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CARAMBOLA (Averrhoa carambola L.)

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 5
CARAMBOLA
( Averrhoa carambola L.)
H. Rymbai, N.A. Deshmukh, K. Wanshnong, C.R. Patel , T.R. Ahlawat

1. INTRODUCTION
CONTENTS
Carambola (Averrhoa carambola) is an
important member of the family 1. Introduction ................................................ 37
Oxalidaceae, and it is reported to contain 2. Domestication ............................................. 38
high amount of oxalic acid. It is a good 3. Taxonomy .................................................... 38
source of potassium, copper, as well as 4. Center of Origin/Centers of Diversity ......... 39
folate and panthothenic acid. The fruit is 5. Objective of Crop Improvement.................. 39
gaining importance for its therapeutic 6. Cytogenetic ................................................. 41
potentials, and are being utilized in various
7. Inheritance Pattern/Linkage of Characters... 41
traditional folklore medicines. Fruits are
8. Problem in Breeding ................................... 41
also consumed as an addition to fruit
salads, as they are crisp and juicy. Further, 9. Floral Biology .............................................. 42
they are also used in preparation of 10. Genus and Species ..................................... 46
processed products like wines, jellies and 11. Crop Improvement Methods ....................... 47
canned, or preserved as dried fruit 12. Cultivars ..................................................... 48
(Anonymous, 2013a). 13. Future Prospects ......................................... 52
This species is found growing in
kitchen gardens, small and scattered orchard and also occurring wild in various part of
the country. In South India, its fruits have high popularity and it is being used as a
substitute of a tamarind in cooking. Similarly, it is also have a widely used in West Bengal
for preparing chutney (Mazumder, 2004). While, carambola in North Eastern part of the
country, is being consumed as fresh fruit. Although, it is growing in most parts of the
country, however, there is no reliable data available on area and production under carambola
in India. With the increasing in human population and shrinking of land, there is a need
to popularize this crop for it better utilization and conservation. Therefore, it is necessary
to comprehensively review and documentation of several germplasm existing in the country.
 38 Breeding of Underutilized Fruit Crops

This will generates knowledge for proper utilization, genetic resources conservation and
possible utilization the existing variability breeding programmes.

2. DOMESTICATION
Carambola was domesticated throughout India and southeast Asia including the Philippines,
Malaysia, Bangladesh and other Southeast Asian in prehistoric times (Morton, 1987;
Anonymous, 2013b). There is even a name in Snakrit ‘karmara’ for this species in India
(Popenoe, 1974), which indicates it existing since ancient times. In the American tropics,
this fruits has been known in since 150 years ago (Anonymous, 2013b). At present,
carambola is commercially cultivating in India, Southeast Asia, southern China, Taiwan,
Hawaii, Florida and throughout tropical regions of the world (Anonymous, 2013b). They
are also grown in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil,
Jamaica, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, Guyana and parts of Africa
(Morton, 1987). In Australia, carambola was not known until the end of the 19th century
(Stephens, 1936; Watson et al, 1988).

3. TAXONOMY
Earlier carambola was included in a new family, the Averrhoaceae (Hutchinson, 1959).
However, majority of the botanists, prominently Cronquist (1981) and Takhtajan (1981),
do not agreed with this new family to have a separate identity within the Order Geraniales.
Since studies on the distribution of phenoloic and free amino acids among A. bilimbi, A.
carambola, Biophytum sensitivum, Oxalis barrelieri, O. corniculata did not support
the separation of Averrhoa into an independent family Averrhoaceae (Devi and Narayana,
1990). Therefore, they grouped carambola in the Oxalidaceae.
This family has 7­8 classes, which consisting up to 900 species which are distributed
throughout the tropics and subtropics, occasionally at high altitude, with relatively few
representatives in the temperate zones (Sauco and Menini, 1993). The family is
predominantly consists of herbaceous plants, tubers or bulbs, shrubs, however with only
two woody genera, viz., Averrhoa and Sarcotheca. The most important genus is Oxalis
consisting up to 800 species, many of which can be found as garden weeds in some
temperate zones of the northern hemisphere; some species are grown as ornamental
plants in garden and houses (Cronquist, 1981). The most important species of the family
is undoubtedly the oca (Oxalis tuberose Mel.) which is cultivated at high elevations in
the Andes, from Columbia to Bolivia, where its importance as a tuber is surpassed only
by that of the potato (Chandler, 1958). Among the woody plants of the family, besides
carambola, only Averrhoa bilimbi L, also originating in South­east Asia which is of
interest as a fruit. However, it is very acidity and is therefore unsuitable for fresh
consumption although it is often used in the tropics for preparing curries, chutneys, pickles
and candied fruits.
 Carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.) 39

Classification of Averrhoa carambola (Manda et al., 2012)

Scientific Name: Averrhoa carambola
Kingdom Plantae – Plants
Subkingdom Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Subclass Rosidae
Order Geraniales
Family Oxalidaceae – Wood­Sorrel family
Genus Averrhoa Adans. – averrhoa
Species Averrhoa carambola L. – carambola

4. CENTER OF ORIGIN/CENTERS OF DIVERSITY

Carambola may have originated in India­China (Ranjit Singh, 1969) and/or India or Sri
Lanka (Pijpers et al., 1986). However, some authors are of opinion that the species is of
Moluccas and Indonesia origins (Zewen and De Wet, 1982).
It has been cultivated in the Philippines, Malaysia, India, Bangladesh and other Southeast
Asian for many centuries (Morton, 1987). The fruits are cultivated commercially in India,
Southeast Asia, southern China, Taiwan, and Florida. They are also grown in Nicaragua,
Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Jamaica, Haiti, the Dominican
Republic, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, Guyana and parts of Africa (Morton, 1987). In other
areas they are usually grown as ornamentals, rather than for consumption (Morton, 1987).

