TITLE: GROUDWATER USE IN A NIGERIAN URBAN VILLAGE

AUTHORS: IBEZUE VICTORIA C. AND MADUABUM, ANTHONY I. V

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT/ARCHITECHURE

FACULTY OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

ANAMBRA STATE UNIVERSITY, PMB 02, ULI.

ABSTRACT

A: BACKGROUD OF THE STUDY - Freshwater resource is increasingly decreasing as a result of increasing

exploitation to meet water demand and by pollution resulting from human activities. Freshwater by all standard is a
critical resource, on high demand but in short supply - a scarce resource and rarely renewable otherwise expensive to
renew. Its use in a territory should be planned and the plan strictly adhered to from the onset judging its absorption
capacity for nutrients dispersion (chemical mass balancing) and quantity replenishment or recharge. This is because
both quantity and quality of freshwater are interrelated and important in water resources evaluation and management.
Water overdraft, mediocre recharge, gaseous emissions, surface contamination and pollution of land and air tend to
reduce the freshwater stock either by quality depletion (loss of freshness through pollution) or by quantity depletion
(due to overdraft and unmonitored pumping). The attack on freshwater is on two fronts, which include (a) over
exploitation to meet the water needs of the growing population and (b) pollution from increased human activities. But
if infiltration is impeded by paved surfaces, recharge becomes uncertain and the most observable problem of water
resource overuse/draft is the lowering of the water table beyond the reach of the existing wells (Uri G 1996), so that
re-establishing well yield implies boring beyond the existing well’s depth.

Sustainability in hydrology implies that pumping rate from an aquifer, should be in commensurate with the rate and
amount of recharge available or the water stock must be large enough to maintain ecological balance, Llamas et al,
(2003 and 2006). And intensive groundwater use is that which induces significant changes on natural aquifer dynamics,
Custodio E, (2002) and Custodio et al, (2005). Over exploitation of an aquifer produces changes in flow patterns,
water quality or interrelations with surface water bodies due to relative rise and fall in water levels of the different
water regimes. The global freshwater treaty emphasized sustainable qualitative and quantitative exploitation of water
resources and the need to avoid doing damage to the resource. This proposal is to promote best management
practices for sustainable exploitation and management of freshwater. This cannot be achieved without sustainable
groundwater development in meeting today’s needs without denying tomorrow’s needs, UN- COMMISSION, (1997).
But dealing with the issue of sustainable exploitation and use whether private or public requires a reliable well and
borehole inventory in order to ensure adequate water stock management. And water and human ethics are considered
as integral part of water resources management, Delli et al, (2001and 2004) and Selborbe, (2001).

B: DOMESTIC WATER USE

Water is required at homes for drinking, cooking, washing, recreation, and general sanitation which are essential for
good health. The total domestic water need of 115 liters per households per day, according to Oyebande, (1978), is
considered inadequate in view of the said uses. Domestic water demand is temperature responsive (as the rate of water
– use will increase with increased temperature, and above 25 degree centigrade, daily per capita water-use increases by
11litres per degree rise in temperature, Colin Charters, (2007), rainfall, house value, water price and household size all
tell on the quantity of water use. To measure and model these end uses as to ensure conservation has been the
problem faced by urban water planners for many years. And understanding the water use pattern in time and space is
crucial to ensure water use efficiency. And water use is efficient when it meets both quality and quantity requirements
for the intended uses.

C: COMMERCIAL WATER USE

Commercial water use in this case is as it concerns small scale industrial water requiring activities that include concrete
works, pharmacies, small scale agriculture/livestock watering/gardening, beauty salon, outdoor laundry, hospitals,
bakery, hotels, restaurants, etc. The many factors that affect commercial water use include (i) the number of rooms
contained in the commercial establishment (ii) and the number of persons employed in the establishment, Mc Cuen
(1975). Water allocation to most industries from the municipal supplies does not satisfy their water needs, some
industries are not served at all. Rapid growth in the population of urban dwellers with the attendant increase in
commercial establishments tends to complex the water demand and supply situation in most developing countries
such as Nigeria. Flack et al, (1978) in their work cited that the total annual commercial water consumption in Denver
is 24% of the water supplied to the city. Estimating commercial water use becomes absolutely necessary as large
volumes of water are involved as to ensure efficiency in the water use.
D: FACTORS OF WATER USE

