DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

SIR SYED COLLEGE

TALIPARAMBA

Type Your Project Name Here

Project submitted to kannur University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for

the degree of Bachelor of Science in Mathematics

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certified that this report entitled “project name” is the bonafide record of
the project work done by Miss/Mr. Student name towards partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Mathematics from
KANNUR UNIVERSITY during the period December 2020 to March 2021.

Date:

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External Examiners

Place: Taliparamba 1)

Date:

2)
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project entitled “Name of the project” submitted for the
Bachelor of Science in Mathematics degree is my original work and the project have
not formed the basis for the award of any degree, associate ship, fellowship or any
other similar titles.

Signature of the student:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Let me express my wholehearted thank to principal ……………..,

…………………… and Head of the Department …………….., ……………………,
Sir Syed College, Taliparamba. I would like to express my sincere thanks
and gratitude to
….........................., for supervising my work.

Name of the student:

Place: Taliparamba

Date:
 ABSTRACT
The project deals the introduction and elementary or basic ideas about the topic
ideal in abstract algebra.

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 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................8

2. CHAPTER 1 : PRELIMINARY

1.1 SET..........................................................................................................................9

1.2 BINARY OPERATION..........................................................................................9

1.3 GROUP..................................................................................................................10

1.4 RINGS AND FILED..............................................................................................10

1.5 HOMOMORPHISM..............................................................................................12

3. CHAPTER 2 : SUBRING AND IDEAL

2.1 SUBRING.............................................................................................................13

2.2 IDEAL..................................................................................................................14

2.1.0 LEFT IDEAL

2.1.1 RIGHT IDEAL

2.1.2 TWO SIDED IDEAL

4. CHAPTER 3 : TYPES OF IDEALS AND DEFINITIONS

3.1 IMPROPER IDEALS OR TRIVIAL IDEAL.......................................................16

3.2 PROPER OR NON-TRIVIAL IDEAL.................................................................16

3.3 PRIME IDEAL....................................................................................................17

3.4 MAXIMAL IDEAL.............................................................................................17

3.5 PRINCIPAL IDEAL............................................................................................17

3.6 CO-MAXMAL IDEAL.......................................................................................17

5. CHAPTER 4 : PRIME IDEAL AND MAXIMAL IDEAL

4.1 MAXIMAL IDEAL.............................................................................................18

4.1.0 MAXIMAL LEFT IDEAL

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 4.1.1 MINIMAL LEFT IDEAL

4.2 PRIME IDEAL....................................................................................................18

6. CHAPTER 5 : IDEAL OPERATION

5.1 ADDITION OF IDEALS.....................................................................................23

5.2 MULTIPLICATIONS OF IDEALS.....................................................................23

5.3 POWER OF AN IDEAL......................................................................................23

5.4 NILPOTENT IDEAL...........................................................................................24

5.5 NIL IDEAL..........................................................................................................24

7. CHAPTER 6 : IDEAL STRUCTRE IN THE FIELD F[X]..............25

CONCLUSION........................................................................................28

BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................29

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 INTRODUCTION

In ring theory, a branch of abstract algebra, an ideal of a ring is a special subset of its
elements. Ideals generalize certain subsets of the integers, such as the even number or the
multiples of 3. Addition and subtraction of even numbers preserves evenness, and
multiplying an even number by any integer (even or odd) results in an even number; these
closure and absorption properties are the defining properties of an ideal. An ideal can be used
to construct a quotient ring in a way similar to how, in group theory, a normal subgroup can
be used to construct a quotient ring.

Ernst Kummer invented the concept of ideal number to serve as the "missing" factors in
number rings in which unique factorization fails; here the word "ideal" is in the sense of
existing in imagination only, in analogy with "ideal" objects in geometry such as points at
infinity. In 1876, Richard Dedekind replaced Kummer's undefined concept by concrete sets
of numbers, sets that he called ideals, in the third edition of Dirichlet’s book German for
lectures on number theory. Later the notion was extended beyond number rings to the setting
of polynomial rings and other commutative rings by David Hilbert and especially Emmy
Noether

Among the integers, the ideals correspond one-for-one with the non-negative integers in this
ring, every ideal is a principal ideal consisting of the multiples of a single non-negative
number. However, in other rings, the ideals may not correspond directly to the ring elements,
and certain properties of integers, when generalized to rings, attach more naturally to the
ideals than to the elements of the ring. For instance, the prime ideal of a ring is analogous to
prime numbers, and the Chinese remainder theorem can be generalized to ideals.