5. OBJECTIVE OF CROP IMPROVEMENT

Ideal Cultivars
Although there is no single cultivar possesses all the desirable features, as some traits is
not due to genotypic influence but also due to environmental as well their interactions. For
instance, many organoleptic traits, viz., sweetness, acidity and flavor as well as fruit size
can be considerably influenced by environmental conditions. Traits like fruit shape, colour,
texture, oxalic acid and tannin content and number of seeds appear to be determined
primarily by genetic factors. Therefore, selection and/or transferred with a specific desirable
traits is more important in carambola. Considering the opinion made by Sauco and Menini
(1993) and Lim (2013) regarding ideal cultivars of carambola, the improvement of this
crop should be focused on:
 40 Breeding of Underutilized Fruit Crops

i. Development of high yielding cultivars of fruits of acceptable weight (100­300 g

fruit).
ii. Development of cultivars having fruits of attractive shape and colour. Fruit with five­
angled shape confers special attractiveness and in cross­section must appear as five­
pointed star. The length and width ratio must be 2:1; Attractive colour with intense
(golden) yellow colour which further enhanced by the presence of wax on peel is
probably the ideal. However, a bright orange colour is also acceptable.
iii. Development of cultivars having long shelf­life. The retention of high quality during
post­harvest life of fruits is very essential.
iv. Development of cultivars having maturity period coinciding with high market demand.
Appropriate ripening period is essential from marketing point of view, and it is a very
complex criterion for a species like carambola, since it has several or even continuous
flowering, fruiting and harvesting periods. However, for better marketing it must be
available for an intended marketing period. For instance, in Europe like Christmas and
Easter are the best ripening periods during which many exotic fruits are consumed,
while summer is the worst time of the year due to the competition from other
seasonal fruits.
v. Development of cultivars with fruits of low number of seeds and having acceptable
peel thickness. Peel must neither be very thin for essential protection during post­
harvest phase nor very thick since fruits are consumed with peel remain intact.
However, a balance must be given so that the peel thickness does not affect the
edibility, fruit also must be strong, broad ribs to withstand bruising.
vi. Development of cultivars having acceptable acid: sugar ratio with adequate texture
and flavor. As it is a market targeted feature. For instance, Asian prefers sweeter
fruits than Europeans. In general, fruits must have a sugar content of more than 110
Brix and lower than 0.5 % of acidity. Similarly, the ripe fruit must contain less than
0.25% oxalic acid of fruit weight. Yellow fruits normally possess higher sugar content
than green fruits (Baker and Kuppelweiser,1988), therefore the general preferences
is higher for the yellow coloured fruits. Fruits with crispy texture is preferable.
Flavour is partially governed by the sugar and acid content, but slight differences due
to the presence of esters and other volatile components may play a role in cultivar
selection. The tannic or earthy flavor that is mainly located on the edges of the wings,
the reason for these often being removed before consumption, is particularly important
and is probably related to a relatively high oxalic acid concentration.
vii. Development cultivars having processing quality traits. Fruit of this crop have several
processing adaptability like juice and hot­air dried slices, although fresh fruit is still
the widely used. Therefore, this wide utility of the fruit must be taken in to advantages
while develop a cultivar.
viii. Development cultivars having resistance to pests, diseases and physiological disorders.
Pests, diseases and disorders affect both yield and quality of the crop. The ideal
cultivar must also be resistant to anthracnose and fruit fly.
 Carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.) 41

ix. Fruits with higher fleshy, firmness and thick ribs with wide angles between the ribs
are preferred for better post­harvest management and transportation. So development
of cultivars at this angle may be another breeding objective.
x. Development of early bearer, high yielding and regular bearer will be one of the
objectives of carambola improvement. The important characteristics of ideal tree are
early bearing habit which is relatively easy to identify, since carambola is characterized
by its ability to bearing as early as during the second year after planting; regular
bearer and high yielding of more than 40­60 mt/ha/year.
xi. Development of cultivars having well adaptability in adverse agro­climatic condition.
The cultivars having resistance to salinity both at rootstock and scion level, especially
to low quality irrigation water; tolerant to drought, adverse soil conditions like
waterlogged soils, alkaline and limestone soils; and tolerant to climate change include
dry winds, cold and heat, hail etc is very important in order to allow for a rapid
initiation of growth coincident with the onset of favourable climatic conditions.

