the earth.

Agriculture
What is agriculture? What are major activities accomplished in this sector?
Agriculture is defined as the purposeful growing of crops and rearing of
animals whether for subsistence or for sale. It is an art, science and industry of
managing the growth of plants and animals for human use.

Moreover, it is the most important of all economic activities, which provides

the direct livelihood for at least half the world‘s population. It is also a source
of raw materials for industries and export earnings. In terms of land usage,
agriculture tends to be the dominant user of rural land, compared to forestry,
mining and quarrying, transport, recreation etc. Agriculture is very important
in providing employment particularly in most developing countries.

Figure: 2.5 Arable Farming Figure2.6 Pastoralist

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Forestry
What is Forestry?
Forestry is a primary economic activity concerned with the exploitation of
forest products. In its broader sense, forestry is defined as the art and science of
developing and managing forests and other resources associated with them for
the benefit of human kind. But as an economic activity forestry simply means
exploiting forest resources.

Developing and managing forest resources have multiple uses. It helps

to maintain an adequate supply of
timber, ply wood, paper and other
wood products. It also includes
the management of such valuable
forest resources as water, wildlife,
grazing areas and resources as
recreation areas.

Figure: - 2.7 Forestry

Fishery
What is fishing?
Fishing is the catchments of fish and other marine creatures such as whales,
seals, pearls sponges, mollusks etc. for It is a form of hunting which rely on
rivers, lakes, seas and ocean resources. Fishing includes all activities involved
in the commercial and recreational production of fish and shellfish.

Fish are caught for many purposes, some of these are:-

✅ Source of food - An estimated number of people depend on fish as their

primary source of protein. E.g. Norway, Iceland and Japan etc.
✅ Source of minerals – iron, calcium, iodine, copper, magnesium and
phosphorous are obtained from fish.

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✅ Source of raw materials for industries to produce fish meals, glues, oils,
fertilizers, soaps, paints, margarine, ink etc.
✅ Cloth making - seals & walruses provide skin for making cloths, bags, etc

Figure 2.8 Fishing

Mining
What is mining?
Mining refers to the extraction of mineral bearing substances from the earth’s
crust. Minerals, such as iron, aluminum, coal, etc. are extracted from the earth’s
crust. They serve as raw material for manufacturing industries.

Figure 2.9 Mineral Exploitation

The earth’s crust is composed of rock containing minerals. A mineral is an

inorganic chemical element or compound found naturally in the crust of the
earth. Even though, most minerals are inorganic; there are also some organic
minerals, such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. Minerals are non-renewable
resources which are not evenly distributed on the earth’s surface.

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Minerals are not distributed evenly through the earth’s crust. Some countries
are rich in certain type of mineral and poor in others.

Table 2.1 Major minerals and the first Three Leading producers of the world
Minerals First Second Third
Gold South Africa Russia Canada
Iron Russia Australia Brazil
Copper USA Russia Chile
Coal USA China Russia
Crude oil Middle East Russia USA
Zink Canada Russia Peru
Lead USA Russia Australia
Tin Malaysia Bolivia Indonesia

2.2.3. Secondary Economic activities

Manufacturing
What is manufacturing? Is there any difference between manufacturing and
industry?
Manufacturing refers to the process and change (transform) that turns raw
materials in to finished or semi finished products using inputs in the form of
labor, capital and equipment. Industry refers to the place where manufacturing
takes place. Like, Hotel industry, tourism industry and transport industry etc.
Manufacturing activities are characterized by the following features:

✅ Large capital & large scale production and Value adding

✅ Power driven machinery and High degree of division of labor
✅ Large number of skilled and semi – skilled labor force;
✅ Availability of raw materials and source of power
✅ Easy access to raw materials , markets etc

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Figure 2.10 Manufacturing

2.2.4. Tertiary economic activities

The tertiary sector of the economy, (the service sector or the service industry)
is the third type of economic activity. The basic characteristic of this sector
is the provision of services. Examples of tertiary economic activities include
education, legal services, medical services, trade, transportation services,
tourism, etc.

Trade
What is trade? When it begun?
Trade is a tertiary economic activity. It is the process of buying, selling, or
exchanging of commodities. Whole sellers and retailers sale the finished annd
semi-finished industrial products to individual consumers.

Transportation
What is Transportation? What is the major means of transportation in your
locality?
Transportation is the movement of goods or people from place to place. In
Early times, primitive humankind moved from place to place on foot or by
animal to seek food and protection and to satisfy a natural necessity as to the
world they lived in. The main transportation systems are road, railway, inland
waterways, oceans and airways.

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Communication
What is Communication? How many forms of communication?
The word communication involves the transmission of words and messages
from one place to another. The major types of communications are telephone,
television, radio, mail, internet and other modern communications tools.

Tourism
What is tourism?
Tourism as one of tertiary economic activities is said to be the smokeless
industry. Tourism is not only the world’s largest industry but it is one of the
fastest growing ones and is multidimensional in nature. It is also considered
to be one of the major sources of employment especially for European Union
countries.

Importance of tourism
✅ Foreign exchange generation (Income generation)
✅ Regional development :
✅ Environmental improvements
✅ Employment creation and Nature conservation

Tourism in Ethiopia
What are Ethiopia’s major tourist sites? Is there any tourism site in your locality?
Ethiopia is a country with numerous sites of tourist attractions. It has a wide
variety of climates ranging from temperate to tropical and varied species of
flora and fauna. In addition, it has numerous mountains with contrasting beauty.
There are also deep gorges, valleys, mountain peaks, several lakes, rapids and
falls.

Major Tourist Sites in Ethiopia

What are Ethiopia’s major tourist attractions? Are there any tourist sites in your
nearby locality? If there is report in the class.
Ethiopia’s old and consistent history puts the country at the top of African

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countries with the richest historic and cultural resources. Some of these tourist
sites include:-

✅ Human technology, the oldest tools of human civilization which were

found near Melka kuntura, that date back to about two million years.
✅ The historic towns of Axum, Lalibela, and Gondar, etc.
✅ Lucy, the first known human being, whose skeleton is the size of a 20
years old girl. It is found in the national museum of Addis Ababa.