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 CHAPTER 1
PRELIMINARY
1.1 SET

1.1.0 Definition (set and representation);

A set is defined as, the well-defined collection of objects.

1. A set represented by using the capital letters in English alphabet and it’s elements are
denoted by small letter. If a is one of these elements in the set S, we shall denote this
fact by a ∈ S

2. For a set haven’t no elements is called empty set and denoted by ϕ (read as phi)

1.1.1 Definition (set and subset);

If we have two set A and B, then B subset of A is denoted by B⊆ A or A⊇ B (read as “Set A

is the super set or equal to set B”), if every element of B is in A. The notations B⊂ A or A⊃
B will be used for B subset of A, but B≠A.

1.2 BINARY OPERATION

1.2.0 Definition (binary operation);

A binary operation on a set S is a function mapping S×S into S.

ie ; f : S×S → S

For each (a, b) ∈ S × S, we will denote the binary operation between a and b as “ ∗ ”(read as
star),represented by a∗ b .

1.2.1 Definition (closure property);

Let ∗ be a binary operation on a set S and let H be a subset of S, the subset H is closed under
the same binary operation ∗ , if for all (a, b) ∈ H we also have a∗ b ∈ H. In this case, the
binary operation on H given by restricting ∗ into H is the induced operation of ∗ on H.
commonly known as closure property .

1.2.2 Definition (commutative binary operation);

A binary operation ∗ on a set S is commutative, if and only if a∗ b = b∗ a for all a , b ∈ S.

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1.2.3 Definition (associative binary operation);

A binary operation on a set S is associative if (a∗ b)∗ c = a∗ (b∗ c), for all a, b, c ∈ S.

1.3 GROUP

1.3.0 Definition (group);

A group, denoted as ⟨ G,∗ ⟩ is a set G, closed under the binary operation ∗ such that the
following axioms are satisfied

Axiom 1 (associativity property) : For any element a, b, c ∈ G we have

(a∗ b)∗ c = a∗ (b∗ c) , known as associativity of ∗ .

Axiom 2 (existence of identity element):There is an element e in G such that for all x∈ G , then

e∗ x = x = x∗ e

Axiom 3(existence of inverse element): Corresponding to each a∈ G, there is an element 𝑎−1

in G such that.

a ∗ 𝑎−1= e = 𝑎−1∗ a , here the element G is called the inverse element .

1.3.1 Definition (abelian group);

A group G is abelian group if its binary operation is commutative.

ie ; G is a group such that a∗ b = b∗ a , ⩝ a , b ∈ G (condition for commutativity)

1.3.2 Definition (subgroup);

If a subset H of a group G is closed under the binary operation of G and if H with the induced
binary operation from G itself a group, then H is a subgroup of G denoted by H ≤ G or G ≥ H.

1.4 RINGS AND FIELDS

1.4.0 Definition (Rings);

A ring < R, +, . > is the set R together with two binary operation + and . which we call addition
and multiplication defined on R such that the following axioms are satisfied,

1. < R , + > is group

2. < R , + > is abelian group
3. Closed under multiplication ie; if a,b ∈ R then a.b ∈ R

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 4. Multiplication is associative (or ⟨ R,+⟩ is a semi group under multiplication ) ie;
if a,b,c ∈ R then a.(b.c) = (a.b).c
5. Distributive laws for all a, b, c ∈ R then a.
(b+c) = (a.b)+(a.c) (left distributive law) and
(a+b).c = (a.c)+(a.b) (right distributive law) holds.

Example: ring over set of all integers < ℤ, +, . >

ring over set of all real number < ℝ, +, . >

ring over set of all complex number < ℂ, +, . >

1.4.1 Definition (commutative ring);

A ring in which multiplication is commutative is called commutative ring.

ie; ab = ba, ⩝ a,b ∈ R (ring)

1.4.2 Definition (ring with unity);

A ring with a multiplicative identity, is known as a ring with unity. The multiplicative
identity element e = 1 is called unity.

