Agricultural Sciences Journal

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ISSN 2707-9716 Print
ISSN 2707-9724 Online
https://doi.org/10.56520/asj.24.356

Research Article
SUBSISTENCE FARMER'S PRODUCTION DIVERSITY AND MARKET ACCESS:
IMPACT ON RURAL WOMEN AND CHILDREN'S DIETARY DIVERSITY
Umar Ijaz Ahmed1, Nasir Nadeem1, Choudary Ihtasham Ali1, 2, Abd Ur Rehman*,3, Shoaib Nasir1, 4,
Muhammad Avais Tahir5, Mohsin Raza1, Maryam Tahir3, Hafiz Zahid Mahmood1, Benish Sarfraz3, Umar
Kamal6
1
Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, MNS University of Agriculture Multan.
2
Research Fellow, ACIAR-funded project no. CROP-2020-167, Faculty of Social Science and Humanities, MNS
University of Agriculture Multan.
3
Department of Agribusiness and Entrepreneurship Management, MNS University of Agriculture Multan.
4
PhD. Scholar (Applied Economics), Department of Economics, Forman Christian College University, Lahore
5
Chief of Research/ SRE, Punjab Economic Research Institute, Lahore, Pakistan
6
MS Scholar, Lahore Business School, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract
Hunger and poverty are severe threats to developing nations like Pakistan. Rural people in developing countries
are facing malnutrition and undernourishment due to low-income levels and limited access to nutritious food.
Women's diets are the most crucial factor for their health and children. Increased dietary diversity is a significant
approach to improving nutrition and health, and it can be enhanced by improving the production diversity among
rural subsistence farming households. The study was conducted in four districts of the south Punjab region of
Pakistan. Using the well-structured and pretested questionnaire, multistage stratified random sampling was
employed to collect data from 600 rural households. The women's dietary diversity score, children's dietary
diversity score, and production diversity score were calculated. The results indicate that women's dietary diversity
is concerned with production diversity score; its interaction with market access, education, family size, and
farming experience positively impacts dietary diversity. In contrast, the age of the respondent has a negative
impact. The same association among factors was also observed for children's dietary diversity score. Based on the
study results, it is recommended that there is a need to diversify the crops produced by small farmers, especially
food crops so that they can get balanced food and not rely much on external purchases. Overall, the Government
can play a crucial role by providing opportunities and facilities to grow non-conventional crops instead of
conventional cash crops.

Keywords: Dietary Diversity, Production Diversity, Market Access, Rural, South Punjab.
(Received: 13-Dec-2023 Accepted: 17-Apr-2024) Cite as: Ahmed. U. I., Nadeem. N., Ali. C. I., Rehman. A. U., Nasir. S., Tahir. M. A., Raza.
M., Tahir. M., Mahmeed. H. Z., Sarfraz. B., Kmal. U., 2024 Subsistence Farmer's Production Diversity and Market Access: Impact on Rural
Women and Children's Dietary Diversity. Agric. Sci. J. 10.56520/asj.24.356

1. INTRODUCTION million suffer from micronutrient

Undernourishment and hunger are deficiency (IFPRI, 2014). The reason for
multidimensional concerns of the whole this nutritional deficiency is not only the
world. Over the last few decades, less food consumption but also the poor
undernutrition has remained high even with quality of diet and low dietary diversity
enhanced food and diet security, cause the nutritional deficiency. The dietary
specifically in African and Asian countries diversity score is considered the most
(Dubé et al., 2012; Godfray et al., 2020; significant indicator of society's nutritional
IFPRI, 2014). According to the IFPRI status for most scenarios. The decrease in
report, about 800 million people worldwide overweight and obesity rates is also linked
are chronically hungry, and about 02
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons 21
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License
to higher levels of dietary diversity (Popkin level of an average family may or may not
& Slining, 2013). be a significant concern for lower children's
As higher dietary diversity is one of the dietary diversity for some reason. First, in
significant approaches to enhancing the last 50 years, there has been no
nutrition and health, production diversity is substantial reduction in the poverty rate,
considered the critical factor for higher whereas, during the 1990s, the scarcity of
dietary diversity among rural households goods significantly increased, causing a
(Pingali, 2015). The modern agricultural decrease in the skin-and-bone regularity
revolution has promoted narrow crop rate. However, during the first decade of the
patterns worldwide, intending to enhance ongoing century, the scarcity of goods is
the productivity of major crops over the last reduced, which significantly indicates the
50 years (Khoury et al., 2014). In Africa development in the country. Secondly, low
and Asia, most of the rural population and purchasing power is considered an
small farmers are victims of hunger everyday miracle among rural people in
(Pinstrup-Andersen, 2007). For improved Pakistan. Thirdly, the social care system is
dietary diversity of subsistence farmers, the critically bound to the basis of Pakistani
diversity in the production of crops at the culture (Rana & Mumtaz, 2012).