Proximity to this priced resource- the fresh water also counts. In some cases the supposed abundant fresh water
resources are inaccessible while pollution makes it increasingly unpalatable. The bulk of the water needs of man for
most of mans’ domestic and socioeconomic activities come from this finite 0.75% groundwater stock, even irrigation
agriculture in some countries dares the use of groundwater, as developing the 0.25% surface water stock appeared
more expensive at least to developing countries like Nigeria. The groundwater therefore is put under pressure since it
has to supply more than 85% of the water needs of man. The study area depends almost entirely on groundwater for
their domestic and commercial water supply. Full capacity functioning of water projects has remained at large in
Nigeria urban centers; whereas urban population increases astronomically, so do water demand, but facilities have not
been significantly expanded, it tends to pack up due to pressure and poor maintenance hence backing demand up with
supply remained a wild goose chase in Nigerian urban areas. The amount of fresh water that is available to any country
on a long-term basis is nearly constant for all practical purposes (Biswas, 1993). And very high percentage of water will
continue to be under-developed because of adverse economic conditions and environmental constrains (Teerik, et al
1993; Berker, et al 1996). The fact remains that increasing standard of living results in changes in peoples’ life style,
thus increasing the per capita water requirement. In Nigeria for instance, the rate of increase in population as at 1985-
1994 is 2.9%, and the annual renewable fresh water available is 308km3 by 1994, the water-use rate was as of then
placed at 2,870m3 per capita which is projected to decline to a 1,290m3 per capita by the year 2025 and to 910m3 by
the year 2050 (World Bank, 1996).

There is the need therefore to introduce water caring culture- coupled with technological innovations on saving water
resources and pricing water to improve demand management (Henk Van Schaik, 2007). It requires the calculation of
climate footprint of a municipality or utility to develop strategies for greenhouse gas reductions (Henk Van Schaik,
2007). Li Lifeng, (2007) warned that poor adaptive approach to climate change such as diverting more water to irrigate
crops for biofuel production may grossly diminish the fresh water supplies with serious consequences on the
ecosystem function. A balance of pollution, provision of other needs and water resources should be maintained, so
that one is not developed at the expense of the other. The capital investment in water resources development so far
may not have been adequate but the much spent have not justified the claims as greater percentage of the populace
remained un-served completely or the service is so rationed to the so called served population which is relatively less
by all standards in terms of coverage. The supply systems especially the Anambra State Water Board have failed to
recover its running, maintenance and investment costs from tariffs, thus requiring money from government always,
the reason for the redundancy for over a decade now. One now wonders how the private sector manages to sustain
service on long-term basis.

E: RESIDENTIAL WATER REQUIREMENTS Clark, et al 1983, cited that residential and workplace water
demand per capita for an area would be more reliable if linear regression analysis is used. The research attempted to
model water demand in the study area, but as a component of water impact index, so that water demand was resolved
as one of the indices of water impact index in a linear regression equation derived. Past studies in the study area
showed that the households are willing to pay for improved water services and that 8,000 out of 100,000 households
have access to pipe borne water systems and the rest got their water from vendors, and at a price almost twice the
operational and maintenance cost of public potable water (World Bank, 1995c). But at present in the study area, the
public tap is dry owing to the no pumping status of the State Water Board for many years now.

F: COMMERCIAL WATER REQUIREMENTS

Water scarcity have made water supply rather a herculean task so that meeting the demand for water which is fast
outpacing its availability for consumption is seriously constrained by the rising population (Udoh et al, 2007). This
consequently placed the price of water of whatever quality at an ever increasing stance, so that 25-litres of water cost
as much N25 - N50 depending on the proximity to the water source in most of Nigeria urban centers (Oghifo, 2008),
just as it is in the study area. Demand modification could reduce water demand by the commercial sector by about
30%, Kim et al, (1997).

