Gauss’s Law Gauss's Law Published in 1867 by Carl Friedrich Gauss, this law contains similarities with Coulomb's Law, and may be used to derive it. It also forms one of the foundations of Maxwell's ‘equations for classical electrodynamics. The General Equation Gauss's Law states that in any closed surface, the electric flux is equivalent to the net charge inside the closed surface divided by ©0, which is the electric constant that establishes the direct proportionality between field intensity and electric displacement in a given region. Gauss's Law is mathematically expressed as follows: Op = fE(aa) = Equation 2.2.1where PE is the net electric flux, E is the electric field vector, Ais the surface area element, Q is the enclosed electric charge, and £0 is the electric permittivity of free space (constant). Gauss's Law may also be expressed in the following variations: p= JEcos@dA = fEydA = fE(dA) Recall that the formula for electric flux is © = /(A), Gauss's Law postulates that the total electric flux passing through a closed surface is considered zero unless the volume enclosed by this surface contains a net charge. The number of field lines entering the surface is equivalent to the number of field lines leaving it. Thus, this law establishes the basic relationship between the flux of electric field lines to the charges contained inside the enclosed surface. GEEZ Quantities related to electric flux and Gauss's law St] ry electric flux Op Nine newtons square Cc meter per coulomb newton per electric field E N p Cc coulomb surface area A m? square meter electric charge 4.Q c coulomb ermittivity of p ty 5 square coulomb per free space ° c newton square (constant) (8.85x10-2) sa meter surface charge o c coulomb per square density m? meterExample 1 If one electron contains a negative charge of 1.6 x 10-! C, what will be the electric flux through a Gaussian surface that has 100 electrons? Solution Step1 Identify what is required in the problem. You are asked to calculate the electric flux for the Gaussian surface. Step 2 Identify the given in the problem, The electric charge of an electron is given, The electric permittivity of free space, £0, which is a constant value, is also known. Q = 100(-1.6x 10-9) = -1.6x10-"C. ey = 8.85x10- PS Step 3: Write the working equation. Q op = 2 S Step 4: Substitute the given values. os, = 16x10" ae 885x10 Step 5: Find the answer.Example 2 QE A solid sphere that has a radius of 14 m contains a total uniformly distributed positive charge of 25 uC on its surface. Determine the electric field at 15 m from the sphere’s center. Solution Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4: Step 5: Identify what is required in the problem. You are asked to calculate the electric field through the Gaussian surface. Identify the given in the problem, The radius of the sphere, the electric charge of the sphere’s surface, and the distance from the center are given. The electric permittivity of free space, ©0, which is a constant value, is also known. R=Mm Q=BpC Bx10-6C r=lm €q = 8.85x10 Nm? Write the working equation. Qse £0 p= BA = Substitute the given values. To find the area of the sphere, use: A = 4x(15m)? A = 287m? To find the electric field through the Gaussian surface: 25x 10°C 885x10-" E(2827m2) Find the answer. = 999 E = 908Lesson 3.1 Electric Potential Energy ina Uniform Electric Field Whatis electric potential energy? Electric Potential Energy Electric potential energy is most commonly compared with gravitational potential energy. Consider the situation in Ga=m—. > potential ‘energy (ERE Maximum and minimum gravitational potential energyA ball at rest situated on top of the table contains a large amount of stored, or gravitational potential, energy. Once it begins to fall off from the table, it accelerates and the potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy, until it reaches the floor and goes back to being at rest, where it possesses its minimum gravitational potential energy. Electric charges in an electric field are comparable to the mass of objects in a gravitational field. The electric potential energy determines how much stored energy a charge has. Similar to the ball at rest on top of the table, a positive charge which is close to another positive charge contains high potential energy, and will be repelled when it moves. Placed in close proximity to a negative charge, however, it will have low potential energy, just like the ball after having fallen on the floor. Electric potential energy is thus defined as the energy needed to move a charge against an electric field. FELIEEREY Quantities related to electric potential energy Sl u Work done by Wasa J Joule force Electric potential Up Jor Nm joule or newton energy meter Force F N newton Enclosed electric gE c coulomb charge Radius ' m meter Coulomb's k 9.0.x 10°. Nm? newton square constant “ e meter per square coulombElectric Potential Energy in a Uniform Field Since the force is ina similar direction with the net displacement of the charge, as shown in the work is considered positive and the potential energy for the electric force is calculated as follows: Ug = qgEd EB where UE is the electric potential energy, “10!” is the enclosed electric charge, and dis the displacement. Electric Potential Energy of Two Charges In some cases, the potential energy U becomes a “shared property’ of two charges (41 and %p), as shown in GEMERIE! Here, 2 charge exerts force on another charge and potential energy results from the interaction of charges. 