farm level is considered one of the A common question that arises in mind is,
significant approaches (Jones et al., 2014; why is dietary diversity important? The
Pellegrini & Tasciotti, 2014; Powell et al., consumption of different food groups
2015). provides various micronutrients and
According to the article, livestock-cum- macronutrients to the body. The more food
agricultural farms are also among the best groups consume, the more dietary diversity
diversification methods for better dietary and physical growth there is. A diverse diet
diversity among dietary diversity of is best to ensure nutrient adequacy. The
farmers. When considering market access, diverse nutrient diets of children and rural
the relationship between dietary and women meet both kinds of needs, which we
production diversity becomes more know and are likely yet unknown. Stunting
complex. If one has a better income, he will children's growth is due to nutrition
access the market to buy food instead of deficiency; low weight is a severe problem,
cultivating on a farm (Jones et al., 2014). and these parameters are essential in
This relation becomes more interesting judging child malnutrition (Asim & Nawaz,
when we also consider the off-farm income 2018; Pretty et al., 2003). For financial and
of farmers, as higher income leads to higher public development, childhood
access to diversified food and market malnutrition and rural women remain the
access, which results in more dietary main communal problems in less advanced
diversity and vice versa (Haggblade et al., nations. According to the World Bank,
2007). These arguments urge the need to more than half of the six million deaths of
study the impact of these parameters on children aged below five each year in
rural women's dietary diversity, especially developing Asia are due to being
children's dietary diversity, to address the underweight. The undernourishment and
malnutrition and undernutrition challenge malnourishment of children are highest in
of rural subsistence communities of Pakistan as compared to other developing
developing nations. nations (Muthini et al., 2018).
Malnutrition further becomes the cause of There is a need to diversify the agricultural
illness and stunt growth among children. production system so that poor people in the
During the last few decades, in Pakistan, country can access nutritious and balanced
like other developing countries, children's food, especially subsistence farming
malnutrition has slightly increased (Asim & communities (Pingali, 2015). Easy access
Nawaz, 2018). In Pakistan, the poverty of farmers from field to market facilitates
22
farmers' introduction of a cropping system, according to overall estimation, almost
and farmers can increase their income more than partially all shocked growth
(Qaim et al., 2014). It is observed that poor children exist in the Asia region, nearly 51
rural households find it difficult to manage million (8%) babies (5-59) months of age
diverse food with their low income. are only wasted in Asia (Asim & Nawaz,
Women's diets are the most critical factor 2018).
for their health and their child. Proper diets Famine and hunger are also complex and
can have a significant impact on children worldwide problems in food security.
under five years old. Moreover, in recent Undernutrition and undernourishment are
years, due to an increased focus on significant problems of primary concern in
nutrition-related programming, women's many developing countries. Dietary
diets have been considerably acceptable but imbalance is accountable for a considerable
must be of better quality to meet the number of women's and children's health
nutritional requirements (Food and loss production, diminishing physical
Nutrition Technical Assistance Project health and human mental adjustment,
(FANTA), 2015). It is observed that exposure to numerous kinds of infections,
women's dietary diversity score is and overdue deaths. In Asia and Africa,
measured by measuring the individual many hungry people live in rural areas
women's dietary diversity score between (Sibhatu et al., 2015). Malnutrition
the ages of 15 and 49. The dietary diversity problems are primarily present in rural
scores were estimated using the 24-hour areas of Asia and Africa, and it has been
nutritional consumption of women. There observed that they are subsistence farmers
are 11 food groups, namely pulses; starchy with low incomes. Even with the upgraded
staples; vitamin A-rich fruits; dark green nutrients and food preservation over the
leafy vegetables and vegetables; roots and previous few decades, the rate of
tubers; other fruits and vegetables; milk and malnutrition among low-weight children
milk products; egg; fish; meat; sugar and and women remains considerably
condiments, children's dietary diversity is prominent, particularly in African and
defined as ideal if children (aged 6–59 Asian rural areas (Dubé et al., 2012;
months) consumed at least four food groups Godfray et al., 2020; IFPRI, 2014).