G:THE STUDY AREA The study area lies within coordinates 60 101 N and 60 471E covering a land area of 94.92km2
harboring a population of about 1003000 persons (NPC, 2006) with population density of 2,465 per km2 (1963
census), 2,984 per km2 (1983 census) and population growth rate of 2.5% per annum. Among the different land uses
in the study area, open spaces considered under pervious land use constitute about 5.48 % (143 hectares) and this
serve as catchments for groundwater recharge out of a total land area of 94.92km2. Available literature gave the
gradient of the regressed line of infiltration rate (amount in time) as 36mm per minute (Efobi, 2001) for the study area.
The high surface runoff which results in flooding in Onitsha is therefore partly due to low soil infiltration capacity of
Onitsha soils, and increasing cemented surfaces. The surface that should constitute the bulk of the recharge for the
aquifer beneath is drained away through urban drainage network into the surface water (river Niger). Akpaka forest
reserve, the closest carbon sink and water catchment for forest water in the study area is now quarried for stone chips,
developed for Residential Area to absorb urban population growth, and logged for timber. But this culture of
replacing large areas of natural catchments with its ability to absorb rainfall and drain slowly with impervious surfaces
which drains very rapidly into urban drainage network concentrates runoff leading to floods. Also deforesting the
catchment areas has the potentials to increase flood peaks by over 50% as runoff into drainage channels (Douglas,
1973). Hence urban land use determines the magnitude of runoff. Onitsha fits the definition of urbanization of
Knight, (1976) regarding water balance as it has greater than 45% of its water shed impervious since its land use (open
spaces) is just 5.48%. So if recharge compatible land use is 5.48%, and the land use incompatible with recharge is
86.52%, it follows that recharge is abstracted by far and this space is far too small compared to the minimum
requirements to rule out water scarcity or aquifer depletion.

H: MATERIAL AND METHODS

METHODS – the main instrument used data collection is survey questionnaire and direct observation during to
obtain information on water supply sources, water use dynamics, service level as well as water use problems also wells
and boreholes inventory was carried out and the result of this count would be used in processing the research base
map (the figure below). The research targets 1 in every 45 households Recall that the ratio of the total impervious area
to the total areas of watershed is a factor that characterize the various abstractive processes and that alter the
distribution of rainfall and the total volume of rainfall excess. Aquifer depletion remains a threat since pumping rate is
unknown.

Figure 1 sample location map

I: FINDINGS

RESIDENTIAL WATER USE

The result obtained from survey questionnaires that were applied in generating data for residential water use in the
study area is presented in table 4.1 below for both wet and dry periods.

TABLE 1 ACCESS TO PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY

FREQUENCY NO YES

DRY PERIOD 78% 22%

WET PERIOD 78% 22%

The table above reflects that access remained the same for both wet and dry periods. And as it stands, as much as 78%
of the respondents had no access to public water supply system. This relationship is shown in the pie chart figure 2
below.
 Fig 2 Pie chart showing access to public water supply

Table 2 and 3 below shows the summary in percent for the respondents’ access to public water supply for wet and
dry periods.

TABLE 2 TYPES OF SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

SOURCES FRQUENCY

DRY PERIOD WET PERIOD

WELLS 9.76% 9.76%

BOREHOLES 78% 76

PUBLIC TAP 8.48 8.52

OTHERS 3.76 5.72

TABLE 3 TYPES OF SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY BY AVERAGE

WELLS BOREHOLES PUBLIC TAP OTHERS

9.76% 77% 8.50% 4.74%

The configuration in the fig.3 below reflects that groundwater accessed through wells and boreholes made the most of
the sources as they totaled 86.8%; and this is irrespective of rains or dry spells.
 Fig 3 line graph showing types of sources of water supply by average

A check on adequacy of water use, table 4.1.3 revealed that there is a little swing from inadequacy in water use from
(73%) during the dry spells to (61%) adequacy of water use during the wet periods.