Figure 2.12 Endemic mammal wildlife of Ethiopia

Figure 2.13 Gondar Fasiledes Figure 2.14 Lallibela Rock hewn

Church

2.2.5. The effect of different economic activities

on countries economic development.

What do you think will the effect of different Economic activities on Countries
development?
Different economic activities have two effects on countries economic
development. It brought about economic and social changes. Agriculture
had been the leading sector followed by the service sector until 2007/08.

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Agriculture’s main products are food crops, cash crops, industrial crops, fruits
and vegetables, flowers and animal products. But, after 2008/09, the service
sector emerged as the dominate/leading sector mainly due to the natural factors
and economic factors. The industrial sector ranked third in its contribution to
Ethiopia’s GDP. Its growth was small (13.0%) in comparison to that of the
agriculture and service sectors. This could be attributed to the short history of
industrialization in the country.

Economic basis of developed and developing countries

How do you explain the economic basis of developed and developing country?
The developed countries are the world’s richest nations. This is because their
economy is urban-based, industrial and specialized in commercial activities,
supported by sophisticated technology and infrastructure. Less developed
countries include the bulk of the world’s countries, which are found in Africa,
Latin America, and Asia. They have traditional economic systems, largely
based on agriculture, mining or a combination of both.

Activity 2.2
Answer the following questions

1. What are the major economic activities? Discuss on each

2. How are tertiary economic activities different from primary and
secondary economic activities?
3. Which transportation systems are more common in your locality?
4. What are the different types of communication devices?

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2.3. Trade, market and government

revenue as the current national and
local concern
Competencies

After completing this lesson, students will be able to:

📕 explain the concept of trade and increasing global interdependence;
📕 analyze the condition of consumers right and supply problem using their
local examples
📕 describe the concept and historical development of trade;
📕 analyze the contribution of trade to the ethiopia economy
📕 evaluate the contribution of different economic sectors to ethiopian export
trade;
📕 explain how the interaction of supply and demand determines price;
📕 use graphs to show the market equilibrium pint; and
📕 explain what conditions must exist for “perfect competition” to occur

 KEY TERMS

🔑 Foreign trade 🔑 Consumer

🔑 Domestic 🔑 Equilibrium
🔑 trade 🔑 Supply
🔑 Market 🔑 demand

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2.3.1. The concept and historical development

of trade and Market


🔑
KEY TERMS
Bartering 🔑 Demand 🔑 Supply

Concept of trade.
What is trade? How it began?
Trade refers to the exchange of commodities. It results from the unequal
distribution of resources over the earth’s surface. None of the world countries
is self-sufficient in all types of commodities. Hence trade appeared to solve this
shortage of resource or production in different parts of the world.

In the earliest times, people used bartering or exchanging goods for goods.
Bartering is the exchange of one article with another equal value. Trade is also
resulted from specialization of skills, such as weaving, metal work, tannery,
pottery etc. Therefore, due to specialization of varied occupations, people
began to exchange goods in the form of bartering. But later on, people used
metal and paper money as medium of exchange.

Figure 2.19 Bartering

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Benefits of trade
What are the benefits of trade?
A country has a comparative advantage in the production of a good. Expanding
the variety of products by consumers and business, trade keeps our economy
open, dynamic and cooperative. It increases competition and lowers world
prices, which provides benefits to consumers by raising the purchasing power
of their own income. Moreover, trade encourages investment, which leads
to rapid economic growth. Supporting more productive, higher paying jobs in
export sector is also another advantage of trade.

Types of the trade

The trade can be divided into two broad categories. They are; Domestic trade
and foreign trade

A. Domestic Trade:- Domestic trade is also known as internal or

home trade. It is concerned with the exchange of commodities
among peoples of a country. This type of trade activities does
not cross national boundaries.

B. Foreign Trade: - Foreign trade is also known as external or

international trade. It refers to the exchange of goods and
services between nations. The goods here can be finished
products, intermediate goods used in producing other goods
or agricultural products and food stuffs. Foreign trade has two
aspects. These are: The import trade, and the export trade.

Import trade is concerned with bringing goods and services from abroad or
from the outside source to home country. On the other hand, export trade is
concerned with the sending of goods to another country for sale.

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Market forces: Demand and Supply

What is demand and supply? What is the relationship between demand and supply
with price?
In economics, the term demand has a specific meaning. It refers to the amount
of commodity which an individual buyer is willing and able to buy at a given
price and during a given period of time.

Demand Schedule: A demand schedule is a tabular statement that

states the different quantities of a commodity that would be demanded at
different prices. Demand schedules are of two types:
L Individual demand schedule.
L Market demand schedule.

A. Individual demand schedule is a tabular statement which shows the

quantity of a commodity demanded by an individual household at various
alternate prices per time period.

Table 2.2 Individual demand Schedule

price per kg Quantity Demand

10 4
15 3
22 1

The above demand schedule shows the different quantities of mangoes

demanded by an individual at different prices. At Birr 10 per kg consumer
demands 4 kg mangoes but at Birr 22 per kg consumer demands 1 kg mangoes.

B. Market demand schedule is a tabular statement which shows the

different quantities of a commodity demanded by different households or
consumers in a market at various alternate prices per time period.

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Table2.3 Market demand schedule

Price per kg X’s Demand Y’s De- Market demand

mand (x+y)
10 4 6 10
15 3 4 7
22 1 2 3

The above demand schedule shows the different quantities of mangoes

demanded by different consumers at different prices. At Birr 10 per kg X
demands 4 kg whereas Y demands 6 kg, so market demand at Birr 10 per kg is
10 kg but at Birr 22 per kg X demands 1 kg whereas Y demands 2 kg, so market
demand at Birr 22 per kg is 3 kg.

Supply
What is Supply? What is the relationship between supply and price?
In economics we define supply as follows: Supply of a commodity refers to
various quantities of it which producers are willing and able to offer for sale
at a particular time at various corresponding prices. Note that supply shows a
relationship between quantities supplied and price of a commodity, whereas
quantity supplied refers to a specific quantity which a producer is willing to
sell at a specific price.