out of seven foods groups (Conrad et al., It has been estimated that 800 million
2018). Minimum Dietary Diversity for people are hungry worldwide, and
Women (MDD-W) is a good indicator for approximately 2 billion people cannot
women 15-49 years of age to evaluate their uptake essential nutrients for their whole
nutritive status by consuming at least five lives (IFPRI, 2014). The income of
food groups out of ten food groups (FAO & households plays a significant role in
FHI, 2016). nutritive variety, as inferior-income
In most developing nations, markets for households lead to fewer dietary
various food items are absent or imperfect; conditions, which causes different kinds of
market information is also imperfect and health problems. Sometimes, the
irregular in most developing countries and production and consumption variety
production of the agriculture sector rather relationship might run undesirable in some
than subsistence in nature (Dillon & circumstances; most small land-holding
Barrett, 2014; Hoddinott et al., 2015). growers in under-developing states also
Globally, hunger is a burning issue even in have non-farm earning bases like private
the modern world. It has been observed that shops and some kinds of investment
170 million children (5-59) months age in (Haggblade et al., 2009). Therefore, the
the globe are facing strictly undersized function of natural market access is vital to
growth, and 110 million (19%) are food diversity.
moderately or inhospitably low weight,
23
In Pakistan, almost two-thirds of the total 2.1. Study Area & Data Collection
population spend their lives in backward The study was conducted in the South
rural areas, mostly where scarcity and Punjab part of Punjab province, Pakistan.
malnutrition are common and burning This study was mainly conducted in Multan
issues nowadays. Mostly, rural people are and Dera Ghazi (DG) Khan Division. The
directly connected with the agriculture reasons behind the selection of south
sector, concerned with raring livestock and Punjab are low income of households, low
easygoing personal shops, and even have farm productivity, less access to food
the highest existence of malnutrition among markets, low dietary diversity, and small
their children due to low income. Increased land holdings. South Punjab's area is
agriculture sector growth can improve food especially vulnerable because of its
security with modern methods and landlocked position, adverse soil quality,
technology, reducing poverty. The primary and severe climatic conditions, including
purpose of this study is to explore and inadequate and irregular precipitation. A
explain the relationship between agriculture multistage stratified random sampling
production variety and the dietary range of technique drew the sample from the
rural women and children under five years population. Firstly, we select two districts
old (Asim & Nawaz, 2018). The from each division and two tehsils from
agricultural production sector directly each district. Secondly, three villages from
contributes to expanding the dietary each tehsil were chosen randomly. From
consumption of the rural poor people with each village, 25 households were
diversified food groups. So, it is necessary interviewed through face-to-face
to focus on agricultural productivity. These interviews. At last, the total sample size was
productivity increases result in income 600.
increases, which are guaranteed to improve The data was collected through a cross-
the nutritive condition of women and section survey of subsistence farmers in the
children in rural areas. Good food produced study area. A well-structured and pretested
at farms can also boost the alimentary questionnaire about the socio-economic
quality of the diet. factors, production diversity, women's
Productivity diversity and dietary diversity dietary diversity, and child dietary diversity
are associated with each other. Rural was employed for the data collection.
women's dietary diversity and children 2.2. Empirical and Statistical
under five years of age's dietary diversity Framework
are highly affected by farm production. It Kennedy et al. (2010) stated that the dietary
was observed that a problem is arising in diversity score and food variety score can
South Punjab. There needs to be more be used to measure the dietary diversity
production diversity and low nutrient among individuals. Generally, the dietary
diversity in rural areas because they have diversity score is adequate for cross-
traditional farming systems. On the other country comparison because it measures the
hand, nutritional diversity is essential for number of food groups consumed during a
good health and proper growth of the recall period (07 days). On the other hand,
human body. The study's objectives are 1) the food variety score counts the number of
To assess the impact of production diversity food items consumed during the recall
on the dietary diversity of rural women and period, and it is generally employed when
children under five years of age; 2) To we need to calculate the dietary pattern in a
identify the role of market access in dietary specific study area. Therefore, we have
diversity; 3) To give policy used the dietary diversity score to meet the
recommendations based on study results. study objectives.