1.4.3 Definition (integral domain);

Integral domain is a commutative ring that obeys the following axioms

1. Existence of multiplicative identity (or ring with unity ): ∃ an element 1 ∈ R such that,

a.1 = 1.a = a , ⩝ a ∈ R

2. No zero devisors : If a,b ∈ R , and a.b = 0 , then either a = 0 or b = 0

1.4.4 Definition (Field);

A field F, sometimes denoted by < F, + , . > is a set of elements with two binary operations
called usual addition and usual multiplication such ⩝ a,b,c ∈ F , then the following axioms
are obeyed

1. To satisfy the all axioms of an integral domain

2. Existence of multiplicative inverse : For each a in F , except 0 there is an element 𝑎−1

in F such that 𝑎 . 𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1. 𝑎 =1

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1.5 HOMOMORPHISM
1.5.0 Ring homomorphism;
In the study of group, a homomorphism is a map that defined over the operation of a group.
But in the case of a homomorphism between rings are defined over the operations over the
addition and multiplication in ring.
If R and S are ring, then a ring homomorphism is a map ϕ : R→S , satisfying
1. ϕ (a+b) = ϕ(a) + ϕ(b) ⩝ a,b ∈ R

2. ϕ (a.b) = ϕ(a) . ϕ(b) ⩝ a,b ∈ R

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 CHAPTER 2
SUBRING AND IDEAL
2.1 SUBRING
2.1.0 Definition (Subring);
A non-empty subset S of a ring ⟨ R,+, . ⟩ is a subring of R , if S itself a ring with the operation
defined on R . Represented as ⟨ S,+, . ⟩
2.1.1 Theorem (subring test);
The existence of a subring S in a ring ⟨ R,+, . ⟩ , it must satisfy the following necessary and
sufficient conditions
1. For all a, b ∈ S ⇒ a - b ∈ S and

2. For all a ∈ S and b ∈ S ⇒ (a.b) ∈ S

Proof;

Necessary condition:

First suppose that S is a subring (ie : S itself a ring ) of the ring R and let a,b ∈ S , then

1. a ∈ S , b ∈ S ⇒ a ∈ S , -b ∈ S ( ∵ existence of additive inverse in S )

⇒ a+ (-b) = a-b ∈ S ( ∵ S closed under addition )

2. a ∈ S , b ∈ S ⇒ a.b ∈ S ( ∵ S is closed under

multiplication ) Thus the given conditions are necessary for a

subring test. Sufficient condition:

Suppose that S is a non-empty subset of ring R satisfying the given conditions.

∵ S ≠ ϕ , Therefore let a ∈ S . Then by the given condition of subring

test, a ∈ S , a ∈ S ⇒ a-a = 0 ∈ S

∴ S has additive identity or zero element.

Again 0 ∈ S , a ∈ S ⇒ 0-a = -a ∈ S

∴ Every element of S has additive inverse in S.

Also then a ∈ S , b ∈ S ⇒ a ∈ S , -b ∈ S (∵ existence of additive inverse )

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⇒ a-(-b) = a+b ∈ S

∴ S is closed under addition.

Since S ⊆ R, Therefore associativity and commutativity of addition must hold in S since they
hold in R.

Hence ⟨ S,+ ⟩ is an commutative or abelian group.

More over by the given condition, S is closed for multiplication.

Also associativity and distributivity of multiplication over addition must hold in S since they
hold in R.

Hence S is a subring of R and so the conditions are sufficient.

2.2 IDEAL

An ideal is a special kind of subring, that can be defined as follows

2.2.0 Definition (Left ideal);

Let R be a ring then a subset I of R is called a left ideal of R, if

1. For all a, b ∈ I ⇒ a - b ∈ I and

2. I is closed for the arbitrary multiplication on the left by the elements in R

ie; a ∈ I and x ∈ R ⇒ (x.a) ∈ I

2.2.1 Definition (Right Ideal);

Let R be the ring. A subset I of R is called right ideal if

1. For all a, b ∈ I ⇒ a - b ∈ I and

2. I is closed for the arbitrary multiplication on the Right by the elements in R

ie ; a ∈ I and x ∈ R ⇒ (a.x) ∈ I

2.2.2 Definition (two sided Ideal or ideal);

For an ideal, which behaves as both left ideal and right ideal are called two sided ideal.

ie; A subset I of R which is both a left ideal and right ideal is called a two sided ideal or simply
called Ideal.