6. CYTOGENETIC
Carambola possesses a diploid number of chromosomes; 2n = 22 or 28 (Ramsammy,
1989). Cytogenetic studies in carambola are still unknown and appear to contain little
information. Although, several works have been done in the evolving of cultivars through
selection, however there is a scarcity of information and publications related to genetic
studies of carambola. Schnell and Knight (1989) have recently initiated the studies of
enzymes and separating systems which may provide basis information for the future
genetic analysis in this crop.

7. INHERITANCE PATTERN/LINKAGE OF CHARACTERS

A very little study has been carried out in carambola. Approach through proteomics has
been carried out for studying the heterostyly in Averrhoa carambola L. (Wong et al.,
1994). Cohen (2010) observed different proteins between the stamens and styles of the
long style (LS) and short style (SS) morphs, both in immature and mature flowers.
However, a greater number of protein differences was found between the organs of the
two morphs at anthesis than earlier in development. The morph­specifi c proteins in
Averrhoa is involved in either the incompatibility reactions and/or the development of the
SS style. The SS morph is the derived condition; therefore, suppression of the growth of
the SS style would be necessary in order for two different floral morphs with different
style lengths to develop. Style length of the LS morph would not require any additional
proteins for elongation, as this is the ancestral condition (Wong et al., 1994; Cohen, 2010).

8. PROBLEM IN BREEDING
The breeding in carambola is one of the most important areas of horticultural science,
however it is yet to be explore and the progress in breeding of carambola has been far
 42 Breeding of Underutilized Fruit Crops

from spectacular. The major breeding problems encounters for carrying breeding program
in carambola are;
i. Heterostyly and incompatibility: Heterostyly is one of the reason for some pollination
failure in carambola, sometimes may also be due to the problems of self­incompatibility
(Knight, 1965). Almost complete failure of pollination is observed where short style
x short style crosses is involved. This situation arises for flowers belong to the same
tree, or as well of different trees (Sauco and Menini, 1993). Similarly, the fruit set
(%) may also be poor in long style x short style crosses and vice versa.
ii. Dioecious: Carambola is normally dioecious which required pollenizer for proper
cross pollination, fruit setting for fruit production. The breeding system in carambola
combines distyly with self­incompatibility, and in addition that most cultivars require
cross­pollination with a clone of the complementary floral type to set fruit and mature
normal seed (Knight, 1965).
iii. Temperature: Temperature has great influenced on pollen viability and germination
in carambola. It is reported that temperature above 30­35 0C reduced pollen germination
as well tube growth (Pupers et al., 1986 and Salapetch, 1987). Hence, during the
hottest summer months in subtropical climates, fruit set are highly affected.

9. FLORAL BIOLOGY
9.1. Flower Structure
In carambola, flowers are arranged in loose panicles or cymes and are borne on basally
branched, slender twigs which are 1­8 cm long, with a reddish and pubescent axis.
Flowers form in the leaf axils, but they may also develop, in small clusters (double or
triple), on leafless branches or terminal shoots or on large and thick branches and even
on trunks. The carambola flowers and fruits developed well both on exposed (periphery
of the canopy) as well as on unexposed portions of trees and can be clearly distinguished
by their reddish­pink colour. Fruits are borne in cluster (Nand, 1970). The flowers are
perfect, 5­12 mm long and are somewhat bell­shaped; they are attached to short, articulated,
round, smooth, dark­red pedicels which are approximately 1 mm long. Heterostyly or
distyly is a characteristic of the species, with some trees bearing flowers with long styles
and short stamens and others producing only flowers with short styles and long stamens.
The five dark red sepals, which are almost twice as long (3­4 mm) as they are wide,
are erect, ovate and smooth or almost smooth. The five petals are obovate­oblong, smooth
on their upper side and pubescent below. There are 10 stamens of which the five adjacent
to the petals are reduced to staminoids with no anthers or, at the most, with only abortive
anthers which have no pollen. The stamens nearest to the sepals are smooth and yellowish­
white in colour; their length varies according to the structure of the flower from about 3­
4 mm for the long­styled forms to 5­6 mm for the short styled types.
Four to five styles develop from the ovary and eventually fuse. Styles in the long­
styled type of flower are about 2 mm long and between 0.5 and 0.1 mm long in the short­
 Carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.) 43

style forms. The stigmatic surface has numerous papillae. The ovary is furrowed, greenish­
white and about 15­25 mm long. It has four or five loculi, each containing 2­4 superimposed
ovules.

9.2. Flowering Time

Flowering occur periodically which depending on the varieties and agro­climatic conditions.
There is a greater tendency for flowering to occur continuously in tropical climate. It is
reported that carambola blossoms in rainy season and fruit ripens in December­January
(Watts, 1889). Similarly, Hayes (1957) mentioned that flowers are borne profusely in rainy
season and spring. In India, flowering was observed in three flushes, viz., spring flush
(April ­ May), rainy flush (July ­ August) and autumn flush (September­October) and
harvesting periods of fruits from these flushes are July­September, November­December
and February­March respectively (Nand, 1970). In Southern Queensland, there are two
major flowering periods, i.e., December­February and April­May. Fruit development of
summer flowering it may take 10 to 12 weeks from anthesis, while it may take 12 to 16
weeks with autumn flowering. In North Queensland, there are two main flowering occurring
during September­November and February­April although the peaks may vary by up to
5 weeks from year to year (Watson et al, 1988). Under greenhouse, carambola plants
start flowering in late spring and produces up to 4 flushes of flowers throughout the year
(Sauco and Menini, 1993).