2. Methodology

24
 Figure 1: Flow diagram of sampling framework
2.3. Women's Dietary Diversity Score score (CDDS) measured the number of
(WDDS) food groups consumed by individual
The women's dietary diversity score children of age between 06 to 23 months
(WDDS) measures food groups consumed during the recent 07-day recall period
during the previous 07 days recall period by (Muthini et al., 2018). The data was
women in the study area (Kennedy et al., collected about 07 food groups consumed
2010). We used the FAO recommended by children during the recall period at the
guidelines, "Guidelines for measuring time of the interview. Table 2 describes
household and individual dietary diversity," these 07 food groups used to measure the
to calculate the WDDS. According to these CDDS in this study.
guidelines, the data was collected from In most rural families, one person supports
about 09 different food consumption the whole family and has a subsistence
statuses during the previous 07 days recall farming system. The low income of the
period. Table 1 briefly describes the food household head directly impacts the child's
groups used to calculate the WDDS. diet because the household head cannot buy
The WDDS was calculated based on how diversified food for the family members.
many food groups were consumed by We observed that most households in the
women during the recent 07-day recall study area have monthly incomes less than
period. The number of food groups 20,000/- PKR (meager income). So, they
consumed by women was summed up to the cannot buy diversified food for their family
total food groups consumed by women, members, especially for children, and they
which is termed WDDS. cannot diversify their farms because of low-
2.4. Children's Dietary Diversity Score income generations. They even need help to
(CDDS) adopt modern agricultural practices.
As per FAO guidelines about dietary
diversity, the children's dietary diversity
25
 Table 1: Food Groups to Calculate WDDS
Question Food Group Examples
Number (s)
1, 2 Starchy Staples Wheat, Rice, Maize/corn, Millet, or Any Other Grains or Foods
Made from These (e.g., Vermicelli, Noodles, Porridge, or Other
Grain Products) + Barley.
White Potatoes, White Yam, or Other Foods Made from Roots
4 Dark green leafy Dark Green/Leafy Vegetables, Including Spinach, Cabbage,
vegetables Watercress, Lettuce + Locally Available Vitamin-A Rich
Leaves
3, 6 Other Vitamin-A Pumpkin, Carrot, Squash, Sweet Potato. That Are Orange
rich Fruits & Inside + Other Locally Available Vitamin-A Rich Vegetables
Vegetables (E.G., Red Sweet Pepper. Ripe Mango, Muskmelon, Apricot.
Ripe Papaya, Dried Peach, and 100% Fruit Juice Made from
These + Other Locally Available Vitamin-A Rich Fruits.
5, 7 Other Fruits & Other Vegetables (E.G., Tomato, Onion, Brinjal) + Other
Vegetables Locally Available Vegetables. Mango, Apple, Banana, Cherry,
Dates, Guava, Lemon, Litchi, Olive, Mulberry, Plums,
Pomegranate, Kiwi, Blackberry, Fig, Peach and
Dry Fruits Including Almonds, Pistachios, Cashewnut and
Walnuts.
8 Organ Meat Liver, Kidney, Heart, or Other Organ Meats.
9, 11 Meat & Fish Beef, Lamb, Goat, Chicken, Duck, Other Birds. Fresh or Dried
Fish
10 Eggs Eggs from Chicken, Duck, Ostrich, or Any Other Egg
12 Legumes, nuts & Dried Beans, Dried Peas, Lentils (Masoor), Nuts, Seeds, or
seeds Foods Made from These (E.g., Peanut)
13 Milk & Milk Milk, Cheese, Yogurt, Butter or Other Milk Products
products
Source: (Kennedy et al., 2010)
Table 2: Food Groups for Children Dietary Diversity Score
Question
Food groups Examples
Number
Mango, Pumpkin, Apricot (Fresh or Dried), Papaya, Dried Peach,
1 Fruits and 100% Fruit Juice Made from These Other Fruits, Including
Wild Fruits And 100% Fruit Juice Made from These.
Leafy Vegetables + Locally Available Vitamin A Rich Leaves Such
2 Vegetables as Spinach, Pumpkin, Or Sweet Potato. Vitamin A Rich Vegetable
Like Potato Etc.
