COMPUTER APPLICATION IN HEALTHCARE

CAH 106
DEFINITION OF TERMS
ICT
ICT is the technology required for information processing, in particular, the use of electronic
computers, communication devices and software applications to convert, store, protect, process,
transmit and retrieve information from anywhere, anytime.
INFORMATION
Information refers to the knowledge obtained from reading, investigation, study or research. The
tools to transmit information are the telephone, television and radio.

We need information to make decisions and to predict the future. For example, scientists can detect
the formation of a tsunami using the latest technology and warn the public to avoid disasters in the
affected areas.
Information is knowledge and helps us to fulfill our daily tasks. For example, forecasting the stock
exchange market.

COMMUNICATION
Communication is an act of transmitting messages. It is a process whereby information is
exchanged between individuals using symbols, signs or verbal interactions. Previously, people
communicated through sign or symbols, performing drama and poetry. With the advent of
technology, these ‗older ‘forms of communication are less utilized as compared to the use of the
Internet, e-mail or video conferencing

Communication is important in order to gain knowledge. With knowledge, we are more confident in
expressing our thoughts and ideas.

TECHNOLOGY
Technology is the use of scientific knowledge, experience and resources to create processes and
products that fulfill human needs. Technology is vital in communication

ICT Tools

ICT tools are components associated with ICT. They are either hardware or software items used to
process information. They include;
• Computers and Related Equipment
• Communication Equipment
• Software programs.
Every year, lots of ICT tools are manufactured by various companies in the world.
For example, Input output devices, application software etc.
• Bar code readers Used in super markets & shops to read bar codes which contain information
about that particular product.
• Bar code printers Used to print information about a particular product in Barcode format
• Credit card readers Used to read credit cards

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 • Telephones For communication and used connect to the Internet.
• Software Edit Photos/Pictures and creating graphic arts.
USAGE OF ICT IN DAILY LIFE
1. Education
Today, most schools and higher educational institutions have computers in the classroom for teacher and
students. In education, teachers, students, researchers and school administrators benefits from the usage
of ICT.

Teachers: Teachers use computers to research for teaching materials, participate in online forums and
online conferences as well as to aid their teaching.
Students: Students use the computers as a reference tool. They use computers to browse the Internet to
look for information.
Researchers: use computers to collect and process data
School administrators: use computers for administrative purposes to make sure that the entire operation
runs smoothly.

2. Business
The computer's characteristic as high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility
has made it an integrated part in all business organizations. Computer is used in business organization
for:
• Payroll Calculations

• Financial forecasting

• Budgeting

• Managing employee’s database

• Sales Analysis
• Maintenance of stocks etc.
3. Banking
Today Banking is almost totally dependent on computer. Banks provide following facilities:
• Banks on-line accounting facility, which include current balances, deposits, overdrafts, interest
charges, shares and trustee records.
• ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up to date with the help of computer .The Insurance
Companies, Finance houses and Stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.
4. Marketing
Advertising: With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy,
and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
At Home Shopping: At home shopping has been made possible through use of computerized catalogues
that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

5. Health Care

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 omputers have become important part in all Medical Systems. The computers are being used in hospitals to
keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG,
EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc. are also done by computerised machines. Some of major fields of health
care in which computer are used:
Diagnostic System: Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
Lab-diagnostic System: All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
Patient Monitoring System: These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac
Arrest, ECG etc.
Pharma Information System: Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful drug side effects etc.

Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purposes. One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design).
CAD provides creation, edition, and modification of image. Some fields are:
Structural Engineering: Requires stress and strain analysis required for design of Ships, Buildings,
Budgets, Airplanes etc.
Industrial Engineering: Computers deals with design, implementation and improvement of Integrated
systems of people, materials and equipment’s.
Architectural Engineering: Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings, determining a range of
buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings
6. Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received and understood
clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this category are: -mail

-conferencing

THE IMPACT OF ICT ON SOCIETY

1. FASTER COMMUNICATION SPEED

In the past, it took a long time for any news or messages to be send. Now with the Internet, news or
messages are sent via e-mail to friends, business partners or to anyone efficiently. With the capability of
bandwidth, broadband and connection speed on the Internet, any information can travel fast and at an instant. It
saves time and is inexpensive.
2. LOWER COMMUNICATION COST
Using the Internet is cost-effective than the other modes of communication such as telephone, mailing or
courier service. It allows people to have access to large amounts of data at a very low cost. With the Internet we
do not have to pay for any basic services provided by the Internet. Furthermore, the cost of connection to the
Internet is relatively cheap.