1% Up= Be Gre? where 1/4nte, is also denoted as k or Coulomb's Constant, equal to 9.0 X 10° Nmr/C?, g and qo are the electric charges, and ris the separation distance between q and qo.Example 1 GSB One electron and one proton of a hydrogen atom are at a distance of 4.1 X 10" m apart. Determine the potential energy of the electror Solution Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: step 4: Step 5: the proton's field. Identify what is required in the problem. You are asked to calculate the potential energy Us of the electron in the proton's field, Identity the given in the problem. The distance ris given. The charge of a proton is equivalent to 1.6 X 10’ Cand the charge of an electron is-1.6 X10" C. 4.1x10-"'m q=16x10-%C = — 1.6x10-"C Write the working equation. 1% * treo Ur Substitute the given values. oxigen: (MEH MOL — 80° ») “ c 41x10 Ur Find the answer. Up = —5.61x10-8Nm or JExample 2 Two point charges (C and D) are separated from each other by a distance of 3.51 m. Calculate the magnitude of the electric charge of particle D if particle C has 9.3 pC and their potential energy results to 781 J. Solution Step 1: Step 2: step 3: step 4: Step 5: Identify what is required in the problem. You are asked to calculate the magnitude of the electric charge of particle D. Identify the given in the problem. The distance between the two particles 3.51 m, the charge of particle C 9.3 uC, nd the potential energy 781 J are given. Write the working equation, = jlo Up = 2 Derive the formula for 4c Substitute the given values. 7815 (351m) (93x10-°0) Find the answer. ip = 0.03280Lesson 3.2 Electric Potential and Potential Difference How will you differentiate electric potential from potential difference? Electric Potential Electric potential, also called potential, is defined as the potential energy contained in a single unit of charge. The electric potential located at any given point in the electric field refers to the potential energy Uper unit charge in relation to the charge q» at that particular location,The SI unit of electric potential is volt (V), which is also equivalent to 1 joule per coulomb U/C). The relationship between charge, electric potential, and electric potential energy is mathematically expressed as follows: where the potential, k is Coulomb's constant, g is the magnitude of the charge, ris the radius, and Uis the electric potential energy Gl pid You Know? The SI unit for electric potential is 1 volt (1 V), after the Italian scientist Alessandro Volta (1745-1827). : An instrument used to determine the difference of potential ' ' eee ' between two points is called a voltmeter. The difference of V, and V,, o electric potential difference, is referred to as the potential Of @ in relation to b (Vip). Thus, may be stated through the following statement: “The electric potential Vay of V, with respect to V, is equivalent to the work (expressed in J) done by the force when a charge moves from one point to another.” This potential difference between points a and bis also called voltage, expressed in joules per coulomb. This implies that if the V,, amounts to 1V, 1 coulomb of charge that moved from one point to another will increase its potential energy by 1 joule () What is the difference between electric potential and potential difference? Charge and Electric Potential Recall from your lesson on electric potential energy that as the charged particle moves, Us decreases. Hence, the electric potential, or the potential energy per unit charge also decreases. Since V, is less than V,, Vig becomes positive. The simulation you have interacted with at the Worm Up activity excellently illustrates this relationship between a charge and electric potential. f there is a positive point charge, the electric field is understood to be heading against that charge, and the potential Vis positive at any point from the charge. V decreases as you move away from the point charge and increases as you move closer toward it. The opposite is true for any given negative point charge, as illustrated inExample 1 Determine the electric potential 4.3 X 10" m from a fragment that contains 10 protons. Solution Step 1: Step 2: step 3: Step 4: Step 5: Identify what is required in the problem. You are asked to calculate the electric potential, Identify the given in the problem. The radius 4.3 X 10" m, and the number of protons, 10, are given. Total electric charge “is identified by multiplying 10 to 1.6 X 10 C. Thus, q = 1.6 X10". Write the working equation. veks bi Substitute the given values. 9x wer 16x10-C ) C@ \43x10-4m Find the answer. V = 3.35x10°V Thus, the electric potential is equivalent to 3.35 X 10° V.Example 2 GI) A sphere has a point charge of 6.43 iC at its very center. At what distance from this point charge will the potential be 2 MV? Solution Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4: Step 5: Identify what is required in the problem. You are asked to calculate the distance with which the charge will receive a potential of 2 MMV. Identify the given in the problem The magnitude of the charge 6.43 uC and the potential 2 MV are given. Write the working equation. kq r= Substitute the given values. ) Find the answer. r = 0.0289m Thus, the distance from the center is 0.0289 m.Example 3 ‘AVan de Graaff generator has a 200-cm diameter sphere containing a charge of 5.00 X 10° C at its center. Determine the potential near the surface and the distance from the center if the electric potential is 1.00 10°V. Solution Step 1 Step 2: Step 3: Step 4: Step 5: Identify what is required in the problem, You are asked to calculate the potential near the surface and the distance from the center with the given potential Identify the given in the problem. The diameter of the sphere (200 cm), the magnitude of the charge 5.00 X 10° C, and the potential (1.00X10" ¥) are given. Convert 200 cm tom. 200cm = 2.0m Convert diameter into radius. a 2 r=10m Write the working equation. To find the potential near the surface: vet To find the distance from the center: ka V Substitute the given values, V = 9xipNin(ase eT Find the answer V=4.50x10°V 45m