Supply Schedule: - A supply schedule is a tabular statement that states the

different quantities of a commodity offered for sale at different prices.

Supply schedules are of two types:-

I. Individual supply schedule.

II. Market supply schedule.
A. Individual supply schedule is a tabular statement which shows the
different quantities of a commodity offered for sale by an individual firm
at different prices per time period.

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Table 2.4 Individual supply schedule

Price per kg Quantity Supplied

5 15
8 20
12 28
The above supply schedule shows the different quantities of a commodity
supplied by an individual firm at different prices. At Birr 5 per kg, the firm
supplies 15 kg, but at Birr 12 per kg, the firm supplies 28 kg of the commodity.

B. Market supply schedule is a tabular statement which shows the sum of

the quantities supplied by all the sellers.

Table 2.5 Market supply schedule

Price per Supply of firm X Supply of Firm Y Market Supply

kg (X+Y)
5 15 12 27
8 20 18 38
12 28 25 53

The above supply schedule shows the different quantities of a commodity

supplied by different firms at different prices. At Birr 5 per kg, firm X supplies
15 kg, whereas firm Y supplies 12 kg, so market supply at Birr 5 per kg is 27
kg. But at Birr 12 per kg, firm X supplies 28 kg, whereas firm Y supplies 25 kg.
So market supply at Birr 12 per kg is 53 kg.

Market Equilibrium
In the context of price determination, equilibrium refers to a situation in which
the quantity demanded of a commodity equals the quantity supplied of the
commodity. It refers to the balance between opposite forces of demand and
supply and is termed as market equilibrium.

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Fig 2.20 Market equilibrium

Major actors of the market

Who are major actors of the market? What is their role?
The actors that can play a role in the marketing process can be divided into
three groups: Customers, Distributors and facilitators.

A. Consumer: - is a person or group who intends to order, orders, or use

purchased goods, products, or services primarily for personal, social, family,
household and similar needs, not directly related to entrepreneurial or business
activities.

B. Distributer: - is an intermediary entity between the producer of product

and another entity in the distribution channel or supply chain, such as a retailer,
a value added reseller or system integrator.

C. Market facilitators: are consultants whose sole or primary responsibility

is to handle marketing functions. Advertising agencies are responsible for
initiating, and communications.

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Competitive Market
What is competitive market? What are the characteristics of perfect competitive
market?
A competitive market is one where there are numerous producers that compete
with one another in hopes to provide goods and services, as consumers, want
and need. In other words, not one single producer can dictate the market. Also,
like producers not one consumer can dictate the market either. This concept is
also true where price and quantity of goods are concerned. One producer and
one consumer cannot decide the price of goods or decide the quantity that will
be produced.

A great example of competitive market is farming. There are thousands of

farmers and no one of them can influence the market or the price based on how
much they grow. All the farmer can do is grow the crop and accept whatever
the current price is for that product. They do not get determine the price they
want to sell.

A perfectly competitive market has the following characteristics:

✅ All producers contribute insignificantly to the market

✅ The producers are price takers, they cannot influence the market.
✅ Products are homogenous.
✅ Producers enter and exit the market freely.
✅ Both buyers and sellers have perfect information about the price, utility,
quality, and production method of products.
✅ There are no transaction costs.
Ethiopian export trade
Since Ethiopia’s economy is underdeveloped heavily depends on agriculture;
the structure of Ethiopia’s exports is dominated by agricultural products, which
alone accounted for more than 90% of the export earnings of the country.

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Table 2.6 The share of export items in the total merchandise export value

Particulars 2015/16 2016/17(%) 2017/18

(%) share share) (%) share
Coffee 25.2 30.4 29.5
Oilseeds 16.6 12.1 14.9
Leather & Leather products 4 3.9 4.7
Pulses 8.1 9.6 9.5
Meat & meat products 3.4 3.4 3.6
Fruits & Vegetables 1.9 1.9 2.2
Live animals 5.2 2.3 2.2
Chat 9.2 9.4 9.3
Gold 10.1 7.2 3.5
Flower 7.9 7.5 8
Electricity 1.1 2.5 3
Others 7.4 9.7 9.7
Total Export 100 100 100

(Source: World Bank, 2019)

Consumers right:- consumer right is the right to have information about the
quality, strength, quantity, purity, price and standard of goods or services, as it
may be the case, but the consumer is to be protected against any unfair practice
of trade.

Activity 2.3
Answer the Following Questions

1. Define Trade. How it begun?

2. Illustrate concept of demand and supply?
3. Describe benefits of trade?

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2.4. Government revenue and tax

Competencies
After studying this lesson, students will be able to:
📕 explain the meaning of government revenue and tax;
📕 discuss the historical development of revenue and tax in Ethiopia;
and
📕 describe the benefits of government revenue and tax.

 KEY TERMS
🔑 Tax 🔑 Revenue 🔑 Levy

The meaning and basic concept of government revenue and tax

in Ethiopia
What is revenue and tax? How it is collected?
Government revenue or national revenue is the money received by a government
from taxes and non-taxes sources to enable it to undertake government
expenditure.

A tax is a compulsory financial charge or some other type of levy imposed on a

taxpayer (an individual or legal entity) by governmental organization in order
to fund government spending and various public expenditures. A failure to pay
along with avoidance of or resistance to taxation is punishable by law.

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Focus
A tax a mandatory fee or financial charge levied by any government
on an individual or an organization to collect revenue for public works
providing the best. Taxes are levied by governments on their citizens
to generate income for undertaking projects to boost the economy of
the country.

Historical development of government revenue and tax in Ethiopia

Describe the historical development of government revenue and tax in Ethiopia?

Taxes in Ethiopia until the early 20thC was mainly paid in kind or labor, service,
rather than in cash. Taxation in the past varied greatly from region to region,
and was often arbitrary, in that tended to depend on the desire of the chief or
tax collector. At the middle of the nineteenth century, the British council Walter
Plowden, wrote “The imposts (i.e. taxes) are numerous but vary according to
the traditional customs of each village. They pay a certain portion in kind to the
Ras, or other great chief, and sometimes a regular tax in money; besides this
they must furnish oxen to plough the king’s lands.