9.3. Stages in Reproductive Development

Sauco and Menini (1993) found that different section of the tree following apparently
random and different reproductive programmes. There is a less information regarding
reproductive process of carambola in India. However, some of the research work conducted
by Chin and Phoon (1982) in Malaysia; Darshana (1970) in India; Knight (1965) and
Knight (1982) in Florida; Watson et al. (1988) and Wong (1970) in Australia formed the
basis for information on the series of reproductive process in carambola. Sauco and
Menini, (1993) reported a series of stages occurs during reproductive developments in
carambola in the sequences of i. Floral bud initiation, ii. ii. Panicle development, iii.
Flowering (anthesis, anther dehiscence and pollination) and iv. Fruit production (fruit set
to maturity)

9.3.1. Floral Bud Initiation

In carambola, the productivity is not a problem which one of its distinct features. This is
mainly due to the readiness with which floral initiation occurs in the buds, provided
ecological conditions are favourable. Carambola bears flowers in the leaf axils, with
maximum appearance towards the periphery of the plant. The potential flower­producing
buds are normally initiated from the wood of the entire tree (Sauco and Menini, 1993).
 44 Breeding of Underutilized Fruit Crops

The juvenile period of this crop is considered to be shorter than that of many other fruit
trees. In tropical conditions, the grafted plants can produce flowers with in 9 months
(Watson et al., 1988), although seedlings normally initiated flowering at 4­6 years old
(Coronel, 1983).
The floral initiation is apparently neither a direct response to changes in the day/night
temperature in the ranges (30/25, 25/20, 20/15, 30/15 and 34/20 0C respectively). However,
it is known that water stress is the most important external factor that influence flowering
in carambola (Green, 1987; Salakpetch et al., 1989; Salakpetch et al., 1990). While
according to Watson et al. (1988) reported that in Australia, temperatures may have some
affects on flower initiation, otherwise it would be difficult to understand the occurrence
of different flowering periods under different ecological conditions under irrigated conditions.
Similarly, there may be genotypic influence on floral initiation, as there is existing
variation among genotypes or varieties. Further, the various factors discussed above and
several others (fertilizer applications, girdling, phytohormone sprays) do not function
separately but interact to control the pattern of vegetative development as well as floral
initiation.
Flowering occur approximately two and a half weeks after initiation, with flowers
developing on each inflorescence over a period of 2­4 weeks, during which more than 50
flowers of the total number present in each panicle may open. High temperatures, within
the non­damaging range, accelerate not only the stage of inflorescence development but
also the whole reproductive process. Temperatures below 00C, as well as dry winds, will
destroy inflorescences (Sauco and Menini, 1993).

9.4. Anthesis
Floral anthesis takes place during day time. Flowers are opening between 8:00 am and
10:00 am and closing between 2:00 to 6:00 pm (Salakpetch et al., 1990). Following
anthesis in the morning, there is falling of petals and exposing of the white­greenish
ovaries. Post flowers opening, the flowers may remain on the tree for about 16 days,
although no longer receptive (Salakpetch et al., 1989). According to Sauco and Menini
(1993) that the development sequence of the flowers within the inflorescence is basi­petal,
the terminal flower of the main axis of the inflorescence opening first, followed by the
terminal flowers of the secondary axes; these are then followed by the flowers on the
tertiary axes. After anthesis the petals fold inward and the flower closes.

9.5. Pollination
Carambola are normally self­incompatible and dioecious, needing of male tree for proper
cross pollination for fruit production. Type of pollination varies with cultivars and their
feature of style in carambola. All flowers have either long or short styles; this condition
is called heterostyly. A cultivar with short styles is normally having improved fruit set and
 Carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.) 45

high yields by cross­pollination with long styles cultivars or vice versa. However, some
cultivars like in ‘Arkin’, ‘Fwang Tung’ and ‘Golden Star’ produced abundant crops when
planted in large solid blocks away from other clones of carambola, indicating that the need
for cross­pollination by opposing stylar types is not always compulsory, similarly this
demonstrated that that a partial loss of self­incompatibility (Knight, 1982). Other varieties
such as ‘B­10’ and ‘B­17’ produce more fruit when cross pollinated with another variety
(Anonymous, 2013; Crane, 2013). Fruit deformity in carambola is due to improper pollination,
and is more related to incomplete pollination or incompatibility problems than the lack of
calcium, zinc or boron (Lim, 2013).