Bread, Pasta, Noodles, Breakfast, Cereal, Couscous (Salad), Rice,
3 Grains
Corn, Barley.
4 Dairy Milk & Milk Products.
5 Protein Meat, Fish, Chicken, Eggs, Bean, Lentils, Chickpeas and Nuts
Drinks, Junk Food, and Foods Having Caffeine (Tea, Coffee,
6 Other foods
Energy Drinks).
Source: (Muthini et al., 2018)
2.5. Production Diversity Score (PDS) (Kennedy et al., 2010). To calculate the
The production diversity score (PDS) is a PDS for this study, the individual farmer
simple and unweighted count measure used collected data from about 06 different crops
to estimate the number of crops, fruits, and livestock production. Table 3 describes
vegetables, or livestock raised on the farm the crops and livestock production groups
by an individual during the last year used to measure the PDS.

26
 Table 3: Groups for Production Diversity Questionnaire
Q. No. Crop food groups Examples
1 Cereals Wheat, barley, maize, sorghum, millet, rice
Legumes, nuts and Field pea, linseed, bean, lentil, groundnut, castor,
2
seeds sunflower, mustered oil crops such as canola, rapeseed.
Onion, cabbage, tomato, garlic, gourd, cucumber, okra,
3 Vegetables brinjal, cauliflower, lettuce, spinach, turnip, coriander,
peas
Mango, oranges, guava, dates, pomegranate, strawberry,
papaya, apple, apricot, cherry, peach, lemon, litchi,
4 Fruits
olive, mulberry, plums, pear, sweet lime and dry fruits
(almond, walnut)
5 Spices Pepper, turmeric, bay leaf
6 Livestock Cow, buffalo, sheep, goat, poultry
The association between the agriculture For Children:
sector and nutrition runs both ways, as a 𝐶𝐷𝐷𝑆𝑖 = 𝛼0 + 𝛼1 𝑃𝐷𝑆𝑖 + 𝛼2 𝑃𝐷𝑆𝑖2 + 𝜀𝑖 --- (Model-03)
good diet and health influence the ability to In the extended model, we used additional
carry out agricultural-based labor (Mughal variables like market access, education,
& Fontan Sers, 2020). Time spent by a age, farming experience, and family size as
woman laborer hurts nutrition as it follows;
decreases time for childcare (one of the 𝐶𝐷𝐷𝑆𝑆𝑖 = 𝛼0 + 𝛼1 𝑃𝐷𝑆𝑖 + 𝛼2 𝑃𝐷𝑆𝑖2 + 𝛼3 𝑀𝐴𝑖
+ 𝛼4 (𝑃𝐷𝑆𝑖 × 𝑀𝐴𝑖 ) + 𝛼5 𝐸𝑑𝑢
underlying determinants of a child's + 𝛼6 𝐴𝑔𝑒
nutritional status) and affects the dietary +𝛼7 𝐸𝑥𝑝 + 𝛼8 𝐹. 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 + 𝜀𝑖 -- (Model-04)
necessities of a woman. It is theoretically Several other factors influence dietary
thought that growth in grain production as diversity. Farm production diversity may be
cereal crops is positively linked with correlated with some of the omitted factors,
dietary enhancement (Mughal & Fontan which had potentially biased the estimated
Sers, 2020). Many of the farmer's results. For the robustness check, we used
households operated their farm at a an extended model that included household
subsistence level; however, farmers with socio-economic and demographic
diverse sources of income (agricultural and characteristics as explanatory variables.
non-agricultural) existed better protected 3. Results and Discussion
against adverse shocks in food availability. 3.1. Descriptive Statistics
2.6. Econometric Model The finding of the study indicates that the
The following multiple linear regression most frequently consumed food groups by
models adopted (Sibhatu et al., 2015) with women were starchy staples (99.17%),
square and interaction terms were followed by other fruits & vegetables
employed to analyze the women's and (95.19%), milk (89.89%), meat & fish
children's on-farm production diversity and (81.86%) and vitamin-A rich fruits &
dietary diversity. vegetables (66.78%). In comparison, the
For Women: groups of eggs (62.30%), legumes
2
𝑊𝐷𝐷𝑆𝑖 = 𝛼0 + 𝛼1 𝑃𝐷𝑆𝑖 + 𝛼2 𝑃𝐷𝑆𝑖 + 𝜀𝑖 --- (Model-01) (61.31%), green leafy vegetables (56.42%),
In the extended model, we also used and organ meat (14.08%) were less likely to
additional variables like market access, be consumed (Figure 2). We have data from
education, age, farming experience, and about 1207 women. We calculated the
family size to measure the effects of socio- Average Women Dietary Diversity Score
economic factors. (WDDS) among these women, which is
𝑊𝐷𝐷𝑆𝑆𝑖 = 𝛼0 + 𝛼1 𝑃𝐷𝑆𝑖 + 𝛼2 𝑃𝐷𝑆𝑖2 + 𝛼3 𝑀𝐴𝑖 6.257 from the nine food groups.