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 3. RELIABLE MODE OF COMMUNICATION
Computers are reliable. With the internet, information could be accessed and retrieved from anywhere and at
any time. This makes it a reliable mode of communication. However, the input to the computer is contributed
by humans. If the data passed to the computer is faulty, the result will be faulty as well. This is related to the
term GIGO.
GIGO is a short form for Garbage in Garbage Out. It refers to the quality of output produced according to the
input. Normally bad input produces bad output.
4. EFFECTIVE SHARING OF INFORMATION
With the advancement of ICT, information can be shared by people all around the world. People can share and
exchange opinions, news and information through discussion groups, mailing list and forums on the Internet.
This enable knowledge sharing which will contribute to the development of knowledge-based society.
5. PAPERLESS ENVIRONMENT
ICT technology has created the term paperless environment. This term means information can be stored and
retrieved through the digital medium instead of paper. Online communication via emails, online chat and instant
messaging also helps in creating the paperless environment.
6. BORDERLESS COMMUNICATION
Internet offers fast information retrieval, interactivity, accessibility and versatility. It has become a borderless
source for services and information. Through the Internet, information and communication can be borderless.
7. SOCIAL PROBLEMS
There are some negative effects of ICT. It has created social problems in the society. Nowadays, people tend to
choose online communication rather than having real time conversations. People tend to become more
individualistic and introvert.
8. Other negative effect of ICT is:
· fraud
· identity theft
· Pornography
· Hacking
This will result a moral decedent and generate threads to the society.
9. HEALTH PROBLEMS
A computer may harm users if they use it for long hours frequently. Computer users are also exposed to bad
posture, eyestrain, physical and mental stress. In order to solve the health problems, an ergonomic environment
can be introduced. For example, an ergonomic chair can reduce back strain and a screen filter is used to
minimize eye strain.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
A computer is an electronic device or set of devices that work under the control of stored program accepting
data from outside itself and processing it to produce information.

A computer is a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are: it responds to a
specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner and it can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a
program).

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COMPUTER TERMINOLOGIES.

(i) Data - is a basic fact about any activity performed in a computer.

(ii)Information – This is result obtained after processing data or reliable world.
Processing – Turning data into meaningful information.
(iii)
(iv)Input – To type or to key-in into the computer
(v) Output – To obtain a printout or softcopy of information fed into the computer (vi) Retrieve
– Making data that was stored accessible on the screen.
(vii) Store – To make data permanent into the computer memory.
QUALITIES OF A COMPUTER

(i) Its automatic – i.e. can work with minimum human intervention once supplied with data and
instructions.
(ii) Its data processor – processes raw facts and figures to produce information.
(iii) It ‘s a storage device – store information for later reference.
(iv) It ‘s electrical – Requires some form of power to drive it.

Advantages of using computers.

(i) Stores large chunks of information in limited space.

(ii) Speed- performs tasks in very short periods (in comparison to working manually) (iii)
Efficiency – Creates an all-round saving on space, time.
(iv) Consistency- Gives the same results given the same data and instructions (v)
Secrecy – information is fairly protected if the computer system is well managed
(vi) Versatility – can do the same thing over and over again without being worn out.

Disadvantages of computers

I) Computers are expensive ii) Cuts down on

employment opportunities
iii) Need expertise, which is expensive to hire and maintain iv)
They create eye problems
v) Loss of information if not well managed

Classification of computers
1. According to size
A number of different dimensions can be used to classify computers into different types. Traditionally,
the size and the capabilities of computers are used as the main criterion and the computers are classified
into the following types.

PC – The personal computer (PC) is small in size and is designed for general use by a single
person.

– A PC that is not designed for portability. A desktop computer is typically set up in

a permanent location.

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 – A portable computer that includes a battery to provide power for some
specific period of time.
– More commonly known as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs). Palmtops are
small, lightweight and tightly integrated computers which usually do not have keyboards but
rely on touch screen technology for user input. Palmtops are equipped with a battery with
reasonable life.
– A desktop computer with a powerful processor, additional memory and
enhanced capabilities for performing a special group of tasks, such as 3D graphics.