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From the definition of ideal, two sided ideal must satisfy two conditions

1. For all a,b ∈ I ⇒ a - b ∈ I and

2. For all a ∈ I and x ∈ R ⇒ both ax ∈ I and xa ∈ I

2.2.3 Remark ; For a commutative ring , all the three concepts are equal

ie ; left ideal, right Ideal and two sided ideal are coincide .

2.2.4 Remark ; Every ideal are subring , but every subring are not necessarily be an ideal.

2.E.1 Example ( for ideal ) ;

Let f be a ring homomorphism from ⟨ R,+, . ⟩ to ⟨ R' ,⨁,⨀ ⟩ ;

Then prove that the kernel of f ie: ⟨ker F , + , . ⟩ is an ideal of ⟨ R' ,⨁,⨀ ⟩

Proof;

Let 0 and 0' be the zero elements of R and R' respectively.

Then by definition , ker(f ) ={x ∈ R : f(x)= 0' }=K (say) …(1)

∴ f(0) = 0' ⇒ 0 ∈ K ⇒ K ≠ ϕ (ie : K is no empty )

Let a,b ∈ K then f(a)=0' and f(b) = 0' (by …(1)) …(2)

Also f(a-b)=f(a+(-b))= f(a)+f(-b) ( by the definition of homomorphism )

=f(a)-f(b)=0'

∴ (a-b) ∈ K (by …(1))

Moreover if r ∈ R ,then for every a ∈ K , such that f(a)= 0' we have

f(a.r) = f(a) ⨀ f(r ) = 0' ⨀ f(r) = 0'

∴ ar ∈ K (ie : right ideal)

And f(r.a)= f(r) ⨀ f(a) =f(r) ⨀ 0' = 0'

∴ r.a ∈ K (ie : left ideal)

a ∈ K , b ∈ K , r ∈ R ⇒ (a-b) ∈ K , a.r ∈ K and r.a ∈ K.

ie : Ker (f) is an ideal of R , Hence the proof.

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 CHAPTER 3
TYPES OF IDEALS AND DEFINITIONS
3.1 IMPROPER IDEALS OR TRIVIAL IDEAL

Every ring R has at least two ideals which are

1. Unit ideal - R itself is an ideal

2. Null ideal – contain the element zero {0}

3.2 PROPER OR NON-TRIVIAL IDEAL

Proper or non-trivial ideal I of a ring R is an ideal of R such that I ≠ R and I ≠ {0}.

ie; In the case of a proper or non-trivial ideal, these ideals are neither an improper ideal ( or a
trivial ideal ) .

3.2.0 definition (Simple Ring);

A ring which has no proper ideal is called a simple ring

3.2.1 Theorem;

If R is a ring with unity and N is an ideal of R containing a unit then N = R.

Proof;

Let N be an ideal of R.

Suppose that u ∈ N for some unit in R then the condition rN ⊆ N for all r ∈ R ⇒ if we take

r = u-1 and u ∈ N, that is 1=u-1u is in N. But then rN ⊆ N for all r ∈ R ⇒ r.1 = r is in N

⩝ r ∈ R.

∴ N = R.

3.2.2 Corollary;

A field contains no proper non-trivial ideals.

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Proof;

Since every non zero element of a field is a unit follows at once from the previous theorem
(3.2.1) “if R is a ring with unity and N is an ideal of R containing a unit then N = 𝑅 ” , that is
an ideal of a field F is either zero or all of F .

3.3 PRIME IDEAL

A proper ideal N (N ≠ ring-R) in a commutative ring R is said to be prime ideal of R

if ab ∈ N implies that either a ∈ N or b ∈ N for all a, b ∈ R.

3.4 MAXIMAL IDEAL

An ideal J in a ring R is said to be maximal ideal if J ≠ R and if any other ideal taken as I > J,
it must be I = R that is, J is a maximal ideal if there is no ideal steadily larger than J
(containing J) except R itself.

3.5 PRINCIPAL IDEAL

Let R be a commutative ring and let a ∈ R be any element, Then the smallest ideal of R
which contains a is called the principal ideal generated by a is

<a> = {ra : r ∈ R }

3.6 CO-MAXIMAL IDEAL

Ideal A is generated by 𝑝1 and B is generated by 𝑝2 are the ideals in any ring R is

called co-maximal ideal if A+B = R, where 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 are distinct primes.