9.5.1. Pollinators
The main pollination agents are insects, prominently by honey bees and sting­less bees
(Manda et al., 2012). Wind can also be partially act as pollinating agent since some pollen
are also bursting outward during anther dehiscence. However, the pollen having viscosity
feature means that insects are a necessary agent for good pollination. The attractive
bright colour of the flowers, the nectar and pollen also attract insects, especially Apis spp.
and Trigona spp. In Malaysia, Apis mellifera is thought to be an efficient pollinator hence
it is recommended that one beehive per 0.4 ha of carambola trees to be placed in orchards
(Wahab Ngah et al., 1989). Natural pollination by insects gives higher percentage of fruit
set than various controlled pollination methods (Nand, 1971). Application of any harmful
pesticides to bees must be avoided especially during blooming period.

9.5.2. Pollen Viability and Germination

Pollen of carambola has no viability problems. However, certain factor which reduced
pollen germination as well as the growth of the pollen tube leading to poor fruit­set are:
i) Temperature: Temperature above 30­35 0C reduced pollen germination as well tube
growth (Pupers et al., 1986 and Salapetch, 1987). Therefore, fruit set are also
affected during the hottest summer months in subtropical climates.
ii) Heterostyly and incompatibility: Heterostyly is one of the reason for some
pollination failure in carambola, sometimes may also be due to the problems of self­
incompatibility (Knight, 1965). Knight (1982) studied pollen germination under a
fluorescent microscope using aniline blue staining had found that germination of
pollen in variably occurs, however, not the case in non­compatible crosses including
short x short and long x long styled flowers as the pollen tubes usually remain on the
style but germination is inhibited. However, in some long­styled cultivars, such as
‘Golden Star’, ‘Newcomb’, ‘Thayer’ and ‘Arkin’ set fruit well. In ‘Golden Star’
some pollen tubes do penetrate the ovary, which lead to normal fruit set. While
‘Newcomb’, ‘Thayer’, ‘Arkin’ and even ‘Golden Star’ grown in isolation in the
Canary Islands, also fruit well (Galan Sauco et al., 1989). Similarly in Australia, long­
styled cultivars are reported to be self­fertile; as well some short­styled cultivars are
 46 Breeding of Underutilized Fruit Crops

also described to be self­compatible (Watson et al., 1988). In these cases, although

the number of seeds is generally lesser, but the fruit size is not reduced, which is a
significant commercial advantage (Sauco and Menini, 1993).

9.6. Fruit Set

Fruit set normally begins about 7 or 10 days after pollination as indicates by the swelling
of the ovary, or otherwise the flowers fall, indicates that fertilization does not occur
(Knight, 1965). Fruit set in carambola is coincided with the stage where petals have fallen,
ovary expansion has begun and a colour has change from almost white to bright green
(Campbell, 1987). The growth of the fruit until 12­15 mm long of it size occur through
cellular division, further increase in size is due to cell enlargement and elongation, mainly
in the mesocarp region (Dave et al., 1975 and Kumar, 1975). Although, the main factors
which affect fruit set in carambola are high temperature, heterostyly and incompatibility
as discussed above. However, the main problem of carambola fruit production does not
appear to be lack of fertilized fruits but excessive production of fruit which may lead to
the breaking of branches, combined with reduced fruit size and, possibly the rubbing
together of adjacent fruits. This may be a serious problem which can only be solved by
thinning and by selecting appropriate cultivars.

10. GENUS AND SPECIES

Earlier carambola was included in a new family, the Averrhoaceae (Hutchinson, 1959).
However, majority of the botanists, prominently Cronquist (1981) and Takhtajan (1981),
do not agreed with this new family and to have a separate identity within the Order
Geraniales. Since studies on the distribution of phenoloic and free amino acids among A.
bilimbi, A. carambola, Biophytum sensitivum, Oxalis barrelieri, O. corniculata did
not support the separation of Averrhoa into an independent family Averrhoaceae (Devi
and Narayana, 1990). Therefore, they grouped carambola in the Oxalidaceae.
This family has 7­8 classes, which consisting up to 900 species which are distributed
throughout the tropics and subtropics, occasionally at high altitude, with relatively few
representatives in the temperate zones (Sauco and Menini, 1993). The family is
predominantly consists of herbaceous plants, tubers or bulbs, shrubs, however with only
two woody genera, viz., Averrhoa and Sarcotheca. The most important genus is Oxalis
consisting up to 800 species, many of which can be found as garden weeds in some
temperate zones of the northern hemisphere; some species are grown as ornamental
plants in garden and houses (Cronquist, 1981). The most important species of the family
is undoubtedly the oca (Oxalis tuberose Mel.) which is cultivated at high elevations in
the Andes, from Columbia to Bolivia, where its importance as a tuber is surpassed only
by that of the potato (Chandler, 1958). Among the woody plants of the family, besides
carambola, only Averrhoa bilimbi L, also originating in South­east Asia which is of
 Carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.) 47

interest as a fruit. However, it is very acidity and is therefore unsuitable for fresh
consumption although it is often used in the tropics for preparing curries, chutneys, pickles
and candied fruits.
The only related species of carambola is Bilimbi (Averrhoa bilimbi L.).