– A computer that has been optimized to provide services to other computers over a
network. Servers usually have powerful processors, lots of memory and large hard drives.
– Mainframes are huge computers, which could fill an entire room or even a whole
floor. Over the years, the size of computers has diminished while the power has increased; the term
mainframe has fallen out of use. You will still

hear the term used, particularly in large companies to describe the huge machines processing
millions of transactions every day.
– This type of computer is usually very expensive. Although some supercomputers are single computer
systems, most comprised multiple high-performance computers working parallel as a single system.
The best-known supercomputers are built by Cray Supercomputers.

2. Computer Generations

a. First Generation
The period of first generation was 1946-1959. First generation of computer started with using vacuum tubes as
the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes like electric
bulbs produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were very
expensive and could be afforded only by very large organizations.
In this generation mainly batch processing operating system were used. In this generation Punched cards, Paper
tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output device were used. There were Machine code and electric wired board
languages used

The main features of First Generation are:

of electricity

Some computer of this generation was:

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 b. Second Generation
The period of second generation was 1959-1965. This generation using the transistor were cheaper,
consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first-generation
machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory
and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In this generation assembly
language and high-level programming language like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. There were
Batch processing and Multiprogramming Operating system used the main features of Second
Generation are:

Some computer of this generation was:

c. Third Generation
The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The third generation of computer is marked by the
use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of transistors. A single I.C has many transistors, resistors
and capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The I.C was invented by Jack Kilby. This
development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. In this generation
Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-programming Operating System were used.
High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.)
were used during this generation

ser electricity

Some computer of this generation was:

-360 series

-6000 series

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 -370/168

-316

d. Fourth Generation
The period of Fourth Generation was 1971-1980. The fourth generation of computers is marked
by the use of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits’ circuits having about 5000 transistors
and other circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth Generation computers became
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more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer
(PC) revolution. In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating
System were used. All the Higher-level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc. were used in this
generation

The main features of Fourth Generation are:

ed

networks

Some computer of this generation was:

5. Fifth Generation
The period of Fifth Generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology
became ULSI (Ultra Large-Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on
parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch
in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers think like human
beings. All the Higher-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this generation.
AI includes:
decisions in real life situations.

generation
The main features of Fifth Generation are:

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 compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation

are:
processing

technology

multimedia features

3. In terms of purpose, computers are classified into special purpose or general

purpose.

Special purpose computer is designed for only one purpose. A computer which guides space
shuttles, and which cannot be used for any other purpose is an example of special purpose
computer.

General-purpose computer, on the other hand, can be used for many purposes. For example, the
same general-purpose computer may be used to handle payroll, do balance sheet, and produce
graphics for the design of buildings, solve complex mathematical equations, or play games. It is
possible to provide a long list under this heading. Here is a least of varied examples are given
below

➢ Home Computer – This is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability designed

for domestic use with programs that typically are used for such things as computer
game or controlling family finance.
➢ Word Processor -- This is a special purpose computer used in the production of
office documents, letters, contracts, etc.
➢ Personal Computer (PC) – These are microcomputers designed for independent
use by individual at work or in home mainly for business purposes. Some PCs are
portable. Many can be connected to minicomputers and mainframe computers so
that the PC user can also gain access to the facilities offered by the larger machine.
➢ Desktop Computer -- These are microcomputers designed to be placed on top the
desk for independent use by individual at work or in home mainly for business
purposes. It therefore implies that Home computers and Personal Computers are
example of Desktop Computers.
➢ Workstation Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are
also examples of desktop computers. Although larger and more powerful PCs are

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 sometime called workstations in order to denote the presence of advanced features
not provided by all PCs. These include in-built capabilities for their interconnection
and operation in conjunction with other computers.
➢ Lap-top Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are smaller
in size compared to desktop computers and as a result they can be placed on the lap
of an individual to do any job. Although smaller and sometime very powerful
features not provided by all PCs. These include in-built capabilities for their
interconnection, mobile computing, with an in-built backup battery that allows one
to work without direct power connection and also operation in conjunction with
other computers.
➢ Notebook Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are
smaller in size compared to desktop computers and the laptop computers as a result
they can placed on the lap of an individual, carried around easily to do any