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 CHAPTER 4
MAXIMAL IDEAL AND PRIME IDEAL
4.1 MAXIMAL IDEAL

An ideal J in a ring R is said to be maximal ideal if J ≠ R and if any other ideal taken as I > J,
it must be I = R that is, J is a maximal ideal if there is no ideal steadily larger than J
(containing J) except R itself.

4.1.0 Maximal left ideal;

A left ideal M in a ring R is said to be a maximal left ideal in R, if

1. M ≠ R and
2. For a left ideal I of R, M ⊆ J ⊆ R ⟹ I = M or J = R

ie: There is no left ideal strictly in between I and R

4.1.1 Minimal left ideal;

A left ideal M in R is said to be a minimal left ideal in R, if

1. M ≠ {0} and
2. for a left ideal I of R, {0} ⊆ J ⊆ M
⇒ J = {0} or J = M

ie: There are no left ideals strictly between {0} and I

4.2 PRIME IDEAL

A proper ideal N (N ≠ ring-R) in a commutative ring R is said to be prime ideal of R

if ab ∈ N implies that either a ∈ N or b ∈ N for all a, b ∈ R.

Note that {0} is a prime ideal in ℤ and indeed in any integral domain.

4.2.0 Remark;

Proper ideals are not a prime ideal, Due to in a proper ideal, a ring itself is an ideal then the
all element and its products are also belongs to the proper ideal or the ring ,

then our definition for the prime ideal become meaningless.

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4.2.1 Remark;

Methods to check a prime ideal are given

1. ideal-N ≠ ring-R

2. a.b ∈ N ⇒ a ∈ N or b ∈ N, ⩝ a , b ∈ R

4.2.E.1 Example;

R = ℤ = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, …}

N = 2ℤ = {0, ±2, ±4, ±6, ±8, …}

Here 2ℤ is a prime ideal of ℤ

4.2.2 Result;

nℤ is a prime ideal of ℤ ⇔ n is prime number

4.2.3 Theorem;

Let R be a commutative ring with unity and let N≠R be an ideal in R . then R/N is an integral
domain if and only if N is a prime ideal in R.

4.2.4 Corollary;

Every maximal ideal in a commutative ring R with unity is a prime ideal.

Proof;

If M is a maximal in R then R/M is a field.

Hence R/M is an integral domain.

Therefore M is a prime ideal by the Theorem "let R be a commutative ring with unity and let
N≠R be an ideal in R. then R/N is an integral domain if and only if N is a prime ideal in R".

Note;

For a commutative ring R with unity

1. An ideal N of R is a prime ⇔ R/N is an integral domain.

2. Every maximal ideal of R is a prime ideal.

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4.2.5 Theorem;

A maximal ideal is a prime ideal.

Proof;

Suppose M is a maximal ideal of a ring R. If ab∈ M and a ∉ M, then the ideal (a) + M
contains M as a proper subset.

Since M is maximal,

(a) + M = R. It follows that 1 = ca + m for some c ∈ R and some m ∈ M.

Consequently, b = cab + mb ∈ M. This shows that m is a prime ideal.

4.2.6 Theorem;

If A, B, and P are ideal of a ring R and P is a prime ideal then AB ⊂ P implies A ⊂ P or B ⊂

P (or both).

Proof;

Suppose that AB ⊂ P and A ⊄ P

Choose a ∈ A-P.

For any b ∈ B we have ab ∈ AB ⊂ P.

Since p is prime ideal and a ∉ P it follows that b ∈ P for any b ∈ B

Therefore B ⊂ P.

4.2.7 Theorem;
A ring R is an integral domain if and only if {0} is a prime
ideal, and a field if and only if {0} is maximal.
Proof;
The first part of the statement is an immediate consequence of the definitions of integral
domain and prime ideal.
For the second, if R is a field, then R has only the ideals {0} and {1} = R, and {0} is clearly
maximal.
On the other hand, if {0} is maximal, then for a ≠ 0, {a} = R and ra = 1 for some
r ∈ R, or in other words, a has a multiplicative inverse a-1 = r.
Thus, R is a field.

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Exercises ( chapter-4 ) ;

4.E.1 Find all prime ideals and maximal ideal of ℤ₁₂ ?

ℤ₁₂ = {0� , 1� , 2� ,........,1�1� } = 12 elements.