+ 𝛼4 (𝑃𝐷𝑆𝑖 × 𝑀𝐴𝑖 ) + 𝛼5 𝐸𝑑𝑢
+ 𝛼6 𝐴𝑔𝑒
+𝛼7 𝐸𝑥𝑝 + 𝛼8 𝐹. 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 + 𝜀𝑖 --- (Model-02)
27
Figure 2: Food Groups Consumed by Women

Figure 3: Food Groups Consumed by Children. data on about 1195 numbers of children.
On the other hand, the most frequently We calculated the Average Children
consumed food groups by children were Dietary Diversity Score (CDDS) among
dairy products (i.e., milk) (99.17%), these children, which is 3.22 from the six
followed by fruits (77.32%), vegetables food groups.
(59.83%), and protein (i.e. meat) (81.86%). From the production side, the most
In comparison, the groups of grains frequently grown crop groups by the small
(37.82%) and others (32.13%) were less farmers were cereals (97.89%), followed by
likely to be consumed (Figure 3). We have livestock (73.56%) and vegetables
28
(47.70%). In comparison, the groups of WDDS) because of higher sources to
legumes, nuts & seeds (21.26%), fruits consume more food (Muthini et al., 2018;
(21.26%), and spices (15.33%) were less Sibhatu et al., 2015; Sibhatu & Qaim,
likely to be produced (Figure 4). We have 2018).
data from about 522 small farmers. We But it holds to a certain level; if we move
calculated the Average Production towards achieving higher PDS, then it
Diversity Score (PDS) among these would have a diminished effect on the
households, which is 2.8 from the six crop WDDS (we have a positive impact of PDS
groups. and a negative effect of PDS-squared,

Figure 4: %age of Households growing the Crops Groups

3.2. Regression Results which means that as people get higher PDS
We employed a regression model to study the impact of PDS is lessoned on WDDS).
the impact of production diversity on It is cleared here by our model's second
women's dietary diversity. Table 4 shows variable (PDS_SQ). Sibhatu and Qaim
that WDDS significantly depends upon the stated in their study that higher production
PDS of rural households. The household diversity may have a positive effect, no
with higher PDS will enjoy higher WDDS effect, and even a negative effect on the
and vice versa. Results show that if any dietary diversity of rural subsistence
household increases the PDS by 1 unit, then farmers in different situations (Sibhatu et
the WDDS will resultantly increase by al., 2015; Sibhatu & Qaim, 2018). The
1.118 units with supporting highly coefficient of Intercept indicates that we
significant t-statistics, which is 5.08***. have 4.9 WDDS with zero PDS. This
This signifies a robust positive association suggests that the people of rural
between PDS and WDDS. Different studies communities who are not growing crops or
during the literature review also emphasize raising animals (i.e., laborers or working
that if someone has more diversity in other than agriculture) and the individuals
production (i.e., raising more crops or (women) of their families enjoy the average
raising livestock), it means having more dietary diversity.
PDS. The individuals (women) in his house Table 5 describes the effects of socio-
will enjoy more dietary diversity (more economic factors on WDDS. As we
29
 Table 4: Regression Results of Model-01
Coefficients Standard Error t Stat
Intercept 4.972351 0.333076 14.92858***
PDS 1.118222 0.220249 5.077073***
PDS_SQ -0.18736 0.030795 -6.08416***
F-statistics 27.3434 p-value 0.00000
*** Statistically significant at the 1% level.
Table 5: Regression Results of Model-02
Coefficients Standard Error t Stat
Intercept 5.946585 0.486025 12.23515***
PDS 0.86942 0.246911 3.521193***
PDS_SQ -0.16816 0.031491 -5.33986***
MACESS -0.01853 0.020816 -0.8901*
PDS_MACESS 0.010903 0.007467 1.460068*
Education 0.026247 0.013352 1.965761**
Age -0.03292 0.00764 -4.30878***
Farming Exp 0.032597 0.008778 3.71371***
Family Size 0.010175 0.025981 0.391638*
F-statistics 10.1404 p-value 0.00000
*, **, *** Statistically significant at the 10%, 5%, and 1% level, respectively.