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 job. Although smaller and sometime confused for Laptop computers, they can
as well be very powerful in their operations and usages. These include in-
built capabilities for their interconnection, mobile computing, with an in-built
backup battery that allows one to work without direct power connection and
also operation in conjunction with other computers.
➢ Palmtop Computers -- These are another type of microcomputers which are smaller
in size compared to the Laptop computers and the Notebook computer. They are
hand held computers and which can be easily carried around to do some jobs.
Although smaller and sometime confused for a calculator, they are actually
computers, they can as well be very powerful in their operations and usages. These
include in-built capabilities for their interconnection, mobile computing, with an
in-built backup battery that allows one to work without direct power connection
and also operation in conjunction with other computers.
➢ Embedded Computers – These are computers that are embedded within some other
devices or system but is not accessed directly. Examples of such system can be
finding in watches, video recorder, petrol pumps, cameras, lift elevators, cars and a
host of other industrial and domestic devices.

4. Classification of computer according to technology

Analog Computers

An analog computer represents data as physical quantities and operates on the data by
manipulating the quantities. It is designed to process data in which the variable quantities
vary continuously (see analog circuit); it translates the relationships between the variables of
a problem into analogous relationships between electrical quantities, such as current and
voltage, and solves the original problem by solving the equivalent problem, or analog, that
is set up in its electrical circuits. Because of this feature, analog computers were especially
useful in the simulation and evaluation of dynamic situations, such as the flight of a space
capsule or the changing weather patterns over a certain area. The key component of the
analog computer is the operational amplifier, and the computer's capacity is determined by
the number of amplifiers it contains (often over 100). Although analog computers are
commonly found in such forms as speedometers and watt-hour meters, they largely have
been made obsolete for general-purpose mathematical computations and data storage by
digital computers.

Digital Computers

A digital computer is designed to process data in numerical form (see digital circuit); its
circuits perform directly the mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division. The numbers operated on by a digital computer are expressed in the binary
system; binary digits, or bits, are 0 and 1, so that 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, etc., correspond to 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. Binary digits are easily expressed in the computer circuitry by the presence
(1) or absence (0) of a current or voltage. A series of eight consecutive bits is called a "byte;

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East Africa Institute Of Certified Studies 2015
the eight-bit byte permits 256 different "on-off combinations. Each byte can thus represent
one of up to 256 alphanumeric characters, and such an arrangement is called a "single-byte
character set (SBCS); the de facto standard for this representation is the extended ASCII
character set. Some languages, such as Japanese, Chinese, and Korean, require more than
256 unique symbols. The use of two bytes, or 16 bits, for each symbol, however, permits the
representation of up to 65,536 characters or ideographs. Such an arrangement is called a
"double-byte character set (DBCS); Unicode is the international standard for such a character
set. One or more bytes, depending on the computer's architecture, is sometimes called a
digital word; it may specify not only the magnitude of the number in question, but also its
sign (positive or negative), and may also contain redundant bits that allow automatic
detection, and in some cases correction, of certain errors (see code; information theory). A
digital computer can store the results of its calculations for later use, can compare results
with other data, and on the basis of such comparisons can change the series of operations it
performs. Digital computers are used for reservations systems, scientific investigation, data
processing and word-processing applications, desktop publishing, electronic games, and
many other purposes.

Hybrid Computers

A hybrid computer is designed as a combination of analog and digital computer (see digital
and analog computer); its circuits perform directly on the technology of both analog and
digital circuits as a result its more powerful than the other two logic computers.

COMPUTER SYSTEM
It ‘s made up of the following

(i) Hardware

a. Input devices
b. Output devices
c. CPU
d. Storage devices
e. Bus system
f. Computer ports

(ii) Software
• System software
• Application software

(iii) Or ware/Operator

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Hardware components

1. CPU – Central Processing Unit

CPU consists of the following features:

controls the operation of all parts of computer.

` CPU itself has following three components.

Memory or Storage Unit:

This unit can store instruction, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information
to the other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or
main memory or primary storage or Random-access memory (RAM). Its size affects speed,
power and capability. There are primary memory and secondary memory two types of
memories in the computer. Function of Memory Unit are:

processing before these results are released to an output device.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer. It does not carry out any actual
data processing operations. Functions of this unit are

computer.

ns from the memory, interprets them and directs the

operation of the
computer.