Solution;

All ideals of

ℤ₁₂< 0 > =

I₁=<1>=1/12={0� , 1� , 2� , �1� }

1
.........................................................,

I₂=<2>=2/12={0� , 2� , 4� , �0� }
6� , 8� , 1

I₃=<3>=3/12={0�, 3� ,

6� , 9� }

I₄=<4>=4/12={0� , 4� ,

8� } I₆=<6>=6/12={0� ,

6� }

Maximal ideals are,

I₂=<2>=2/12={0� , 2� , 4� , �0� }
6� , 8� , 1

I₃=<3>=3/12={0� , 3� , 6� , 9� }

Prime ideals are,

We know every maximal ideals are prime ideals therefore I₂ and I₃ are the prime ideals.

4.E.2 Find all maximal and prime ideals of ℤ₆

? solution;

ℤ₆ = {0� , 1� , 2� , 3� , 4� , 5� }

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<0>=0

< 1 > = {0� , 1� , 2� , 3� , 4� , 5� }

< 2 > = {0� , 2� , 4� }

< 3 > = {0� , 3� }

< 5 > = {0� , 1� , 2� , 3� , 4� , 5� }

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Maximal ideals are,

< 2 > = {0� , 2� , 4� }

< 3 > = {0� , 3� }

Prime ideals are,

< 2 > = {0� , 2� , 4� }

< 3 > = {0� , 3� }

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 CHAPTER 5
IDEAL OPERATION
Let R be the ring and I and J be the ideal in R of same kind,

5.1 ADDITION OF IDEALS

Addition of ideals I and J is defined as,

I + J = {x + y : x ∈ I , y ∈ J} ⊆ R The sum of two ideals a and b of a ring R is the

ideal a + b = {x ∈ R: x = a + b, a ∈ a, b ∈ b}

Sum of two ideal of the same kind is again an ideal of the same kind

addition of ideal is commutative;

ie: I+J = J+I for the ideal I,J ∈ R (ring)

addition of ideal is associative;

ie: I+(J+K) = (I+J)+K for the ideal I,J,K ∈ R (ring)

5.2 MULTIPLICATION OF IDEALS

Define multiplication of two ideal I and J of R as IJ = {x1y1 + x2y2+ … + xnyn : xi ∈ I , yi ∈ J ,1

≤ i≤n,n∈ N}

That is the product of ideal generated by all products of the form xy where x ∈ I and y ∈ J

There for product of two ideal of same kind is again an ideal of the same kind.

Note: product of ideals is associative, but need not be commutative.

5.3 POWER OF AN IDEAL

Given an ideal I, we define

{∑∞ 𝑥𝑖𝑦𝑖 | 𝑥𝑖, 𝑦𝑖 ∈ 𝐼}

𝐼2 = 𝐼. 𝐼 = 𝑖=
1

𝐼 = 𝐼. 𝐼. 𝐼 = 𝐼. 𝐼2 𝑖== �∑∞
3
𝑥𝑖𝑦𝑖𝑧𝑖�𝑥𝑖,𝑦𝑖, 𝑧𝑖 ∈ 𝐼�
1

…………………….

…………………….

Page | 24
𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼. 𝐼𝑛−1

5.4 NILPOTENT IDEAL

An ideal I of ring R is said to be nilpotent if 𝐼𝑛 = (0) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑛 ≥ 1

5.5 NIL IDEAL

An ideal I in the ring R is called a nil ideal if every element of I is nilpotent.

5.5.0 Remark;

Every nilpotent ideal is a nil ideal but the converse is not true.

If R be the commutative ring then the nil ideal I is nilpotent if I is definitely generated.

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 CHAPTER 6
IDEAL STRUCTRE IN THE FIELD F[X]
6.1.0 Definition ( principal ideal ) ;

If R is a commutative ring with unity and a ∈ R , then ideal { ra : r ∈ R } of all multiples of

a is the principle ideal generated by a and is denoted by <a> . An ideal N of R is a principal
ideal if N = <a> for some a ∈ R.

6.E.1 Example;

Every Ideal of the ring ℤ is of the form nℤ. Which is generated by n , so every Ideal of ℤ is
Principal Ideal

6.E.2 Example;

The Ideal < x > if F[x] consist of all polynomials in F[x] having zero constant term .

6.1.1 Theorem;

If F is a field, every ideal in F[x] is principal.

Proof;

Let N be an ideal of F[x]

If N= {0}, then

⇒ N = <0> ⟹ N is principal ideal.

Suppose that, N ≠ {0}

Let g(x) be a nonzero element of N of minimal degree.