The first important reforms, carried out by Emperor Menilik toward the end
of the nineteenth century, resulted in the establishment of a fixed tithe rather
than the undefined, and essentially arbitrary, system of agricultural and other
taxation.

The second major reform, which dates back to the early twentieth century, and
resulted largely from the increasing prevalence of money and the growth of
trade, was the stable efficiency of agricultural and other taxation. Later, more
recent reforms were the fruit of Ethiopia’s emergence as a modern state. They
involved all the mechanisms of modern tax collection; tax schedules, paper
work, and the development of trained and regularly paid civil service, as well
as the abolition of the vexatious system of internal customs posts.

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The benefits of the government revenue and tax

List and explain the benefits of government revenue and tax.
Government expenditure is divided into two principal headings: Recurrent and
Capital expenditure. The recurrent budget is mostly financed from domestic
revenue sources, i.e., from tax and non-tax revenue. The capital budget is
usually financed by external loans and grants.

Recurrent budget expenditure consists of expenses that repeated in nature like

salaries of civil servants. The recurrent budget in Ethiopia is structured under
four functional categories.

✅ Administration and General service (Organ of state, justice, Defense,

public order and General Service).
✅ Economic service (agriculture & natural resource, trade & industry,
mining & energy, tourism, transportation& communication, and
construction)
✅ Social (education & health, culture & sport, labor & social affairs, and
prevention & rehabilitation).
✅ Other services (transfer public payment, repayment of public debt,
contingency & miscellaneous).

Activity 2.4
Answer the Following Questions

1. Define revenue and tax

2. Explain the importance of government revenue and tax.
3. Describe the historical development of revenue and tax in Ethiopia

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UNIT SUMMARY
ʯ Culture is “the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a
particular group of people at a particular time.
ʯ Language Families is collection of languages related through a common
ancestral language.
ʯ The six languages used in the UN include: Arabic, Chinese (Mandarin),
English, French, Russian and Spanish.
ʯ Religion is an organized collection of beliefs, cultural system, and world
views that relate humanity to an order of existence.
ʯ Globalization refers to the integration and democratization of the world’s
culture, economy, and infrastructure.
ʯ Economic activity is the production, distribution and exchange of goods
and services.
ʯ Manufacturing refers to the process and change (transform) that turns
raw materials in to products using inputs in the form of labor, capital and
equipment
ʯ Mining is a primary economic activity concerned with the extraction of
mineral bearing substances from the earth’s crust.
ʯ In the earliest times, people used bartering or exchanging goods for goods
that has relatively equal value.
ʯ Trade encourages investment, which leads to rapid economic growth.
Supporting more productive, higher paying jobs in export sector is also
another advantage of trade.
ʯ Domestic trade is exchange of goods and services within a country.
ʯ Foreign trade is also known as external or international trade. It refers to the
exchange of goods and services between nations.
ʯ Demand for a commodity is the amount of it that a consumer is willing to
buy at various given prices and a given moment of time.
ʯ Taxes are levied by governments on their citizens to generate income for
undertaking projects to boost the economy of the country.
ʯ Taxes in Ethiopia until the early twentieth century was mainly paid in kind
or labor, service, rather than in cash.

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 Grade 8 Social Studies
GLOSSARY
Bartering: is the exchange of one article with another of equal value.

Culture: “the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular
group of people at a particular time.

Demand is the amount of commodity which an individual buyer is willing and able to
buy at a given price and during a given period of time.

Domestic trade: It is concerned with exchange of goods and services within the country.

Export: Sending goods and services to another country for sale.

Fishing is the catchments of fish and other marine creatures such as whales, seals,
pearls sponges, mollusks etc.

Foreign trade: It refers to the exchange of goods and services between nations.

Forestry is a primary economic activity concerned with the exploitation of forest

products.

Globalization: the integration and democratization of the world’s culture, economy,

and infrastructure.

Human race: - a human race a group of people with certain common inherited features
that distinguish them from other groups of people.

Import: bring goods or services into a country from abroad for sale.

Industry refers to the place where manufacturing takes place.

Language Families: is collection of languages related through a common ancestral

language.

Levy:- taxes initiated by primary industries imposed on the producers in the industry.

Religion:- is an organized collection of beliefs, cultural system, and world views that
relate humanity to an order of existence.

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Revenue is the money received by a government from taxes and non-taxes sources to
enable it to undertake government expenditure.

Supply:- refers to various quantities of commodity which producers are willing and able
to offer for sale at a particular time at various corresponding prices.

Taxes are levied by governments on their citizens to generate income for undertaking
projects to boost the economy of the country.

Tourism as one of tertiary economic activities is said to be the smokeless industry.

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REVIEW EXERCISES
I. Determine whether each of the following sentences is true or
false.

1. Culture is constantly interacting and changing sets of practices and

processes.
2. All languages are not considered as essentially an important part of the
culture.
3. Religion and belief of the people play an important role in shaping up of
the Culture as well.
4. Minerals are distributed evenly throughout the earth’s crust.
5. Mass poverty is a common feature of the majority of the populations of
the least developed countries.
6. The tertiary sector of industry involves the provision of services to other
businesses.
7. Trade is the result of unequal distribution of resource on the surface of the
earth.
8. Import trade is concerned with bringing goods and services from abroad.
9. Spanish is an official language of most African countries.
10. Agriculture is the least user of rural land compared to forestry.

II Match items.