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 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely

ARITHMETIC SECTION
Function of Arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of above operations.
LOGIC SECTION
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching and merging of data.

2. Input Devices
Following are few of the important input devices which are used in Computer Systems

Reader (OCR)

Reader (MICR)

Keyboard
Most common and very popular input device is keyboard. The keyboard helps in inputting
the data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter,
although there are some additional keys provided for performing some additional
functions. Keyboard are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now 104 keys or 108
keys keyboard is also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys are following Keys Description
Sr. No.
1 Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and
digits keys (0-9) which are generally give
same layout as that of typewriters.

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2 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter numeric data or cursor
movement. Generally, it consists of a set of
17 keys that are laid out in the same
configuration used by most adding machine
and calculators.
3 Function Keys The twelve functions keys are present on
the keyboard. These are arranged in a row
along the top of the keyboard. Each
function key has unique meaning and is
used for some specific purpose.
4 Control keys These keys provide cursor and screen
control. It includes four directional arrows
key. Control keys also include Home,
End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control (Ctrl), Alternate (Alt), Escape
(Esc).
5 Special Purpose Keyboard also contains some special
Keys purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print
Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device. It is a
small palm size box with a ground ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse
and sends corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons. Generally, it has two
buttons called left and right button and scroll bar is present at the mid. Mouse can be used
to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the
computer.
ADVANTAGES

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower
spherical ball moves in a socket. The Joystick can be moved in all four directions. The
function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical
system placed in a small tube. When light pen's tip is moved over the monitor screen and

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pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends
the corresponding signal to the CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of
a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be
moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse.
A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square
Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the
computer for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are
then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be
edited before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into a digital form. Digitizer
can convert a signal from the television camera into a series of numbers that could be
stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the
camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it
converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used
for doing fine works of drawing and images manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The
microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation
or for mixing music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the
cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are
machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
(MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may
be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader
scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the
computer to which bar code reader is connected

3. Output Devices
Following are few of the important output devices which are used in Computer Systems

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Monitors
Monitor commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU) is the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels, that are arranged in a rectangular
form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the no. of the pixels. There are two kinds
of viewing screen used for monitors.
-Ray Tube (CRT)

- Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

In the CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels for short. The
smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one
illuminated pixel to form whole character, such as the letter e in the word help. A finite
number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a
series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be
placed. The most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and
25 lines vertically. There is some disadvantage of CRT

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight
and power requirement compare to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on
your wrists. Current uses for flat-panel displays include calculators, videogames, monitors,
laptop computer, graphics display. The flat-panel display is divided into two categories
Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy
into light. Example are plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD (Liquid-
Crystal Device) Printers
Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers

-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the paper, are
called impact printers. Characteristics of Impact Printers are following

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These printers are of two types
printers

Character Printers:
Character Printers are printers which print one character at a time. These are of further two
types

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market one of the most popular printer is Dot Matrix Printer because of their ease of
printing features and economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern of Dot's
and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which comes out to
form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages

Disadvantages

Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and Pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally
used for word processing in offices which require a few letters to be send here and there
with very nice quality representation.
Advantages

Disadvantages

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Line Printers
Line printers are printers which print one line at a time.
These are of further two types

Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape so it called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided
into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width of 132
characters, Drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different
characters sets are available in market 48-character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One
rotation of drum prints one line. Drum Printers are fast in speed and speed in between 300
to 2000 lines per minute. Advantages

Disadvantages

Chain Printer
In this printer chain of character sets are used so it called Chain Printers. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, 96 characters. Advantages

Disadvantages

arecters.

Non-impact Printers
The printers that print the characters without striking against the ribbon and onto the paper,
are called Non-impact Printers. These printers print a complete page at a time, also called
as Page Printers. These printers are of two types

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Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

They are not noisy.

Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produces the dots needed to
form the characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages
Very high
speed.