thoroughly discussed the relationship most cases. The result of our estimated
between WDDS and PDS in the first model, model shows a positive and significant
this model showed the same relationship interaction coefficient of market access and
(Sibhatu & Qaim, 2018). Here, access to PDS, which interprets that production
markets for buying food and for selling diversity is more important for remote
farm produce was shown to be more critical areas, and most of the farms in these areas
for WDDS. It can be observed by are at subsistence levels (Sibhatu et al.,
interpreting the relationship between 2015). Higher Women's education
MACESS and WDDS. As the distance significantly increases dietary diversity,
towards the market is reduced by 1 km, the especially in low agricultural productive
WDDS will increase by 0.018 units and regions. Our result indicates that educated
vice versa. It is not highly significant, but it women were likelier to experience a higher
is substantial enough to make some dietary diversity than women with lower
association between market access and education. One of the reasons for this
women's dietary diversity score here. phenomenon of higher dietary diversity
Hence, improving access to markets with higher education is that educated
through better infrastructure and women allocate a significant share of
institutions seems to be a more promising expenditure for their food (Mbwana et al.,
approach for better WDDS (Koppmair & 2016; Morseth et al., 2017), and also there
Qaim, 2017). is a reason behind this allocation of budget,
Now, we move toward the interaction term which is greater awareness and knowledge
of PDS_MACCS. What does it tell us? In about the advantages of nutritionally
the literature, the interaction term of market diversified food (Taruvinga et al., 2013). In
access and PDS remains insignificant in our model, the effect of household
30
 Table 6: Regression Results of Model-03
Coefficients Standard Error t Stat
Intercept 2.047612 0.333023 6.148567***
PDS 0.824931 0.220214 3.746041***
PDS_SQ -0.11557 0.030791 -3.75333***
F-statistics 7.1084 p-value 0.00090
*** Statistically significant at the 1% level.
education on WDDS is significant, and if a heads has a positive and significant effect
household gets one year more education, on WDDS, although the effect is negligible.
then WDDS will increase by 0.03 units. The The result indicates that an increase of one
magnitude is less but substantial, with a t- year in the farming experience of household
stat value of 1.97**. heads increases the WDDS by 0.03 units.
The result depicts that the age of the This may be due to the higher the
household head is negatively associated experience of the household head, the
with WDDS. The higher the age of the higher the likelihood of him allocating a
household head, the lower the WDDS. The significant amount of his time to farm
coefficient describes that an increase in the activities (Huluka & Wondimagegnhu,
age of the household head by 01 year 2019).
decreases the WDDS by 0.03 unit with Table 6 shows that CDDS significantly
highly significant t-statistics. There are depends upon the household's PDS. The
some explanations to support our result. result describes that the association
One may be that the aged household head between production diversity and dietary
may not be involved in work for a longer diversity is positive, but the effect is
time during the day, and the second may be relatively small (Sibhatu et al., 2015). The
that the aged household head does not have household with higher PDS will provide
a significant amount of income to purchase higher dietary diversity to its children and
the appropriate quantity of food for the vice versa. The result shows that if any
consumption of their families (Huluka & household increases the PDS by 1 unit, the
Wondimagegnhu, 2019). On the other CDDS will increase by 0.825 units,
hand, the farming experience of household supporting highly significant t-statistics of
Table 7: Regression Results of Model-04
Coefficients Standard Error t Stat
Intercept 1.990103 0.488344 4.075209***
PDS 0.603521 0.248089 2.432684**
PDS_SQ -0.1072 0.031641 -3.38803***
MACESS -0.04736 0.020915 -2.26442**
PDS_MACESS 0.014948 0.007503 1.99221**
Education 0.010559 0.013416 0.787027*
Age -0.00233 0.007676 -0.3034*
Farming Exp 0.005695 0.008819 0.645755*
Family Size 0.094875 0.026105 3.634325***
F-statistics 4.2258 p-value 0.00006
*, **, *** Statistically significant at the 10%, 5%, and 1% level, respectively.