11. CROP IMPROVEMENT METHODS

11.1. Selection
So far no systematic programme for genetic improvement of carambola has been
undertaken, however several number of selections based on desirable characteristics has
been identified, particularly in South­east Asia. Popenoe (1974) stated that although some
sweet and acid types of carambola could be distinguished but no “horticultural varieties’
had yet been established. A similar statement was made by Stephens (1936) in Queensland.
Coronel (1983) also stated that no commercial varieties of carambola had been identified
in the Philippines, a country close to the area of carambola origin. Therefore, it seems that
Campbell (1965) was the first to report on selection of varieties, which had selected a
variety ‘Golden Star’ in Florida. Following which other countries have also selected
several varieties as represented in Table 1, and in particular Malaysia and the Department
of Agriculture has already selected more than 17 varieties. These varieties are of
commercially important which are maintained and multiplied through grafting in the MARDI
(Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute) collections.

Table 1. Development of cultivars by selection in different part of the world.

Country Cultivars
Australia ‘Arkin’ (‘Star King Sweetie’), ‘B­1’, ‘B­6’, ‘B­10’, ‘11­1’, ‘9­4’, ‘Jungle Gold’,
‘Giant Siam’, ‘BCP­1’, ‘Hosie’, ‘Chujuba’
Brazil ‘Hart’, ‘Malaysia’, ‘Nota 10’
China ‘Hong Hug’, ‘Far Dee’, ‘Xiangmi Yantao’
Columbia ‘Icambola’
Indonesia ‘Kaput’, ‘Ting Go Demak’
Malaysia ‘B­2’, ‘B­10’, ‘B­16’, ‘B­17’, ‘Hew­1’, ‘Maha’, ‘Sri’, ‘Sri Kembangan’
Singapore ‘Leng Bak’, ‘Juron’
Taiwan ‘Cheng­Tsey’ (‘Chun Choi’), ‘Cheng Chui’, ‘Dah Pon’, ‘Tean Ma’, ‘Mih Tao’,
‘Meeshi’, ‘Er­lin’, ‘Soft Sih’, ‘Miss’, ‘Pasi’, ‘W ai W ei’, ‘W ubentou’
Thailand ‘Fwang Tung’, ‘Thai Knight’
United State ‘Arkin’ (‘Star King Sweetie’), ‘Golden Star’, ‘Thayer’, ‘Newcomb’, ‘Mih Tao’,
‘Dah Pon’, ‘Demak’ and ‘Tean Ma’, ‘Kajang’, ‘Kary’, ‘Lara’, ‘Thai Knight’, ‘Kona
Beauty’, ‘Hart’, ‘Kajang’, ‘Seemban’

Source: Pareek and Sharma (1993); Sauco and Menini (1993); Ping Sheng (1999)
 48 Breeding of Underutilized Fruit Crops

11.2. Hybridization
So far there is no cultivar of carambola developed for large scale commercial cultivation
through hybridization, especially in India. However, in view of recent development, the
prospect for evolving promising hybrids through systematic genetic improvement programme
is practical. The carambola’s breeding system combines distally with self­incompatibility,
and most cultivars require cross­pollination with a clone of the complementary floral type
to set fruit and mature normal seed (Knight, 1965). However, ‘Golden Star’ is an exception,
as its dependable production (Campbell, 1965), and which sets a significant amount of fruit
when self­pollinated (Knight, 1982). There has been reported by Knight (1965) that the
level of fruit set can be obtained through hand pollination in long style x short style crosses
and vice versa is almost 3%. Similarly almost 0.5% set can be achieved from long style
x short style crossings. Thus, there is a possibility of produced higher seed number with
known pedigree.

11.2.1. Hybridization Technique

The technique of pollination for hybridization is relatively simple in carambola. The
emasculation process is relatively easy in short­styled flowers, a forceps or a similar
instrument can be employed to remove the anthers, in which the stamens project above
the style, without damaging the flowers. However in long­styled flowers, this procedure
is complex and becomes more difficult if long­styled flowers are used as maternal parents
because they are self­fertile.
Furthermore, the juvenile phase in this crop is very short, which is an importance
features in relation to genetic improvement and which facilitates early selection. Its early
bearing ability nature enabled even a seedling to produce fruit within two years. High
dense planting, therefore, allows for a rapid rate of selection to be carried out within a
limited space.

11.3. Mutation Breeding

The conventional breeding programme in carambola is slow and costly attributes to long
juvenile phases. Mutation breeding is one of the options to overcome this problem and
produce material which can be used in the screening of advantageous genes in subsequent
breeding programmes (Vos et al., 2009). Vos et al. (2009) treated graft wood from
carambola with 0, 25.0, 37.5, 50.0, 62.5 and 75 Gy of acute gamma radiation derived from
a cobalt 60 (Co60) source. The treated scions were whip grafted, however, the result was
poor due to problems with top working. In the subsequent season, top working method
was refined which gave 80% of graft­take.