A B
1. Sino-Tibetan A. Turkish
2. Altaic B. Hamito-Semitic
3. North Africa C. China & Southeast Asia
4. South Africa D. Khoisan (Bush men).
5. Sub Sahara E. Niger-Congo
F. Europe & Asia

III Choose the correct answer

1. A dominant language family of Europe and south Asia is:

A. Indo-European C. Niger-Congo
B. Sino Tibetan D. Khoisan (Bush men)
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2. An official language of most Latin American countries is
A. English C. Spanish
B. Russia D. France
3. Which one of the following is not an official language of the UN?
A. Spanish C. Arab
B. Germany D. Russia
4. Which one of the following economic activities belongs to “smoke less
industry?”
A. Manufacturing C. Forestry
B. Mining D. Tourism
5. A type of trade which refers to the exchange of goods and services
between nations.
A. Domestic trade C. Foreign trade
B. Internal trade D. Home trade
6. It refers to the balance between opposite forces of demand and supply
A. Market equilibrium C. Supply Schedule
B. Demand schedule D. Demand supply
7. One of the following is not a primary economic activity.
A. Mining C. Forestry
B. Agriculture D. Trade
8. One of the following is not a characteristic of manufacturing activities.
A. It requires large capital investment and involves mass units of
production
B. Large number of employees is engaged
C. They involve a high degree of division of labor
D. It is one of the primary economic activities.
9. The integration and democratization of the world’s culture, economy, and
infrastructure is.
A. Global warming C. Globalization
B. Religion D. Westernization

10. The types of human activities can be broadly grouped into several major
groups of economic activities. To which does the extractive sector belong
to?

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A. Secondary C. Primary
B. Tertiary D. Quaternary

IV. Short answer

1. Discuss on the major component of culture by adding your own

suggestion
2. List and discuss the major types of major world languages and religion of
the world.

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UNIT RESOURCES
AND SOCIO
THREE ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT

Introduction
In the previous units, you have socioeconomic development. The
learned about the physical major topics to be covered in this
characteristics of the earth, (Forces unit include: Conservation and
shaping the Earth’s surface, utilization of natural resources
Composition and structures of for sustainable development,
the Earth’s atmosphere, Elements Consequences of unwise
and controls of weather and utilization of natural resources,
climate). In this unit you will Resource accessibility & resource
learn about Natural resources and based conflicts.

Unit Outcomes
At the end of this unit, students will be able to
📕 describe the role of natural resources for socio economic development;
📕 explain the concept of sustainable resource utilization and development;
📕 describe the way natural resources are utilized in their locality; and
📕 value indigenous resource based conflict resolution efforts in their
locality.
 Grade 8 Social Studies

3.1. Conservation and utilization of

natural resources for sustainable
development

Competencies

After studying this lesson, students will be able to:

📕 analyze the importance of natural resource for socioeconomic
development;
📕 describe factors influencing the utilization of natural resource
📕 explain how the consumption patterns of resources are changing
through time in their locality
📕 explain the ideas of resource conservation and sustainable
utilization; and
📕 respect humanity and indigenous knowledge.

 KEY TERMS

🔑 Conservation 🔑 Non-renewable resources

🔑 Renewable resources 🔑 Natural resources
🔑 Natural Vegetation 🔑 Sustainability

3.1.1. Resource utilization and economic

benefits

What are natural resources? How do people use resources to make a living?

Concepts of Resources
Natural resources refer to the things that exist freely in nature for human
use and don’t necessarily need the action of mankind for their generation

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or production. Natural resources include fertile soil, clean water, minerals,

wildlife, vegetation, and energy sources. People use all these resources to
improve their lives.
Types of Resources
What are the different types of natural resources?
I. Renewable resources: are types of resources that can be replaced as they
are used. They can be replaced naturally or grown fairly quickly.
Forests, water, soil, plant and animal life all can be renewable
resources if people manage them carefully.

II. Non-renewable resources: As their name suggests, non-renewable

resources cannot be replaced once they have been used. The most
important example of non-renewable resources are the fossil fuels
like, coal, oil and natural gas and minerals. These resources are
generally non-replaceable in character.

A. Natural Vegetation
What is natural vegetation? Discuss uses of natural vegetation?
The term natural vegetation refers to a plant community which has grown
naturally without human aid, which is resulting from normal conditions of
climate, soil, drainage and other natural conditions. The vegetation of a region
can be modified to a marked extent by people, because of agricultural or
urban development. The following are the direct and indirect uses of natural
vegetation.
Table 3.1 Uses of Natural Resources
Direct use Indirect use
Serve as a source of energy such as fuel Regulate local climatic condition
wood and charcoal etc
Serve as source of industrial raw materials. Maintain the balance of nature
Serve as source of construction materials. Maintain soil fertility and regulate
soil erosion.
Serve as a source of food serve as habitat of wild animals
serve as source of income Provide aesthetic value.

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B. Wild Animals
What are wild animals? Have you ever seen wild animals?
Wildlife includes all wild living creatures, large or small. Mammals, birds,
fish, reptiles, amphibians and insects are regarded as wildlife. These animals
are important for many reasons. Among the most common important functions
of wild animals for human beings are the following.

✅ Source of food
✅ Maintaining the balance of nature
✅ Add beauty to the environment (aesthetic value)
✅ Source of industrial raw materials
✅ Source of individual and national income

Figure 3.1 Wild Animals

C. Minerals
What are minerals? Discuss the use of minerals?
A mineral is an element or a combination of elements. It is either inorganic or
organic chemical elements or compounds found naturally in the crust of the
earth.

The major uses of minerals are:-

✅ Minerals are raw materials for a variety of manufacturing industries.
✅ Some minerals are sources of energy that is used to run machinery.
Examples: coal, petroleum and natural gas.

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✅ Some minerals are used for making fertilizers. These include minerals like
phosphates, sulphur, potash, and nitrates.
✅ Some minerals are used directly as materials in building construction.
Such minerals include limestone, marble, granite, clay, etc.
✅ Some minerals are used for both aesthetic and ornamental purposes. Like,
Gold, Diamond etc.
D. Soil
What is soil? What are soils used for? What are the parent materials of soil?
Soil is a natural resource consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable
thicknesses. It is composed of particles of broken rock that have been altered
by chemical and environmental processes that include weathering and erosion.
It is a mixture of mineral and organic constituents. Some of the major uses of
soil are:-

✅ Soil is used in agriculture, where it serves as the primary nutrient base for
plants.
✅ Soil absorbs rainwater and releases it later, thus preventing floods and
drought. Soil cleans the water as it percolates through. Soil is the habitat
for many organisms.
✅ The biological component of soil is extremely important for the
carbon sink. Even in desert areas, bacteria, lichens and mosses capture a
significant amount of carbon by photosynthesis.