TABLE 4 ADEQUACY IN WATER USE

ADEQUACY IN WATER USE DRY PERIOD WET PERIOD

INADEQUACY 73.12 61.12

ADEQUACY 26.88 38.88

The bar chart figure 4below clearly reflects the relationship between adequacy and inadequacy in water use. The values
are high for both dry and wet periods indicating serious water scarcity or high tariff. But one would have expected a
more efficient water use judging the level of groundwater development as shown in the number of boreholes and
wells developed in the study area. It follows that the inefficiency in water use in the study area may not be
unconnected with inefficiency in water service allocation since all the users as the time of the study are self supplied.

Figure 5 bar chart showing adequacy of water use

Data on quantity of water use per household per day is presented in table 4.1.4 below.
 TABLE 5 QUANTITY OF WATER USE PER HOUSEHOLD PER DAY

RANGE IN LITRES DRY PERIOD IN % WET PERIOD IN %

50-100 3.2 3.52

150-200 15.6 15.28

250-300 16 14.2

350-400 18.4 20

>400 37.2 37.48

OTHERS 9.6 9.52

The figure below tries to illustrate the relationship in the quantities of water use for both periods in households.

Fig 6 line graph showing the quantity of water use per household per day

Table 4.1.5 below presents the data on daily per capita water use. This use as reflected in the table and the graph
above is practically inefficient and unsustainable when compared to the average per capita water requirement of a
normal quarter irrespective of its social class of 150 gallons (600-800 liters) per household per day and 50 gallons (200-
300 liters) per person per day.

TABLE 6 DAILY WATER USE PER PERSON FOR THE WET AND DRY PERIODS

RANGE IN LITRES DRY PERIOD IN % WET PERIOD IN %

10-20 13.2 13.44

30-40 10.8 16.08

50-60 12.4 8

70-80 18.4 18.04

90-100 11.2 8

110-120 24.8 24.48

>120 9.2 11.96

On the average, about 64.78% of the respondents fall short of the stipulated water quantity while 24.64% fall within
range of 115 liters per person per day, and those near the normal range of 120-150 liters for an urban household in a
developing economy is about 10% . Figure7 below reflects the per capita daily water consumption for the wet and the
dry periods.

Figure 7 bar chart showing daily per capita water use

COMMERCIAL WATER USE

The result collated from survey questionnaires on commercial water use in the study area is here presented in the table
below for wet and dry periods. The result in the table reflects total water demands per activity per day which shows
that there are variations due to size, type and infrastructure in place.

TABLE 7 COMMERCIAL WATER REQUIREMENTS AND USE

ACTIVITTIES REQUIRING WATER REQUIREMENT WATER USE

WATER
DRY WET DRY WET
PERIOD IN PERIOD IN PERIOD IN PERIOD IN
LITRES LITRES LITRES LITRES

CONCRETE WORK 3.0 x 104 1.8 x 104 2.7 x 104 2.9 x 104

LAUNDRY 3.5 x 104 2.9 x 104 3.0 x 104 3.3 x 104

HOTEL/RESTAURANT 3.5 x 104 3.1 x 104 2.3 x 104 2.7 x 104

BEAUTY SALON 2.0 x 104 1.6 x 104 1.4 x 104 1.7 x 104

HEALTH CARE 4.0 x 104 4.0 x 104 3.6 x 104 3.6 x 104

CONFECTIONERY 2.5 x 104 2.3 x 104 2.0 x 104 2.2 x 104

MECHANIC WORKSHOP 2.5 x 104 1.7 x 104 1.7 x 104 2.0 x 104

AGRO-BASED INDUSTRY 1.8 x 104 1.5 x 104 1.2 x 104 1.4 x 104

Figures 8 below presents a picture of the water requirements and water use dynamics in the study area
Figure 9 bar chart showing water requirement

Figure 10 line graph showing water requirement

Key: C/W < concrete work >, L/D < laundry>, H/R < hotels and restaurants, B/s < beauty salon>, H/C
< health care >, B/C < bakery/confectionery >, M/W <mechanics workshop> and AGI < agro-based
industry >
Figure 11 bar charts showing water use dynamics

Figure 12 line graph showing water use dynamics

WATER DEMAND

The table below show the rate of groundwater use Note that these percentages of the respondents obtain their water
supply on their own either through self drilled boreholes or hand-dug wells or through water vendors. And it is
observable from this result that groundwater exploitation and use is not monitored, this however makes a case for
water overdraft and unsustainable use.