31
3.75. This signifies a robust positive women members of the family, which may
association between CDDS and PDS. increase the CDDS (Mbwana et al., 2016;
Different studies during the literature Morseth et al., 2017). This is mainly
review also emphasize that if a household because educated women tend to have
has more diversity in production (i.e., greater awareness and understanding of
raising more crops or raising livestock), it nutritional health benefits (Taruvinga et al.,
means having more PDS. The individuals 2013). In our model, the effect of household
(children) in his house will enjoy more education on CDDS is significant, and if a
dietary diversity (more CDDS) because of household gets one year more education,
the higher sources of food to consume then CDDS will increase by 0.01 unit. The
(Sibhatu & Qaim, 2018). But it holds to a magnitude is less but substantial, with a t-
certain level. If we move towards achieving stat of 0.87*.
higher PDS, then it would have a The result shows that one more year
diminishing effect on the CDDS (we have a increase in household age will decrease the
positive impact of PDS and a negative CDDS by 0.03 units. There are some
effect of PDS-squared, which means that as explanations to support our result. One may
people get higher PDS, the impact of PDS be that the aged household head may not be
is lessoned on CDDS). involved in work for a longer time during
Table 7 represents the result of model-04, the day, and the second may be that the aged
which describes the effects of socio- household head does not have a significant
economic factors, including PDS, on amount of income to purchase the
CDDS. The relationship between PDS and appropriate quantity of food for the
CDDS is the same as observed in the consumption of their families (Huluka &
previous model, indicating a positive Wondimagegnhu, 2019). The farming
association between PDS and CDDS experience also plays a vital role in
(Sibhatu & Qaim, 2018). However, market achieving better CDDS, but the effect is
access to buy food and sell farm produce considerably small. The result indicates that
was shown to be more critical for CDDS. It one more year of farming experience would
can be observed by interpreting the result in 0.006 units more CDDS. This
MACESS and CDDS relationship. As the could be because the more experienced
distance towards the market is reduced by 1 households are more likely to devote their
km, the CDDS will increase by 0.05 units time to agricultural activities (Huluka &
and vice versa. It is not highly significant, Wondimagegnhu, 2019).
but it is substantial enough to make some The determining factors of dietary diversity
association between market access and are complex and depend upon many distinct
children's dietary diversity score here. and interconnected factors. The conceptual
Therefore, improved market access through framework to determine malnutrition
infrastructural and institutional proposed by the United Nations
development could significantly improve International Children's Emergency Fund
CDDS (Koppmair et al., 2017). (UNICEF) provides a detailed impression
The relationship between PDS_MACCS of factors affecting dietary diversity.
and CDDS is identical to the one we Therefore, this study has highlighted some
observed in the case of WDDS in the earlier of the determining factors of dietary
model. The result of our model highlights diversity, that is, the sub-component of
the positive and significant relationship dietary intake.
among these variables, supported by the 4. Conclusion and Recommendations
same results Sibhatu et al., (2015). The study results conclude that farm
Moreover, the education of the household diversification positively impacts the
head also plays a vital role in better CDDS dietary diversity of women and children
(Bi et al., 2019), especially the education of under five years of age. Production
32
diversity and market access have a more household dietary diversity will increase,
significant impact on dietary diversity. and a variety of food will be available for
Regarding women's dietary diversity, the household consumption.
production diversity score and its 3. The standard of education should be
interaction with market access, education, increased because education level is
family size, and farming experience positively associated with dietary diversity.
positively impact dietary diversity. In 4. Family size should be under control
contrast, the age of the respondent has a through local meetings and face-to-face
negative effect. The same factors also affect individual talks because the population
children's dietary diversity scores. decreases natural resources and causes
The results show a positive and significant hunger.
impact of production diversity of dietary 5. Farm experience of farmers directly
diversity of women and children under five associated with household dietary diversity.
years of age. Market access coupled with The dietary diversity of households
production diversity score also positively increases as a result of farm experience
and significantly impacts the dietary increases.
diversity of women and children under five 6. The extension wing of the
years of age. It is recommended that small Agriculture Department should work to
farmers diversify their crops, especially create awareness about crop diversification
food crops so that they can get balanced and its impact on dietary diversity and
food and not rely too much on external income.
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