3.1.2. Factors affecting natural resource

utilization

What are the factors that affect the utilization of resources?

A. Overpopulation
As the human population keeps on enlarging, there is a lot of pressure on the
utilization of almost all natural resources. This often causes over-exploitation
of the natural resources. To worsen matters, exhaustible natural resources such
as arable land, coral reefs, fresh water, fossil fuels, and wilds forests drop
sharply due to over-exploitation to sustain the ever increasing population.

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B. Intensive Agricultural and Farming Practices

Intensive agricultural practices have claimed much space of the natural
resources because farmers resort to converting forests and grasslands to
croplands. In the modern world, the pressure to convert lands into resource
areas for producing priced foods, crops, and livestock rearing has increasingly
led to the depreciation of natural resources especially forests, wild life and
fertile lands. Runoff of agricultural waste, fertilizers, and pesticides into marine
and freshwater environments has also negatively threatened various natural
crop species, natural water resources and aquatic life.

C. Climate Change and Global Warming

The severe changes in climate patterns as a result of human activities and
overpopulation that generate greenhouse gases and carbon footprint in the
atmosphere threatens biodiversity as well as other numerous natural resources.

D. Environmental Pollution
The majority of natural resources have been destroyed and a large portion
is under immense threat due to the toxic substances and chemicals emitted
from industries, homemade utilities, and agricultural products among other
processed materials. Land, air, and water pollution pose long-term cumulative
impacts on the natural resources and the quality of the environments in which
they occur.

E. Land Use and Development

The conversion of lands into urban settings, housing development projects,
office spaces, shopping malls, industrial sites, parking areas, road networks,
and so on takes away the naturally occurring land that provided habitat for
wildlife and other living organisms. This practice has substantially led to the
loss and destruction of millions of acre of natural habitable environments.

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3.1.3. The changing importance of resources

over time

Are the consumption pattern of resources are changing? How?

Increase in demand on using resources is never-ending and human beings
seek to achieve utilize in technical advancements will never be final. People
to satisfy their wants and lead a more comfortable life relate the concept of
consumerism to increased usage of consumer goods.

Industrial Revolution leads to expansion of cities and towns both in size and
power. In developing nations, especially a large segment of society from
villages moved to cities for occupational support (occupational migration).
This exactly was the cause of rapid expansion of cities.

Electricity from various sources is a major requirement of expanding cities,

towns and villages, this all together has led to an electricity energy crisis.
Transport and communication has brought the petroleum reserves of the
world under a great threat. The world population has extracted and used coal
reserves thinking as if it is a never-ending commodity/resource. Fuel wood
being used for the explosion of fire is chiefly responsible for the destruction of
impoverished forestlands.

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Focus
Utilization of Resource in Traditional and Modern Society

A. Traditional society

• Backward means of production/

• wasteful and destructive/inefficient resource use
B. Modern society

• Over exploitation/ luxurious/ comfortable life

• Excessive use of resources/over production and wastage
• Disposing hazardous chemical waste
• Motives for profit

3.1.4. Resource conservation and sustainable

utilization

What do you mean by resource conservation and sustainable use?

Conservation:- is the act of protecting Earth’s natural resources for current
and future generations. Conservation seeks the sustainable use of nature by
humans, for activities such as hunting, logging, or mining.

Sustainable use means the use of components of resources in a way and at a

rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity, thereby
maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future
generations.

Why Conserving Natural Resources is Important?

There is something called a balance in nature. As we continue to overuse natural
resources, a serious imbalance has been caused. Deforestation, depletion of oil
and gas, shortage of water and power, soil erosion leading to lack of agricultural
growth, are all contributing to environmental issues such as global warming
and environmental pollution. Interestingly, it is these environmental issues that
are leading to further shortage of natural resources.

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Ways of Conserving Natural Resources

Conserving soil
What are the possible measures of conservation for soil resources?
Major soil conservation measures that could be taken to increase soil fertility
are:

Terracing: - constructing stair like structures along hillsides to reduce the

speed at which water flows down the slope, thereby reducing erosion,

Figure 3.2 Terracing

Agro forestry: - is associating agriculture with forest development.

Afforestation: is planting trees in areas which originally were not covered by
forests.
Reforestation: - is planting tree seedlings to replace cut forests.
Windbreaks and shelter-belt plantations: planting trees along a line to break
the speed of the blowing wind and reduce its erosivity.
Check dams: - are small ditches that are prepared along sloppy areas to reduce
the impact of the down slope surface flow.
Strip cultivation: - is planting two or more types of crops on the same farm,
using a pattern of stripes of alternating crops. This approach reduc-

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es soil erosion because different types of plants use different ways

of binding soil particles to themselves.
Contour ploughing: - is ploughing the land sideways, following contours. It
is commonly used in sloped areas, forming furrows perpendicular
to the angle of the slope. These furrows act as blocks, slowing the
flow of downhill water.
Crop rotation: - planting different crops alternately on a farm.
“Green manure”: This approach uses plants that have soil-nutrient value to
enrich the soil in the same way that animal faeces are used as fertil-
izer. The “green manure” plants are cultivated on the land and then
ploughed under to mix them with the soil.
Mulching: - is covering the soil with plant residue to let the soil regain some
nutrients as the residue decays.
Fallowing: - is leaving the farm idle for a while until the soil regains its fer-
tility

Case Study
KONSO PEOPLE AND THEIR TERRACING
FARMING SYSTEM

Demonstrating sophisticated knowledge

of engineering and dynamics of the landscape, the Konso agricultural
system provides an insight into the functions of terrace systems and how
their practices can still be relevant to cultivating this harsh landscape today.
The impressive terraced landscape in Konso includes some 40 historic
walled towns surrounded by a system of dry-stone agricultural terracing,
complemented with a complex array of other soil and water conservation
techniques such as water and soil harvesting; inter-cropping; agro forestry;
livestock; and bee keeping activities. As a result, the stony hillsides of Konso
are turned into protected fertile agricultural landscapes.