TABLE 8 RATE OF GROUNDWATER USE

SOURCE GROUNDWATER OTHERS

SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY 86.6% 13.4%

ACCESS TO WATER SUPPLY 78% 22%

Figure 13 rate of groundwater use for wet and dry periods

IMPLICATION OF FINDINGS

With water consumption pattern designate in the study area where over 85% of the studied population do not only
rely on groundwater (even for activities that does not require high quality water) but are self supplied. And the supply
is neither metered; billed or regulated and over exploitation becomes inevitable. Diffuse pumping of groundwater
from an aquifer at a rate difficult to fathom by any regulatory body is rather unsustainable and the risk of over draft is
high. This is because sustainable groundwater development is that which meets today’s needs without compromising
that of the future generation. Llamas et al, (2006) had submitted that sustainability in hydrology implies that rate of
pumping from an aquifer, must be in line with the storage or recharge. But how would this be achieved in the study
area, where pumping rate is unknown, no regulation exists for groundwater development and groundwater resource is
privately owned under Nigerian riparian rights which ceded the groundwater beneath any landed property to the land
owner. Yet intensive groundwater use is feared for its ability to induce significant changes on natural aquifer dynamics
according to Custodio et al, (2003). Aquifer over exploitation causes changes in flow patterns and directions,
groundwater quality or interferences from surface water bodies depending on the relative positions of the water table
in the groundwater regime and that of the surface water and the flow would be down the hydraulic gradient. Lower
water table in the groundwater regime makes it liable to lateral invasion by poor quality surface water with higher
water table. One would also recall that Agenda 21 in its publication on the tenets of blue revolution as presented by
Milburn, A, (1996) had insisted that blue revolution be established to parallel the massive freshwater use in
productivity or ensure efficient allocation of freshwater; and to inculcate attitudinal changes towards freshwater
consumption. This is believed will make way for a sustainable exploitation of an ever increasing scarce resource.

The study area may claim it is lavished with recharge from the great river Niger and the heavy rainfall peculiar to
rainforests, but the river Niger faces water losses through numerous dams on the upstream area and have lost large
volumes of its water and may not present the same hope as before judging the width of the water column and the
amounts of the rain drops does seem to be as before. Also forecasts estimates that 2025 will see 65 countries face
water shortages and that 65% of the then world population as projected would be affected and mostly from the
developing countries, Agenda 21. Result on both per capita and per household water use showed that of the average
of 5 persons per house hold, that of the 600-800 liters of water required, about 52% of the respondents use below 400
liters of water per day at every point of water use. About 37% barely use water volumes greater than 400 liters and this
is still inadequate by all standards. The per capita water use placed 65% of respondent users far below the amount of
water required, while about 24% use water greater than 100 liters per person per day, an amount still less than
required. The fact remains that water use is low among respondents; but reliance on groundwater is very high while
management is completely lacking. Groundwater over exploitation due to increasing demand which is the direct
consequences of increased human activities and the attendant pollution impact on water resources and the
groundwater in the study area is faced with quality problems from pollution due to incompatible land use just as
Lagerstedt, (1994) asserted in an earlier work. The observable impact of the perceived over-draft from the aquifer in
the study area is the sinking ground surfaces which is in line with the assertions made by Rockstrom J, (1996) who had
submitted that many large cities are dangerously depleting their groundwater resources and that the ground surface
tend to sink due to groundwater over pumping. So the concept held by some authors that pumping in excess of
aquifer recharge is sustainable is rather misleading, Selborne (2001), Custodio (2002) and Abdehrraman (2004).
The hygiene connection is that good management of human feaces requires water, increasing water use for hand-
washing after defecation, bathing, cleaning of the domestic environment. The flushing connection brings the urban
sewer network into consideration - the septic tanks and poor-flush latrines, non-flush systems-pit latrines, composting
systems and dry latrine systems all constitute the human centered water impact index (water use and pollution). Survey
on perception of level of water use reveled that more people are willing to pay for more water to keep up with sanitary
requirements of the much valued water-borne sewerage and this is line with an earlier submission by the World Bank,
(1992); who asserted that even the poor are ready to pay for the public sewer system. All these connections make
sanitation the more water dependent Simpson- H, (1996). The demand for water if met with adequate supply will
solve sanitation problem and improve health conditions. But the quality requirements for the intended uses of water
should be considered from the sources and supply points so that no one source of water is over exploited like the
situation in the study area, where greater percentage of water users rely on groundwater for all their water needs and
the rest are restricted to use less water and other sources because of their current socio-economic status. And this
remainder as soon as things improve economically will sink their own boreholes and use water as they wish. The
owner developer attitude toward groundwater development have restricted greater percentage of the respondents to
use less water than is required for adequate sanitation, so that toilets may be left unflushed all day to allow more than
one users even before a flush.