12. CULTIVARS
Mainly there are two distinct types of carambola cultivars, i.e. sweet type and tart type.
Sweet type­ fruit is larger, thicker and larger ribs, sweet, mild­flavored, rather bland, with
 Carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.) 49

less oxalic acid and are recommended for fresh fruit, processing as well for home recipes;
tart type is smaller, very sour, richly flavored, with more oxalic acid and are more useful
for processing (Manda et al., 2012). Few tart cultivars, like ‘Golden Star’ attain a sweet
flavor if they are allowed to ripen to golden yellow colour stage on the tree. Some of the
Chinese strain claim to be very sweet, for instance ‘Xiangmi Yantao’ a high quality variety
of carambola which is a sport of a sweet variety (Ping Shen, 1999). The sweet or sour
taste of the fruit is determined by the content of ascorbic acid (Manda et al., 2012). In
sweet fruit, the amount of ascorbic acid in fruit juice is around 10.40 mg/100ml, while
about 15.4 mg/100ml in sour fruit (Manda et al., 2012).
In Australia, cultivars are grouped into long and short styled cultivars (Table 2). Short
styled cultivars are self­incompatible and require pollination from long styled cultivars but
long styled cultivars can be self­fertile (Lim, 2013). In the recent past due to advance in
crop improvement through selection and introduction there has been improving in fruit
quality especially sweetness and flavor in Florida and other part of the world. In India
there is existence of only Local genotypes.

Table 2. Classification of carambola cultivars based on style length.

Short style Long style

‘B­2’, ‘B­4’ (‘Sg. Besi 1’), ‘B­8’ (‘Sg. Besi 5’), ‘B­1’ (‘Yong Toh Yin’), ‘B­6’ (‘Sg. Besi 3’),
‘B­10’, ‘B­17’, ‘Fwang Tung’, ‘Lu Tho’, ‘B­11’ (‘Chan Yong 1’), ‘B­16’ (‘R. Hamilton’),
‘Wheeler’, ‘Sri Kembangan’, ‘Pat Chun’, ‘Real B­2’ (‘Maha­66’), ‘Star King’, ‘Maha’,
‘9­4’, ‘8­1­Kara’ ‘Arkin’, ‘11­1 Kary’

Source: W att et al. (1988); Lim (2013)

Cultivars Developed
Description of some of the major cultivars are given in the following paragraphs
(Anonymous, 1982; Bender and Arpaia, 1988; Campbell, 1965; Campbell et al., 1985;
Green, 1987; Knight, 1989; Sedgley, 1983; Wahab Ngah et al., 1989; Wahab Noah et al.,
1988; Watson et al., 1988).

12.1. Arkin
Arkin synonym is ‘Star King Sweetie’, the leading commercial cultivar and occupied at
least 98% of the current hectarage in South Florida (Crane 1993). It is developed through
selection in Florida from a seeds imported from Thailand in 1973. The flowers have long
styles. Fruit is medium­sized, similar to ‘B­2’, weighing between 90 ­ 200 g. Fruit colour
is golden yellow at early maturity stage and becoming yellow­orange at ripening. Ribs are
thick, somewhat more compact than those of ‘B­10’, with a relative large angle; the edges
of the wings are also slightly rounded. The texture is excellent and sweet flavor, juicy and
relatively less acidity, although its malic acid content is higher than that of ‘Golden Star’.
 50 Breeding of Underutilized Fruit Crops

Fruits are suitable for fresh as well as processed fruits. The cultivar is a relatively high
resistance to mechanical damage and to insects of the Othreis genus which includes
drilling or fruit sucker moths. Fruits are also relatively insensitive to chilling injury during
storage.

12.2. B­2
This cultivar originated from Malaysia. Trees are slow growing and flowers have long
styles. Fruits size is 8­12 cm x 8 cm in width, weight ranged between 100­200 g and
somewhat elongated. Colour of the fruit is greenish­yellow and becoming completely
yellow at maturity. The ribs have large angles with deep furrows. The fruits are sweet,
as high 17% in Malaysia, similar to ‘Arkin’ although less than ‘B­10’ or ‘B­17’. The pulp
is having a fine texture and very juicy, thus makes it suitable for fresh fruits as well for
processing. Fruits are relatively resistant to transport but the storage period is not very
long. ‘B­2’ is a good pollinator for ‘B­10’. ‘B­2’ is quite sensitive to damage by fruit flies.

12.3. B­10
It is developed in Malaysia, and it is the most widely accepted cultivar worldwide. The
trees grow vigorously and flowers have short styles. Fruit size are large (14 cm x 7­8 cm),
weight ranges between 100 ­ 200g, although fruits can weigh up to 315 g after appropriate
thinning. Fruit colour varies from yellow to golden reddish or orange. The ribs are more
compact than B­2, the edges of the wings are slightly rounded and the texture is good,
with a TSS content varying between 8­12%. Fruits are slightly acid and high juice content,
are useful both as fresh fruits and processing. are moderately resistant to fruit flies.

12.4. B­17
.This cultivar is originated in Malaysia, and is also known as ‘Cristal Honey’ or ‘Honey
carambola’. Fruits are cylindrical, large and uniform, with elongated, large wings, which
make them very suitable for packing in boxes. The fruit is usually elongated with whitish
sugar spots and ripens to a golden yellow colour. It is crispy, juicy, and extremely sweet
with a brix of as high as 15­18% in Malaysia.