Disadvantage

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology.
They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce
high quality output with presentable features. They make less noise because no hammering
is done and these have many styles of printing modes available. Colours printing is also
possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages

Disadvantages

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 4. Computer Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer
memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts.
Each part is called cell. Each location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero
to memory size minus one. For example, if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit
has 64 * 1024=65536 memory location. The address of these locations varies from 0 to
65535. Memory is primarily of three types

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high-speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access
them.
ADVANTAGE

stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

DISADVANTAGE:

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently
working. It has limited capacity and data get lost when power is switched off. It is
generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers.
The data and instruction required to be processed earlier reside in main memory. It is
divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM. Characteristic of Main Memory

off.

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Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than
main memory. These are used for storing Data/Information permanently. CPU directly
does not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines.
Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can
access it. For example: disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc. Characteristic of Secondary Memory

-volatile memory.

he data in the computer.

Random Access Memory

ARAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program
result. It is read/write memory. It is called random access memory (RAM). Since access
time in RAM is independent of the address to the word that is, each storage location inside
the memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes the same amount of time. We can
reach into the memory at random & extremely fast but can also be quite expensive. RAM
is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can
hold. RAM is of two types

RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains
applied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM
chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to
prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis. Because of the
extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of
storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. Static RAM is used as cache
memory needs to be very fast and small. Characteristic of the Static RAM

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 ption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to maintain the data.
This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several
hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and
small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one
capacitor and one transistor. Characteristic of the Dynamic RAM

Read Only Memory

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but
cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored
permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instruction as are
required to start computer when electricity is first turned on, this operation is referred to as
bootstrap. ROM chip are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items
like washing machine and microwave oven.
Following are the various types of ROM

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data
or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a
blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM programmer. Inside the
PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be
programmed only once and is not erasable.

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EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40
minutes. Usually, a EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming an
electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than
ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light
is passed through a quartz crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates
the charge. During normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed
about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 MS (milli
second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs
can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of
re-programming is flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
-volatile in nature

Hardware Devices: Secondary storage devices

This section will be looking at the various forms of secondary storage device (media). For
each device you should be familiar with the following details:

• seek time - Average time taken from requesting data to starting to read the
requested data
• Capacity - The amount of data it is possible to store on a media
• Access type - Whether a device is Random Access or Serial Access
• Write type - Whether it is read only, write only or readable and writable
• Cost - how much does it cost per megabyte

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sequential access requires all memory locations before the one sought to be read, before
reaching it. Random access memory allows you to jump directly to the memory location
you are seeking

Pay special attention to devices with an orange background, you need to be able to describe
exactly how they work!

Contents

• 1 Magnetic media o
1.1 Hard disk
o 1.2 Tape drive
• 2 Optical media
o 2.1 CD-ROM
• 3 Solid-state memory
of 3.1 USB Flash
Drive
o 3.2 Memory cards

Magnetic media

Magnetic media stores data by assigning a magnetic charge to metal. This metal is then
processed by a read head, which converts the charges into ones and zeros. Historically,
magnetic media has been very popular for storing programs, data, and making backups. It

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looks set to continue in this role for some time. However, solid state technology to starting
to be used more and more, storing programs and data on new devices such as mobile
phones and cameras.

Solid-state memory Device Size

Hard Disk Up to 4 Terabytes

Tape Up to 2 Terabytes

Hard disk

Video of exposed hard disk drive (HDD)

Hard disks are usually found inside computers to store programs and data. They are
increasingly cheap and more and more companies are using them to back things up. Hard
disks can vary in physical size with some disks getting as small as your thumb. The
capacity of a commercial disk is currently up to about 2 terabytes allowing users to read
and write to them. They are constructed from several key components:

• Platter - Metallic disks where One or both sides of the platter are magnetized,
allowing data to be stored. The platter spins thousands of times a second around the
spindle. There may be several platters, with data stored across them
• Head - The head reads magnetic data from the platter. For a drive with several
platters there may two heads per platter allowing data to be read from top and
bottom of each
• Actuator Arm - used to move the read heads in and out of the disk, so that data can
be read and written to particular locations and you can access data in a Random
fashion, you don't need to read your way through the entire disk to fetch a particular
bit of information, you can jump right there. Seek time is very low.
• Power connector - provides electricity to spin the platters, move the read head and
run the electronics
• IDE connector - allows for data transfer from and to the platters
• Jumper block - used to get the disk working in specific ways such as RAID

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For the exam you must be able to explain how a hard disk works:

1. The platters spin around the spindle

2. data is requested to be read from a particular area of a platter
3. the actuator arm moves the read head to that track
4. Once the data sector that is required has spun around and under the read head, data
is read
5. Read data is sent from the IDE connector to main memory

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Description of a hard disk platter

Writing data is very similar:

1. The platters spin around the spindle

2. data is sent to the hard disk using the IDE connector
3. the actuator arm moves the write head to the track that will be written to
4. Once the data sector that is required has spun around and under the write head, data
is written to the platter

Pros

Fast seek times

Random access
High capacities
possible Low cost
per megabyte

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Cons
Very susceptible to damage from physical shocks

Tape drive

DDS tape drive. Above, from left right: DDS-4 tape (20 GB), 112m Data8 tape (2.5 GB),
QIC DC-6250 tape (250 MB), and a 3.5" floppy disk (1.44 MB)

Increasingly obsolete, the tape has been a medium to deliver software and back up data
since the early days of computing. Nowadays they are used mostly for corporate backing
up and archiving of data. Tapes are sequential data stores, meaning that if you had
information stored at the end of the tape you would have to wind your way through the
entirety of the tape before you could read it. There is no random access like with a hard
disk! Tapes can be several terabytes in size and reading and writing can be very fast as
long as you read or write continuous sections of the tape at once.

Pros

Fast
High capacity
Cheap per megabyte

Cons

Serial read and write capabilities

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Optical media
Optical media works by creating a disc with a pitted metallic surface. There are several
different types of disk out there ranging from 650 MB to 128 GB, with the pits and lands
getting closer together for higher volume disks. The principle behind how each of them
works is the same.

pitted surface visible on the surface of a CD. Massively zoomed in!

Optical media
Device Type Size Image

CD-ROM • Read Only

650 -
CD-R • Write once then Read only 900 100px
CD-RW • re-Writable MB
• DVD-ROM Read Only
• DVD-R Write once then Read only 4.7 -
• DVD-RW re-Writable 9.4
• DVD-RAM re-Writable GB

• Blu-ray Re-Writable and Read Only versions available,

25 -
(BD) disc using a Blue laser, that is able to recognize smaller
128
HD DVD pits and lands. Allowing for the pits and lands to be
GB more closely
packed

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CD-ROM

close up of the surface of a CD being read

1. A single track runs in a spiral pattern from the centre of the disc to the outside, this
track is made of pits and lands to represent the ones and zeroes.
2. A laser is shone on the metallic surface and the reflection is captured in a
photodiode sensor, the lands reflect differently to the pits, meaning it can tell the
difference between a 1 and a 0
3. The disc spins and the laser follow the track

Pros

Cheap

Cons

Slow seek time

Data degrades with time, discs from 20 years ago might not work!
Depending the on the disk, you might not be able to write to it, or re-write to it

Solid-state memory

Solid-state memory Device Description

USB flash drive Up to 256 GB

Memory card Up to 256 GB

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USB Flash Drive

Internals of a typical USB flash drive

1 USB Standard-A plug

2 USB mass storage controller device

3 Test points

4 Flash memory chip

5 Crystal oscillator

6 LED

7 Write-protect switch (Optional)

8 Space for second flash memory chip

USB Flash drives are solid state, that means that there are no moving parts. This is very
useful for seek times as we don't have to wait for mechanical movement, meaning seek
time is very low and it allows for fast Random Access Memory. Flash drives can be set to
read only mode, but they will always allow for reading and writing. The size of flash drives
is not as great as a Hard
Disk and they are generally much more expensive per megabyte

1. put drive into USB socket

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 2. USB driver loads, providing the computer with code on how to read and write from
the
USB
3. The USB is read, giving information on the file and folder structure (File Allocation
Table) to the Computer
4. [Reading] The user chooses to open a file, the Computer sends the address wanted
to the USB port
5. [Reading] The USB returns the data at the location requested
6. [Writing] The computer sends data to the USB port where it is place into empty
space on the drive
7. [Writing] The computer then requests a new version of the file and folder structure

Pros

Very fast seek

times Very
portable

Cons

Limited capacity expensive per MB

when compared to Hard Disks

Memory cards

Work in much the same way as a Flash drive and can often be converted into Flash Drives.
They have different connectors and are generally smaller than USB Flash drives allowing
for them to be used in cameras, mobile phones and game consoles.

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