If the degree of g(x) is 0.

Then g(x) ∈ F and is unit.

Therefore N = F[x] by the result "If R is a commutative ring with unity and N is an ideal of R
containing a unit element then R = N "

⇒ N = <1> by the result "If R is s commutative ring with unity and N is an ideal of R , then

N = R of and only if r =<u>, where u is the unit element "

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⇒ N is principal

Now, we suppose that the degree of g(x) ≥ 1 and let f(x) ∈ N.

Now, we applying division algorithm for F[x]

"Let f(x), g(x) ∈ F[x]

f(x) = aₙxⁿ + aₙXⁿ⁻¹ + … + a₀

g(x) =bₙxⁿ + bₙXⁿ⁻¹ + … + b0

with aₙ,bₙ ≠ 0 , and m > 0 , then unique polynomial

q(x) and r(x) in F[x] and f(x) = g(x)q(x)+r(x) , where either r(x) = 0 or

degree of r(x) < degree of g(x) = m

⇒ f(x) = g(x) q(x)+r(x)

now, f(x), g(x) ∈ F[x] then

g(x).q(x) ∈ N by the definition of Ideal f(x) ∈ N

⇒ f(x) - g(x)q(x) ∈ N

⇒ r(x) ∈ N

Degree of r(x) < degree of g(x), which is contradict that "g(x) ≠ 0 and minimal degree"

Therefore r(x) = 0

⇒ f(x) = g(x) . q(x)

⇒ N = < g(x) >

⇒ N is principal.

6.1.2 Theorem;

An ideal < p(x) > = {0} of F[x] is maximal if and only if p(x) is irreducible over F.

Proof;

Suppose that < p(x) > ≠ {0} is a maximal ideal of F[x]

⇒ <p(x)> ≠ F[x]

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⇒ p(x) ∉ F

Let p(x) = f(x)g(x) be a factorization of p(x) in F[x]

Since <p(x)> is a maximal ideal and hence also prime ideal.

f(x)g(x) ∈ <p(x)>

⇒ f(x) ∈ <p(x)> or g(x) ∈ <p(x)>

ie: either f(x) or g(x) has p(x) as a factor.

But then we can't have the degree of both f(x) and g(x) less than the degree of p(x)

⇒ p(x) is irreducible over F

Conversely,

If p(x) is irreducible over F, n

Suppose that N is an Ideal such that <p(x)> ⊆ N ⊆ F(x).

Now N is principal ideal by the theorem "if F is a filed, every Ideal in F[x] is principal ideal"

Therefore, N = < g(x) > for some g(x) ∈ N.

⇒ p(x) ∈ ⇒ p(x) = g(x).q(x) for some q(x) ∈ F[x]

But p(x) is irreducible, which implies that either g(x) or q(x) is of degree 0.

If g(x) is of degree 0

That is, g(x) is a nonzero constant in F

⇒ g(x) is a unit in F[x]

⇒ <g(x)> = N = F[x]

If q(x) = c, where c ∈ F

G(x) = 1/ c p(x) is in

<p(x)>

⇒ N = <p(x)>.

Thus <p(x)> ⊂ N ⊂ F[x] is impossible, so <p(x)> is maximal.

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 CONCLUSION
By doing this project we got familiarized with the concept of Ideals is Abstract algebra. We
started this project by giving formal definition of ideals and some examples for the ideal then
proceed on to the concept of Maximal ideal, prime ideal, ideal operation and ideal structure
in the field F[x].

This project helped us to get a better understanding about the various aspects of Abstract
algebra. It aided us in getting a better knowledge about the concept of ideal.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1]. Allan Clark. Elements of Abstract algebra. Dover Publication, inc. New York. (Book)

[2]. P B Bhattacharya, S K Jain, S R Nagpaul. Basic abstract algebra (Second edition).

Cambridge University Press. (Book)

[3]. Charles C Pinter. A book of Abstract Algebra (second edition). Dover Publication, inc.,
Mineola, New York. (Book)

[4]. Joseph A Gallian. Contemporary Abstract Algebra (seventh edition). Printed in USA
(BROOKS/COLE CENGAGE learning). (Book)

[5]. Linda Gilbert, Jimmie Gilbert. Elements of Modern Algebra (seventh edition). Printed
in USA (BROOKS/COLE CENGAGE learning). (Book)

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