12.5. Cheng­Tsey
This cultivar is also known ‘Chun Choi’, originated in Taiwan. Fruits are large and may
weigh up to 315 g after thinning. They have very deep and firm furrows. Their TSS
content is high, acidity is low and the texture is good; fruits are orange in colour at
maturity.
 Carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.) 51

12.6. Fwang Tung

It origin is from Thailand. Fruit size is large with 5­8 inches long. Fruit have pale yellow peel
and flesh. Pulp is very sweet, juicy, and firm flesh with few seeds. Thin ribs are easily
damaged during handling. When cut in slices, given beautiful star shape (Crane, 1993).

12.7. Golden Star

It is seedling selection in Florida, from seeds collected from Hawaii in 1935. The tree is
quite small and adapted to training habit. Flowers have long styles with high degree of
self­compatibility. The fruit is large (10­12.5 cm long), deeply winged, ovoid or ellipsoid
and weigh (100­200 g). The fruit is decorative, undoubtedly the most attractive fruits from
a visual point of view, with a bright golden­yellow colour and a thick waxy cuticle. The
ribs are thick, with relatively large angles and are similarly to those of ‘Arkin’ and ‘B­
10’. The pulp is very juicy and crisp. In Florida, fruits are less sweet and more acid than
those of ‘Arkin’, however, in the Canary Islands; ‘Golden Star’ had a better TSS/total
acidity ratio than ‘Arkin’ and also a better flavor (Campbell and Koch, 1989). The fruits
are highly resistant to mechanical damage and chilling injury. This cultivar shows the least
minor­element deficiency in alkaline soil, and even isolated trees bear well and regularly
without cross­pollination (Manda et al., 2012). ‘Golden Star’ is the primary tart cultivar
(Crane, 1993).

12.8. Kajang
This cultivar originated in Hawaii. Fruit size is 4­5 inches long. Colour is bright yellow peel
and pulp. Pulp is sweet, juicy, firm flesh with few seeds.

12.9. Kary
It is also originated in Hawaii. Fruit size is medium to large, yellow to orange skin and
flesh. Fruit is a sweet, firm­fleshed, very good quality and flavor with good shelf life.
‘Kary’ is an improved cultivar for commercial planting (Hamilton and Ito, 1992).

12.10. Lara
This cultivar originated in Florida. Fruit is medium to large size, with yellow to orange skin
and flesh. Pulp is good in quality and flavor.

12.11. Sri Kembangan

Originated from Malaysia. Fruit size is 5­6 inches long and elongated pointed fruit. Colour
is bright yellow­orange skin and flesh. Pulp is juicy, firm flesh, few seeds, flavor rich and
sweet, makes it an excellent dessert quality.
 52 Breeding of Underutilized Fruit Crops

Table 3. Description of other cultivars of carambola in different countries

Variety Origin Size Sweetness Comments

‘Dah Pon’ Taiwan Medium to large Insipid Poor quality and flavour
‘Demak’ Indonesia Medium to large Sweet Poor quality and bitter aftertaste
‘Erlin’ Taiwan Small to medium Insipid Poor quality and flavour
‘Hew­1’ Malaysia Medium to large Sweet Whitish spots on fruit, good flavour
‘Kajang’ Hawaii Medium to large Sweet Good quality and flavour
‘Kary’ Hawaii Medium to large Sweet Very good quality and flavor.
‘Lara’ Florida Medium to large Sweet Good quality and flavor.
‘Maha’ Malaysia Medium to large Insipid Poor quality and flavour
‘Miss’ Taiwan Small to medium Insipid Poor quality and flavour
‘Newcomb’ Florida Medium to large Tart Tart
‘Pasi’ Taiwan Small to medium Insipid Poor quality and flavour
‘Star King’ Florida Medium to large Tart Tart
‘Tean Ma’ Taiwan Medium to large Insipid Poor quality and flavor.
‘Thayer’ Florida Medium to large Tart Poor quality and flavor.
‘Wai Wei’ Taiwan Small to medium Insipid Poor quality and flavor.
‘W ubentou’ Taiwan Small to medium Insipid Poor quality and flavor.

Source: Crane (2007).

13. FUTURE PROSPECTS

Carambola is a hardy crop which has an immense potential for adapting in variably agro­
climatic conditions. Although several researches have been carried out abroad in carambola,
however in India, no systematic work has been taken yet. Few works had been fragmentary
carried out at various centre in the country, which needs a proper networking and correlating
each other to achieve a fruitful outcome. The systematic research planning and
implementation will help in popularization and increased productivity of carambola in India.
Some progress has recently been made in understanding the mechanisms that determine
the flowering of carambola however; research is still needed to determine precisely the
influence of the combination of physiological processes and the environment on floral
initiation. Augmentation of available variability and breed for a quality sweet varieties with
high fruit size and sugar with low oxalic acid content, high coloured and self fertile
varieties. Emphasized may be given to identify a varieties with specific harvesting period,
during which no other fruit available in the market. Development of standardization of
vegetative propagation technique for maintaining true­to­type of improved genotypes.
High attention must also be given to its conservation and utilization in near future. There
is also a need to enhance shelf­life and improvement in packaging of the fruits.
 Carambola (Averrhoa carambola L.) 53

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 CARAMBOLA (Averrhoa carambola L.)

Arkin Fwang Tong

Sri Kembangan
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