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Conserving Water
Discuss possible measures of conservation for water resources.
Water is a basic resource for all our activities. We clean with water, we cook
with water, and the production of every item of use requires the use of water.
Several parts of the world are now facing a water shortage because of the
way in which it is being used. Conserving this natural resource is of prime
importance for the stability of the environment.

✅ Firstly, if you have any leaky faucets or those that don’t work properly, get
them fixed. Every drop of water is precious.
✅ Use a bucket of water to bathe rather than using the shower. You may not
realize how much water you are wasting when you use a shower for a bath.
✅ Stop dumping things in the seas and rivers and lakes. Not only does
marine life get affected, the water becomes polluted and dangerous for use
thereafter.
✅ Try to harvest rainwater. You can use it to water your garden and plants,
and even clean your car. Don’t use it for any other purposes and definitely
do not drink it.
Conserving Forests
What are the major possible measures of conservation for forest resources?
The problem of deforestation can be reduced through the application of
different forest-conservation measures. These measures include reforestation,
Afforestation, agro-forestry and social forestry.

Reforestation: - is planting trees in areas where the original forest cover has
been removed. It is done to replace the trees that have been cut by humans for
different purposes.

Afforestation: - is planting trees in areas where there was no original forest

cover. For example, Afforestation is appropriate for areas where the land is left
empty and therefore is exposed to erosion.

Agro forestry: - is forestry combined with farming. It is a practice of

integrating the planting of trees into farming to provide fuel, fruit, forage,
shelter for animals or crops, and other benefits. In short, it refers to associating

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crop production with forest development.

Social forestry: - refers to planting trees in urban areas in association with

human settlements.

Conserving Wild Animals

Discuss possible measures of conservation for the wildlife resources.
Wild Animals migrate, and even die due to the disturbance of their environment
as humans influence. To control the situation the following measures can be
taken:

Conserving natural vegetation: - the conservation of one type of natural

resource means the conservation of others. Conserving natural vegetation that
serves as habitats and sources of food for wild animals can ultimately help with
their conservation.

Establishing national parks, game reserves and sanctuaries: - these areas

provide protection and conservation for wild animals. They are established to
conserve wild animals and their habitats so that they have a secure environment
that is safe for their survival.

Controlling illegal hunting:- It can be done by developing strict legislation

whereby illegal hunters are punished or penalized for their illegal acts.

Raising the people’s awareness: - this can be done by educating the people
about the uses of wild animal so that their attitudes and activities change.

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Activity 3.1
Answer the Following Questions

1. What are natural resources?

2. Write the direct uses of natural vegetation
3. What is conservation? Discuss the ways of conserving the following
natural resources from damage. (Forests, Wild animals,)

3.2. Consequences of unwise utilization

of natural resources on Water, Air
and Soil.

Competencies
After studying this lesson, students will be able to:
📕 analyze the major consequences of unwise use of natural
resource;
📕 describe the effects of unwise utilization of natural resource on
water, air, and soil; and
📕 explain the consequences of natural resource degradation on
their locality

 KEY TERMS
🔑 Degradation 🔑 Wise
🔑 Pollution 🔑 utilization

What are the consequences of unwise utilization of resources? What is pollution?

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Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment. These

harmful materials are called pollutants. Pollutants can be created by human
activity, such as trash or runoff produced by factories. Pollutants damage the
quality of air, water and land.

Natural resources are the basis for our life on earth. But due to unwise
utilization, which is caused by population pressure (growing consumption),
industrialization and urbanization the demand for natural resources is
increasing, and causing severe damage and their availability is being limited.
Some of the consequences of unwise utilization of resources are:

Water Pollution:-Water is extremely essential for life; this common fact is

known to all. It is required to meet our basic needs in day to day life, but during
this processes the undesirable substances are added to the water resources to
a great extent. This alters the basic chemistry of water in rivers and streams.
Some of the effects of water pollution are: (destruction of biodiversity, depletes
aquatic ecosystems, contamination of the food chain, lack of portable water,
disease, infant mortality etc).

Air pollution:- The WHO defines air pollution as the presence of materials in
the air in such concentration which are harmful to man and his environment.
A number of ingredients find their way in the air and these are mostly gases,
which rapidly spread over wide areas. These particle and gases can come from
car and truck exhaust, factories, dust pollen, mold spores volcanoes and wild
fire. It is considered as the major incidence and progression of some diseases
such as asthma, lung cancer, ventricular hypertrophy, etc.

Soil Pollution:- Like water and air, soil is also equally important for living
organisms. It supports plants on which all other living organisms depend. The
toxic substances that are deposited on the earth’s surface harm our health and
well-being and affect food, water, and air quality. Some of the consequences
of soil pollution are: (damage to health, poor harvests, climate change, water
and air pollution, population displacement, species extinction, desertification,
and economic impact).

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Land degradation:- Besides pollution, land and soil face several other
problems. Removal of topsoil is called soil erosion. Soil erosion factors are
water, wind, ocean, waves and glaciers, felling of trees, overgrazing by cattle,
over-cropping etc. Erosion occurs both in wet and dry regions. It leads to floods.
It is also a global challenge that affects every one through food insecurity,
higher food prices, climate change, environmental hazards, and the loss of
biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Activity 3.2
Answer the Following Questions

1. What are the consequences of unwise utilization of natural

resources(on water, air and Soil?)
2. Explain the effects of water pollution, wind pollution, soil pollution
and land degradation
3. Discuss the effects of land degradation on your local area.

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3.3. Resource accessibility & resource

based conflicts:
Competencies

After completing this lesson, students will be able to:

📕 Describe the major resource based conflicts of Ethiopia
📕 Explain a resource based conflicts in their locality.
📕 Describe how Resource conflicts within society can be managed
and resolved.

 KEY TERMS
🔑 Conflicts 🔑 Resolution

Natural resources are an integral part of society, as sources of income,

industry, and identity. Developing countries tend to be more dependent on
natural resources as their primary source of income, and many individuals
depend on these resources for their livelihoods. It is estimated that half of the
world’s population remains directly tied to local natural resources; many rural
communities depend upon agriculture, fisheries, minerals, and timber as their
main sources of income.