Leaving the public to fend for their supply presents them with many problems; notable among these are:

 Moderating the quantity of water in use would be difficult, as their supply is not metered.

 Quality of water in use could be compromised as the syndrome of making do with what is available may prevail.

 Proper inventory of freshwater development, exploitation, pumping rate, overuse and tariff-the very instruments
requirement for effective management of the freshwater stock would be difficult to come by.

 Lack of centralized water resources development, allocation and management will eventually lead to
overexploitation as earlier submitted by Uri, (1996); a situation already observed in one of the sedimentary
basins in northern Nigeria.

SUMMARY

The result of the analysis and previous works reveled that there is strong relationship between water problems (quality
and quantity) with the spatial aspects of human activities (hygiene and environmental pollution and sanitation). This
makes a case for integrated management of land and water use in regulating human use of both resources for a
sustainable future with such vital resources. Natural resources management will have to strike a balance with land use
and water use, while controlling environmental pollution as this will positively impact water quality. Water use
problems in the study area can rightly be attributed to the absence of centralized water resources exploitation and
sharing because this gave room to the unsustainable practice of diffuse pumping at a rate unknown and as a result,
characterizing the risk of over water-draft from the aquifer becomes uncertain. But evidence of aquifer depletion is
seen on sinking ground surfaces, and the pH problems is a sale out of water quality problems from human activities in
the making.

CONCLUSION

There is massive groundwater development in the study area, but owing to the decentralized exploitation and
allocation of water in the area; water use is low and inefficient and lacks pattern, so that water development and tariff
or cost of water development projects places the commercial water users- the small scale industries at lower GDPs.
This is because with more water, they would have done better since they are willing to pay more for sustained,
adequate and portable water service. Apart from production, sanitation is also a problem and water quality suffers
when water use dynamics is intractable.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Balancing water ethics with human ethics remains a viable panacea to water resources management problems if
sustainability will be achieved in the water sector Delli et al, (2001 and 2004) and Selborne, (2001). Hydrological
education is necessary for all both users and developers of land and water. Centralizing water development, allocation
and management is imperative for proper audit and record. Reconsidering the freshwater treaty will be of great help in
saving the freshwater resources from the hydrocidal attitudes of man. Water efficient appliances are a handy
alternative to saving water from vanishing due to over use. Developing other sources of water to augment
groundwater sources will help save the groundwater from over-draft and depletion. Rainwater should be banked in
large reservoirs at convenient places to store as much water as is possible - for public distribution during dry spells.
Surface water sources for instance, the Nkisi River served as intake to the Anambra State Water Board when it was
still functional and this river can be expanded for a greater water supply scheme for Onitsha and environs; and if this
is done, the groundwater can be made to provide 1/3 at least for drinking water supply. The surface water can serve
commercial water line for commercial purposes other than direct consumption. And rain water banking can be an
option to retain water losses from recharge due to abstraction from paved surfaces.

Pay as you go policy or syndrome will enhance demand management; ensure conservation and efficiency in water use.
Proper inventory of wells and boreholes should be done periodically to ascertain the level of groundwater
development and pumping should be monitored through metering and billed accordingly and aquifer potential should
be taking into account.
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