Natural resource conflicts are disagreements or disputes to get access to, or

control over and use of the existing natural resources. This kind of conflicts
normally emerge because people have dissimilar and inequitable uses from
resources of land, water, forests, and pastures, etc. or need to manage it
differently.

Most Natural resource use conflicts are common occurrences in each and every
part of Ethiopia. Among the prominent ones, ongoing competition over the
use of rangelands between different pastoralist groups in the Middle Awash

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valley and Ethio-Kenya border usually raises conflicts. Similar conflicts are
also common among people living around major conservation areas like the
Bale Mountains National Park, Semen Mountain National Park, and others.

On the other hand, the unresolved conflict of interest on the use of Nile River
among Ethiopia, Sudan, Egypt, and other countries could also be taken as
a noticeable example of state-wide conflicts. When such kind of conflicts
are not properly addressed, it may escalate into violence and war; and thus,
may cause further degradation of the environment, disrupting projects and
undermining livelihoods. Therefore, it is extremely difficult to properly utilize
and sustainably manage resources under conflict.

How to resolve resource based conflicts?

Resource conflicts within society can be managed and resolved. The ways by
which people (even those from the same community) respond to natural resource
conflicts vary noticeably. As a result, every community has its own scheme
of handling conflicts. The most common strategies may include avoidance,
coercion, negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and adjudication. Apart from the
legal procedures, these mechanisms are common and had long been practiced
as parts of the societal culture in Ethiopia.

Figure 3:1 Approaches to Natural Resource conflicts Management

and Resolution

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Activity 3.3
Answer the Following Questions

1. What do we mean by a resource conflicts?

2. Where the prominent resource is based conflicts in Ethiopia?
3. What are the major resource conflict management and resolution?

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UNIT SUMMARY
ʯ A natural resource is anything that people can use which comes from the
natural environment.
ʯ Now a day, natural resources of the earth are over exploited, polluted,
exhausted and degraded because of over population, intensive agricultural
and farming practices, climate change and global warming, land use and
21st lifestyle consumption.
ʯ Renewable resources are types of resources that can be replaced as they are
used. They can be replaced naturally or grown fairly and quickly.
ʯ Non renewable resources, as their name suggests non-renewable resources
cannot be replaced once they have been used.
ʯ Wildlife includes all wild living creatures, large or small. Mammals, birds,
fish, reptiles, amphibians and insects are regarded as wildlife.
ʯ People to satisfy their wants and lead a more comfortable life relate the
concept of consumerism to increased usage of consumer goods.
ʯ Conservation seeks the sustainable use of nature by humans , for activities
such as hunting, logging, or mining.
ʯ Sustainable use means the use of components of resources in a way and at a
rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity, there
by maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and
future generations.
ʯ Natural resource conflicts are disagreements or disputes to get access to, or
control over and use of the existing natural resources.

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GLOSSARY
Conflicts- are disagreements or disputes

Conservation:- wise utilization of resources

Degradation:- the act of degrading or the state of being degraded.

Deforestation - the process of indiscriminate destruction of the natural vegetation

covers of an area without adequate replacement.

Natural resources:- is anything that people can use which comes from the natural
environment.

Natural vegetation: vegetations which are grown naturally, without human interference

Pollution - damage to the environment caused by waste levels that overload natural
recycling systems or by synthetic materials that cannot be broken down by
natural process.

Renewable resources are types of resources that can be replaced as they are used.

Resolution::- the act of finding an answer or solution to a conflict, problem, etc.

Rural - country side or non-urban place a settlement is a whole inhabitant depends on

agriculture for their livelihood.

Sustainability:- avoidance of the depletion of natural resources in order to maintain

an ecological balance.

Urban - non-rural area example town, city, etc.

Urbanization - the process whereby large number of people leave the countryside and
small towns in order to settle in cities and surrounding metropolitan areas.

Wise utilization:- the wise use of the earth’s resource by humanity.

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REVIEW EXERCISES
I write true if the statement is correct and false if the statement is
wrong

1. Renewable resources cannot be replaced once they have been used.

2. A natural resource is anything that people can use which comes from the
natural environment.
3. A mineral is an element or a combination of elements.
4. Transport and communication couldn’t brought the petroleum reserves of
the world under a great threat.
5. Conservation seeks the sustainable use of nature by humans.
6. Resource conflicts within society can be managed and resolved.

II Matching: Match Column A with Column B

A B
1. Afforestation A. wise utilization of resources
2. Reforestation B. planting trees in urban areas.
3. Agro-forestry C. planting trees in areas where there
4. Social forestation was no original forestation
5. Conservation D. It is done to replace the trees.
E. is forestry combined with Farming
F. Harvesting crops

III. Multiple choice Item

1. Anything that people can obtain from the natural environment

is_______________________.
A. Natural resource C. Conservation.
B. Sustainability D. Utilization.

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2. The presence of materials in the air in such concentration which are
harmful to man and his environment is:
A. Soil pollution C. Deforestation
B. Air pollution. D. Soil erosion
3. Which of the following is not true about resource?
A. It is useful for the existence of human beings
B. It can be made by human beings
C. It is created naturally
D. It is distributed unevenly.
4. Which one of the following is the major source of water pollution in rural
areas?
A. Sewage C. Agricultural pollutants
B. Industrial wastes D. Irrigation
5. Which of the following is not a human cause of erosion?
A. Heavy rain C. Overgrazing.
B. Deforestation D. Bad farming practice
6. Which of the following belongs to non-renewable natural resources?
A. Wild animals C. Air
B. Gold D. Soil
7. The wise use of natural resource is _______.
A. Degradation C. Conservation
B. Destruction D. Misused
8. One of the following is not renewable natural resources.
A. Coal C. Soil
B. Forest D. wild animals

IV Write short answers for the following questions

1. What does pollution mean?

2. Discuss pollution as a problem of drinking water.
3. What are the importance of wild animals?
4. What is conservation?
5. Why Conserving Natural Resources is Important?

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Student Textbook
Grade 8

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Sidaama National Regional State

Ministry of Education Education Bureau